2.

SOLUTIONS
(Key points:Henry’s law-applications,Raoult’s law-
ideal&non ideal solution,azeotropic mixture,colligative
properties)

Solutions are homogeneous mixtures containing two or

more components -mainly solute and solvent

Solubility of a Gas in a Liquid

Solubility of gases in liquids is depends pressure applied which

is explained by Henry’s law.

Henry’s law: “The partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase

(p) is proportional to the mole fraction of the gas (x) in the
solution” ie. P = KH .X (KH is the Henry’s constant)

KH value is inversely proportional to solubility of gas in a liquid

Graph of Henry’s law

Partial Slop= Henry’s constant

pressure
(p)

Mole fraction (X)

Applications of Henry’s law:

1. To increase the solubility of CO2 in soft drinks and soda

water
2. Bend experienced by Scuba divers. (Medical condition
created by solubility of nitrogen in the blood). To avoid
bends, oxygen taken in oxygen cylinder is diluted with
less soluble Helium
3. Anoxia experienced by the peoples at high altitudes the
partial pressure of oxygen is less than that at the ground
level.

Effect of temperature the solubility of gases in liquid

When temperature increases, the value of KH . is increases.

Therefore solubility of gas in liquid decreases. Therefore
aquatic life is more comfortable in cold water

Vapour Pressure of Liquid-Liquid Solutions

Raoult’s Law: It states that for a solution of volatile liquids,

the partial vapour pressure of each component in the solution
is directly proportional to its mole fraction.

Ie, PA= POA.XA & PB= POB .X B

P= PA+PB

Graph for an ideal solution

Ideal solution:
The ideal solution will satisfy the following conditions

(i). Obey's Raoult’s law

ie, PA= POA .X A & PB= POB .X B

(ii). ∆H mix = 0

(iii). ∆V mix = 0

Example of ideal solution

(1). solutions of n-hexane and n-heptane.
(2). solutions of bromoethane and chloroethane.
(3). benzene and toluene etc.
Note: Consider a binary solution contain two components A
(Solvent) and B(Solute)
In ideal solution, A-A (Solvent-Solvent) and B-B (Solute-
Solute) interactions are nearly equal to the A-B (Solvent-
Solute) interactions

Non ideal solution

(i). Does not obey's Raoult’s law

(ii). ∆H mix = 0

(iii). ∆V mix = 0

The total vapour pressure of such a solution is either higher or

lower than that predicted by Raoult’s law. Therefore non ideal
solution divided into two

Non ideal solution showing Positive Non ideal solution showing Negative
deviation deviation
Shown by liquid pairs for which A-B Shown by liquid pairs for which A-B
interactions are weaker than A-A and B- interactions are stronger than A-A and
B interactions. B-B interactions.

Eg. 1. Water and Alcohol Eg. 1. Water and Nitric Acid

(weaken H- Bond) (Stronger H- Bond)
2. Ethanol (Alcohols) and Acetone, 2. Phenol and Aniline,
3. Acetone and CS2 , 3. Chloroform and Acetone
 4. Acetone and CCl4
From minimum boiling azeotropes From maximum boiling azeotropes

Azeotropic mixtures (Azeotropes) or Constant boiling

mixture

Liquid mixtures which distil without change in composition

are called Azeotropic mixtures (Azeotropes), they are two
types:-minimum boiling azeotropes &maximum boiling
azeotropes

Colligative properties

Colligative property is the property which depend only on the

number of solute particles and not on their nature

Examples;-
1. Relative lowering of Vapour pressure,
2. Elevation of Boiling point,
3. Depression of Freezing point
4. Osmotic Pressure.

Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure

Osmosis is the flow of solvent molecules from lower
concentration side to a higher concentration side through a
semi-permeable membrane (SPM).A membrane that allows
the passage of solvent molecules only is called a semi-
permeable membrane.

Eg. Egg membrane, all animal and plant membrane. Cellulose

acetate
Osmotic pressure is defined as the excess pressure that must
be applied on solution side to stop osmosis.

Applications of Colligative Properties

Used to determine molar mass of non volatile solute (M2) using

the following equations
Colligative Equations Equations to
Properties calculate M2
Relative lowering P0S -PS P01.W2.M1
of VP --------- = XSolute M2 = -------------
P0 S W1.(P01-P1).
Elevation of BP ∆Tb= Kb. m Kf.W2.1000
M2 = -------------
∆Tb.W1.
Depression of FP ∆Tf= Kf. m Kf.W2.1000
M2 = -------------
∆Tf.W1
Osmotic pressure π = CRT W2.R.T
M2 = -------------
πV

Note:
(i).Osmotic pressure is used to measure molecular mass of
proteins, polymers and other macromolecules because of two
reasons :
(a) Osmotic pressure is measured at room temperature.
(b) Molarity is used instead of molality,
(ii) Anti freeze solutions(Glycol) are used in automobile
radiators to prevent the freezing of water(depression of
freezing point).

(iii) NaCl and CaCl2 is used to remove ice from road because
it depress the freezing point of water.

(iv). The osmotic pressure of fluid inside the blood cell and
that of 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl solution are equal. ie. They
are isotonic (solution having same osmotic pressure).
Therefore, 0.9% (mass/volume) NaCl solution is used in
intravenous injections

Reverse osmosis :

The direction of osmosis can be reversed if a pressure larger

than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution side. Here
solvent is flowing from lower concentration to higher
concentration through semi-permeable membrane. This
process is called reverse osmosis and is used in desalination of
sea water and in water purifiers

Abnormal Molecular Mass:

Molecular mass calculated on the basis of colligative

properties may be lower or higher than the normal value. Such
molecular mass is called Abnormal Molecular Mass. It is due
to the following reasons,
(i) Dissociation of particles
(ii) Association of particles

Due to dissociation of particles, the number of particles

increases. Therefore colligative property increases. Hence
molecular mass decreases.

Eg. KCl solution (Here KCl dissociated into K+ and Cl-.

Therefore number of particles increases)

Due to association of particles, the number of particles

decreases. Therefore colligative property decreases. Hence
molecular mass increases.

Eg. Acetic acid (Ethanoic acid) in benzene. (in benzene, acetic

acid dimerises due to hydrogen bonding, Therefore number of
particles decreases)

Model question:

1. What will happen if a pressure greater than osmotic

pressure is applied on the solution separated by a semi-
permeable membrane from the solvent? Explain.
(Hint: Reverse osmosis)
2. What type of deviationis shown by a mixture of acetone
and choloroform?justify on the basis of strength of
intermolecular interactions that develop in the
solution.what type of azeotropic mixture will be formed
bythe above solution? (Hint:Non-ideal solution showing
negative deviation,molecular interaction between
acetone and chloroform increases through H-bond)
 3. Calculate the osmotic pressure exerted by a solution
prepared by dissolving 1.5 g of apolymer of molar mass
185000 in 500ml of water at 270C
(R=0.0821L atm/K/mol) (Hint; π = W2.R.T/M2V
W2=1.5g, M2=185000, V=500ml=.5L, T=300K
4. Write any 4 examlpes for osmosis which are shown in
daily life?
Answer;
a) Raw mango placed in concentrated salt solution loses
water and shrink
b) Wilted flowers revive when placed in fresh water
c) Blood cell collapse when suspended in saline water
d) The preservation of meat by salting and fruits by
adding sugar protect against bacterial action
 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
KEYPOINTS: Galvanic Cell-Nernst Equation-Molar Conductivity-Kohlrausch’s Law-
Electrolysis-Primary And Secondary cells-Fuel cells-Corrosion.
Electrochemical/Galvanic/voltaic cell:- Devices that convert chemical energy of some
redox reaction into electrical energy .E g. Daniel Cell
• Daniel cell: Anode is Zn rod in ZnSO4 solution and cathode is Cu rod in CuSO4
solution . The two electrodes are connected externally by a metallic wire through a
voltmeter and electrolyte is connected by a salt bridge .The reaction taking place
in a Daniel cell is a combination of two half reactions.
Reaction at anode Cu2+ + 2e- Cu(s)
Reaction at cathode Zn(s) Zn2+ + 2e-
Net Cell Reaction : Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s)

• Salt Bridge: It is an inverted U-tube containing an inert electrolyte like NaNO3 or

KNO3 in a gel like substance .The functions of salt bridge are:
1. To complete the electrical circuit.
2. To maintain electrical neutrality in the two half cells.
Electrode potential:-The tendency of a metal to lose or gain electron when it is in contact
with its own solution is called electrode potential. When the concentration of all the species
involved in a half cell is unity then the electrode potential is known as standard electrode
potential.
Cell Potential (Ecell):- Ecell = Ecathode – Eanode
Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE):- standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is used to
measure electrode potential of individual half cell. It consist of a platinum electrode coated
with platinum black. The electrode is dipped in an acidic solution of one molar concentration
and pure hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure and 298K is bubbled through it, It is represented as
Pt(s) /H2 (g) /H+(aq). The electrode potential of SHE is taken as zero .
Electrochemical Series:-It is a series in which various electrode s are arranged in the
decreasing order of their standard electrode potential values.
Nernst Equation:- Nernst proposed an equation to relate the electrode potential of an
electrode with the electrolytic concentration .
For the reaction Mn+ (aq) + e- M (s) the electrode potential can be given by
2.303𝑅𝑇 1
E(Mn+/M) = E0(Mn+/M) – log [𝑀𝑛+ ]
𝑛𝐹

For a general electrochemical reaction of the type aA + bB cC + dD , Nernst

equation can be written as
2.303𝑅𝑇 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
Ecell = Eocell - 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
𝑛𝐹

At 298K,the equation becomes

 0.0591 [𝐶]𝑐 [𝐷]𝑑
Ecell = E0cell - 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴]𝑎 [𝐵]𝑏
𝑛

Equilibrium constant from Nernst equation:-

0.0591
E0cell = log 𝐾𝑐
𝑛

Electrochemical Cell and Gibbs energy of a reaction:-

G0 = - nFE0cell
Molar Conductivity(λm): It is the conductivity of 1 mole of an electrolytic solution kept
between two electrodes with unit area of cross section and at a distance of unit length.
𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝜿
𝛌𝐦 = κ=conductivity , M=molarity
𝑴

Effect of dilution on conductivity and molar conductivity:For both strong and weak
electrolytes, conductivity(κ) decreases with increase in dilution because as dilution increases,
the number of ions per unit volume decreases.For both strong and weak electrolytes,the molar
conductivity(λ) increases with dilution.For strong electrolytes,as dilution increases,the force
of attraction between ions decreases and hence the ionic mobility increases.For weak
electrolytes as dilution increases,degree of dissociation increases.

Limiting Molar conductivity:Molar conductivity at infinite dilution is known as Limiting

Molar conductivity(λ0m). Limiting Molar conductivity of strong electrolyte can be determined
experimentally. Limiting Molar conductivity of weak electrolyte cannot be determined
experimentally. Debye Huckel Onsager equation for strong electrolyte is

λm = λ0m + AC1/2

Kohlrausch's law of independent migration of ions: The law states that the limiting molar
conductivity of an electrolyte can be represented as the sum of the individual contributions of
the anion and the cation of the electrolyte. Thus if an electrolyte on dissociation gives n (+)
cations and n (-) anions, its limiting molar conductivity is given as:
λ0m = n(-)λ0(-) + n(+)λ0(+)
Applications of Kohlrausch's law: 1) Determination of λ0m of weak electrolytes: By
knowing the λ0m values of strong electrolytes, we can calculate λ0m of weak electrolytes. For
e.g. we can determine the λ0m of acetic acid (CH3COOH) by knowing the λ0m of
CH3COONa, NaCl and HCI.
λ0m(CH3COOH) = λ0m(CH3COONa) + λ0m(HCl) - λ0m(NaCl)

2)Determination of degree of dissociation(α) of weak electrolytes :By knowing the molar

conductivity at a particular concentration (λm) and limiting molar conductivity (λ0m),we can
calculate degree of dissociation of weak electrolyte. α = λm / λ0m
Electrolytic Cell is a device that converts electrical energy into chemical energy .The process
is known as electrolysis. Product formed on electrolysis depends on nature of electrolyte
( molten or solution),nature of electrode (inert or reactive) and concentration of solution .

Faraday's first law: It states that the amount of substance deposited or liberated at the
electrodes (m) is directly proportional to the quantity of electricity (Q) flowing through the
electrolyte m = z Q Where z is a constant called electrochemical equivalent , z = equivalent
weight/96500. But quantity of electricity is the product of current in ampere (I) and time in
second (t). Q = It; Therefore, m= zlt. 1 Faraday is the charge of 1 mole of electron and its value
is 96500 C/mol.
Faraday's second law: It states that when same quantity of electricity is passed through
solutions of different substances, the amount of substance deposited or liberated is directly
proportional to their chemical equivalence . For e.g. when same quantity of electricity is
passed through solutions of two substances A and B,then
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
=
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐵

Types of Galvanic Cells:. They are of mainly 2 types - primary cells and secondary cells.
1)Primary cells: These are cells which cannot be recharged or reused. Here the reaction
occurs only once and after use over a period of time, they become dead E.g. Dry cell,
mercury button cell etc.
1. Dry Cell. It is a compact form of Leclanche cell. It consists of a zinc container as anode
and a carbon (graphite) rod surrounded by powdered manganese dioxide (MnO₂) and carbon
as cathode. Electrolyte is a moist paste of ammonium chloride (NH,CI) and zinc chloride
(ZnCl₂). Cell potential is 1.5V .Cell potential is not constant because electrolyte is used
during reaction.
Anode : Zn Zn2+ + 2e
Cathode : MnO2 + NH4+ + e MnO(OH) + NH3
2. Mercury cell: Here the anode is zinc - mercury amalgam and cathode is a paste of HgO
and carbon. The electrolyte is a paste of KOH and ZnO.Overall reaction is
Zn(Hg) + HgO ZnO(s) + Hg(l)
The cell has a constant cell potential of 1.35V since the overall reaction does not involve any
ion in solution.
2)Secondary cells: A secondary cell can be recharged and reused again. Here the cell reaction
can be reversed by passing current through it in the opposite direction. Eg. Lead storage
battery ,Ni-Cd cell etc
Lead storage battery is used in automobiles and invertors. It consists of lead as anode and a
grid of lead packed with lead dioxide (PbO₂) as the cathode. The electrolyte is 38% H₂SO4
solution.The cell reactions are:
Anode: Pb(s) + SO42- (aq) PbSO4(s) + 2e-
Cathode: PbO2 (s) + SO42- (aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
The overall reaction is Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Fuel cells: These are galvanic cells which convert the energy of combustion of fuels like
hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy. Eg. Hydrogen - Oxygen
fuel cell, which is used in the Apollo space programme. Here hydrogen and oxygen are
bubbled through porous carbon electrodes into concentrated aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution. To increase the rate of electrode reactions, catalysts like finely divided platinum or
palladium metal are filled into the electrodes.The electrode reactions are:
Anode: 2H2(g) + 4OH (aq) 4H2O(l) + 4e-
Cathode:O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- 4OH-(aq)
Overall reaction is : 2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
Corrosion: The process of formation of oxide or other compounds of a metal on its surface
by the action of air, water-vapour, CO₂ etc. Examples are: The rusting of iron, tarnishing of
silver, formation of green coating on copper and bronze (verdigris) etc.
Electrochemical Theory of rusting: Occurs in presence of water and air. It is a redox reaction.
At a particular spot of the metal, oxidation takes place and that spot behaves as anode. Here
Fe is oxidized to Fe2+. 2Fe(s) 2Fe2+ + 4e-
Electrons released at anodic spot move through the metal and go to another spot on the metal
and reduce oxygen in presence of H+.This spot behaves as cathode.The reaction taking place
at this spot is : O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e- 2H2O(l)
The overall reaction is : 2Fe(s) + O2(g) + 4H+(aq) 2Fe2+ (aq) + 2H2O(l)
The ferrous ions (Fe2+) are further oxidised to ferric ions (Fe3+) and finally to hydrated ferric
oxide (Fe2O3.xH2O),which is called rust.
Methods of prevention of corrosion
1. By barrier protection through coating the metal surface with paint or varnish or
electroplating etc.
2. By coating the metal surface with another electropositive metal like Zn, Mg etc. The
coating of metal with Zn is called galvanisation and the resulting iron is called galvanized
iron.
3. By coating with anti-rust solution (bis phenol).
4. By cathodic protection in which a metal is protected from corrosion by connecting it to
another metal that is more easily oxidised. An electrochemical method is to provide a
sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn, etc.) which corrodes itself but saves the
object.
QUESTION AND ANSWERS
1 a) Represent the galvanic cell based on the cell reaction given below:
Cu(s) + 2 Ag+ (aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2 Ag(s) b) Write the half cell reactions of the above
cell. c) λ0m for NaCl, HCl and NaAc are 126.4, 425.9 and 91.0 S cm2 mol-1 respectively.
Calculate λ0m for HAc.
Ans a) Cu/Cu2+ll Ag+/Ag
b) Anode Cu Cu2+ + 2e cathode Ag+ + e Ag
c) λ0m (CH3COOH) = λ0m(CH3COONa) + λ0m(HCI) - λ0m(NaCI)
= 91+425.9-126=390.5Scm2mol-1
2.Galvanic cells are classified into primary and secondary cells. a) Write any two differences
between primary and secondary cells. b) (i) What is a fuel cell? (1) (ii) Write the overall cell
reaction in H2 – O2 fuel cell?
Ans a) primary cells cannot be recharged or reused. Here the reaction occurs only once and
after use over a period of time, they become dead E.g. Dry cell .A secondary cell can be
recharged and reused again. Here the cell reaction can be reversed by passing current through
it in the opposite direction. Eg. Lead storage battery b) Fuel cells convert the energy of
combustion of fuels like hydrogen, methane, methanol, etc. directly into electrical energy.
c) 2H2 + O2 2H2O
3.We can construct innumerable number of Galvanic cells on the pattern of Daniel cell by
taking combination of different half cells. a) What is a Galvanic cell? b) Name the anode and
cathode used in the Daniel cell? c) Name the cell represented by Pt(s)/H2(g)/H+ (aq). d)
According to the convention, what is the potential of the above cell at all temperatures? e)
Write the use of the above cell?
Ans a) Devices that convert chemical energy of some redox reaction into electrical energy
.E g. Daniel Cell b) anode Zn rod in ZnSO4 solution cathode Cu rod in CuSO4 solution
c)SHE d) Zero e) use to measure standard electrode potential of other half cells
4. With decrease in concentration of an electrolytic solution, conductivity (ƙ) decreases and
molar conductivity (λm) increases. i) Write the equation showing the relationship between
conductivity and molar conductivity. ii) How will you account for the increase in molar
conductivity with decrease in concentration? iii) Limiting molar conductivity (λ0 m) of a
strong electrolyte can be determined by graphical extrapolation method. Suggest a method for
the determination of limiting molar conductivity of a weak electrolyte.
𝜅 1000
Ans i) λm = ii) For strong electrolytes,as dilution increases,the force of attraction
𝑀
between ions decreases and hence the ionic mobility increases.For weak electrolytes as
dilution increases,degree of dissociation increases iii) using Kholrausch’s law
 CHAPTER 4:- CHEMICAL KINETICS
Expression of the rate of reaction
For the reaction 𝑨 → 𝑩
∆[𝑨] ∆[𝑩]
Rate of reaction (𝒓) = − =+ … … … … (𝟏)
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
Here,
∆[𝑨]
− ∆𝒕 = Rate of disappearance of A
∆[𝑩]
+ =Rate of appearance of B
∆𝒕

For the reaction

𝑷+𝑸→𝑹+𝑺
∆[𝑷] ∆[𝑸] ∆[𝑹] ∆[𝑺]
𝒓=− =− =+ =+
∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕 ∆𝒕
For the reaction
𝟐𝑨 → 𝑩 + 𝟑𝑪
∆[𝑨] 𝟏 ∆[𝑩] ∆[𝑪] 𝟏
𝒓 = − ∆𝒕 × 𝟐 = + ∆𝒕 = + ∆𝒕 × 𝟑 …….(2)
The expressions involving ‘∆’ is known as average rate.
Equation (2) can also be expressed as
𝒅[𝑨] 𝟏 𝒅[𝑩] 𝒅[𝑪] 𝟏
𝒓 = − 𝒅𝒕 × 𝟐 = + 𝒅𝒕 = + 𝒅𝒕 × 𝟑 …….(3)
The expressions involving ‘𝒅’ is known as instantaneous rate.
Unit rate of reaction
The unit rate of reaction is molL-1s-1 . In gaseous phase, the unit of rate of
reaction may be molL-1s-1 or atm s-1.

Factors affecting the rate

1. Nature of reactants
2. Concentration of reactants
3. Surface area of reactants
4. Temperature (5) presence of catalyst
Relationship between rate of reaction and concentration of reactants
As concentration of reactants increases the rate of reactions also increases and
vice versa.
The quantitative relationship between rate of reaction and concentration of
reactants is expressed in terms of rate law or rate expression or rate equation. Rate law
can be expressed in terms of theoretical rate equation or experimental rate equation
For the reaction A+B→ Products
Theoretical rate equation can be expressed using law of mass action.According
to law of mass action, the rate of reaction is directly proportional to the product of
molar concentration of reactants.
For the reaction A+B→ D
𝑟 ∝ [𝐴][𝐵]
OR
𝑟 = 𝑘 [𝐴][𝐵] …….(4)
Here ‘k’ is known as velocity constant or rate constant or specific reaction
rate.
For the reaction 2P+3Q→ R+S
𝑟 = 𝑘 [𝑃]2 [𝑄]3 ………(5)

CHEMISTRY
 Equation (5) is the theoretical equation . Theoretical rate equation is correct
for some reactions and is wrong for some other reactions. To all reactions,
experimental rate equation is the valid rate equation.
Experimental rate equation for equation(5) is
𝒓 = 𝒌[𝑷]𝒙 [𝑸]𝒚
The sum of the powers of concentration terms in the experimental rate equation
is known as order of equation.
Order of reaction may have the values may varying from 0 to 3 including
fractional values.
Based on the values of order, reaction is of different types.
1) Zero order reactions: Here order of reaction is zero.
Eg:-
a. Decomposition of NH3 On hot platinum surface.
b. Thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface
2) First order reaction:- Here order of reaction is 1
Eg:- all radioactive decay
3) Reaction having fractional order
Eg:- decomposition of CH3 – CHO
𝐶𝐻3 − 𝐶𝐻𝑂 → 𝐶𝐻4 + 𝐶𝑂
Experimental rate equation r = 𝑘 [𝐶𝐻3 𝐶𝐻𝑂]3/2
Here order of reaction is 3/2
Unit rate constant (k)
Unit of rate constant depends on the order of reaction. If ‘n’ is the order of
reaction the unit of rate constant 𝑳𝒏−𝟏 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝟏−𝒏 𝒔−𝟏
Molecularity of reaction
The number of reacting species (atoms, ions or molecules) taking part in
an elementary reaction that will collide simultaneously is molecularity.
Molecularity of reaction varies from 1 to 3. No fractional values are
permitted for molecularity.
Based on molecularity, reactions are classified as given below.
1. Unimolecular or monomolecular reaction
Here molecularity of reaction is 1
Eg; decomposition of ammonium nitrite
NH4NO2→N2 + 2H2O
2. Bimolecular reaction or dimolecular reaction
Here molecularity of reaction is 2
Eg; H2+I2→2HI
3. Trimolecular or Termolecularreation
Here molecularity of reaction is 3
2NO+O2→2NO2

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORDER AND MOLECULARITY

Order Molecularity
1) The sum of powers of The no. of reacting species taking
concentration terms in the part in an elementary reaction
experimental rate equation that will collide simultaneously

CHEMISTRY
 2) It is an experimental quantity It is a theoretical quantity
3) It may have zero value It will never have zero value
4) It may have integral or fractional It will have only integral values
value

Integrated rate equation of zero order reaction.

[𝐴]0 −[𝐴]
= 𝑘….(4)
𝑡

Equation (4) is known as integrated rate equation for zero order reaction.

[𝑨]𝟎 → Initial concentration of reactant

[𝑨] →Concentration or reactant after the time ‘t’
Graphical representation of integrated rate equation for zero order reaction.
Integrated rate equation for zero order reaction is
[𝐴] −[𝐴]
𝑘 = 0𝑡

𝑂𝑅
[𝐴] = −𝑘𝑡 + [𝐴]0 ……(1)
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (1)is similar to straight line equation 𝑦 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐 and it can be
graphically represented as follows.

Slope = -k
y – intercept = [𝑨]𝟎
Integrated rate equation for first order reaction
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑨]𝟎
𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑨]
= 𝒌………….. (6)
𝒕

𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 (𝟔)is known as integrated rate equation for first order reaction.
Graphical representation of integrated equation for first order reaction
Integrated rate equation for first order reaction is
2.303 [𝐴]
𝑘 = 𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴]0
𝑂𝑅
𝑘𝑡
𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴] = − 2.303 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴]0 ……..(7)

CHEMISTRY
 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (7)is similar to straight line equation 𝑦 = −𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐, which can be
graphically shown as below.

𝒌
𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = − 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑,𝒚 − 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑨]𝟎
Examples of first order reactions
1) All natural and artificial radioactive decay
2) Decomposition of N2O5.
3) Decomposition of N2O.
Half life of reaction (𝒕𝟏/𝟐)
The time required for a reactant to become half of its initial concentration.
[𝐴]0 −[𝐴]
For zero order reaction, 𝑡 = 𝑘
[𝑨]𝟎
𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟐𝒌

𝑖. 𝑒. , 𝑡1/2 of zero order reaction is directly proportional to initial concentration of

reactants.
For first order reaction, integrated rate equation is
2.303 [𝐴]0
𝑡= 𝑙𝑜𝑔 [𝐴]
𝑘
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝒕𝟏/𝟐 = 𝒌
……..(2)

From equation (2), it is clear that 𝑡1/2 is independent on initial concentration of

reactants.
Pseudo order reaction
The reaction that seems to follow higher order, but actually follows lower
order is known as pseudo order reaction.
Eg:- Hydrolysis ethyl acetate (ester) in acidic medium

Dependence between rate of reaction and temperature

As temperature increases the rate of reaction increases and vice versa.
The quantitative relationship between rate of reaction and temperature is expressed
in terms of Arrhenius equation,Which can be shown as below
𝒌 = 𝑨𝒆−𝑬𝒂 /𝑹𝑻 ………..(1)
Here
𝑘 = 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

CHEMISTRY
 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑟ℎ𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑢𝑠𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟/𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦/pre-exponential factor
𝐸𝑎 = Activation energy
R= Universal gas constant (8.314 𝐽 𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
T = Temperature in Kelvin scale
In terms of natural logarithm Arrhenius equation (1) can be expressed as
𝑬
𝒍𝒏 [𝑲] = − 𝑹𝑻𝒂 + 𝒍𝒏 𝑨…………..(2)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (2)can be expressed in terms of common logarithm as given below
−𝐸
𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑘 = 2.303𝑎𝑅𝑇 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝐴……….(4)

𝐸𝑎 can also be calculated by the following equations

𝒌𝟐 𝑬𝒂 𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏
𝒍𝒐𝒈 = [ ]
𝒌𝟏 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹 𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Here 𝑘2 → rate constant at high temperature
𝑘2 →rate constant at lower temperature
𝑇1 → Low temperature
𝑇2 → High temperature
𝐸𝑎 → Activation energy
𝑅 →universal gas constant (8.314 𝐽𝐾 −1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )

Relationship between rate of reaction and presence of catalyst

Catalysts are the substances that will alter the rate of reaction and remain unchanged in
quantity and composition at the end of reaction
For eg:- MnO2catalysts the decomposition of KClO3.
The catalyst provides an alternate path on reaction by reducing the
activation energy. It is to be noted that as activation energy decreases faster will
be the rate of reaction.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. Give the differences between order and molecularity? (answer: refer the notes)
2. Give Arrhenius equation and explain the terms involved in it? (answer: refer the
notes)
3. What is pseudo order reaction? Give examples (answer: refer the notes)
4. For a reaction 𝑨 + 𝑩 → 𝑪 + 𝑫, the rate equation is. Rate 𝑲 = [𝑨] 𝟑/[𝑩]𝟏/𝟐. Given
that over all order and molecularity of reaction.
Answer: order =( 3/2)+(1/2)=2
5. The rate of reaction quadruples when the temperature changes from 293 K to 313
K, calculate energy of activation?

CHEMISTRY
 6. What is half-life period? Suggest the equations to find half-life period of first
order and zero order reaction?(refer the notes)
7. Suggest the integrated rate equation for first order and zero order reaction?
(refer the notes)

Prepared by: Mohamed younus saleem

SSHSS MOORKANAD

CHEMISTRY
D and F BLOCK ELEMENTS

KEY POINTS:-
• Magnetic properties,oxidation state,KMnO4,
K2Cr2O7,Lanthanoid contraction

A transition element is defined as the one which has partially filled d orbitals in its ground
state or in any one of its oxidation states.
Zn,Cd and Hg are not considered as transition elements.[ Zn,Cd and Hg-general
electronic configuration ( n-1) )d 10ns2.The orbitals in these elements are completely filled
(d10) in the ground start as well as in their common oxidation stat es.
• General electronic configuration of d block elements-( n-1) )d 1-10ns1-2

Magnetic Properties :
Paramagnetism -due to the presence of unpaired electrons.
• For the compounds of 1 st row transition elements, it is calculated using only spin
magnetic moment and it is determined by the spin only formula:
√
µ s = n(n+2) where n is the no. of unpaired electrons and µ is the spin only
magnetic moment in the unit of Bohr Magneton (B.M).
• The magnetic moment increases with increase in no. of unpaired electrons.

• Formation of Complex Compounds.- This is due to:

1. Comparatively smaller size 2. High ionic charge
3. Presence of partially filled d orbitals

• Formation of Coloured compounds-

This is because ofthe presence of partially filled d orbitals and

 d-d transition.

• Catalytic Properties.-This is due to their ability to show variable oxidation state.

Atomic size of transition elements decreases with increase in atomic number till
middle of the series.

Reason-with increase in atomic number,an extra electron is being added to inner

d-orbital.Shielding effect of a d-electron is not much effective.Thus attraction
increases and hence size decreases.

Size of 5d series elements is almost same as 4d elements-

Reason-Lanthanoid contraction

Some Important Compounds of Transition Elements.

1.Potassium dichromate ( K2Cr207 )

- generally prepared from chromite ore (FeCr2O4 ) by thefollowing three steps.

1. -Chromite ore is first fused with sodium carbonate in presence of air to form sodium
chromate.
4 FeCr204 + 8 Na2C03 + 7 02 → 8 Na2 Cr0 4 + 2 Fe203 + 8 C02

2. -The yellow solution of sodium chromate is filtered and acidified with sulphuric acid
to orange sodium dichromate.
2 Na2Cr0 4 + 2 H + → Na2Cr207 + 2 Na+ + H20
3.
The solution of sodium dichromate is treated with potassium chloride so that orange
crystals of
potassium dichromate crystallise out.
Na2Cr207 + 2 KCl → K2 Cr2 07 + 2 NaCl
The structures of chromate ion, Cr04 2– and the dichromate ion, Cr07 2– are shown
below.
Oxidising Property
K2 Cr207 is a good oxidising agent in acidic medium. Its oxidising action can
berepresented as follows:
Cr2072– + 14H + + 6e – → 2Cr 3+ + 7H20
Thus, acidified potassium dichromate will oxidise
1) Iodides to iodine
6I – + Cr2072– + 14 H + → 3 I2 + 2 Cr 3+ + 7H2 0

2) Iron(II) (ferrous) to iron(III) (ferrite)

Cr2 07 2– + 14 H + + 6 Fe 2+ → 2 Cr 3+ + 6 Fe 3+ + 7 H20

2. Potassium permanganate ( KMn04 )

- commercially prepared from Pyrolusite (MnO2 ).

The preparation involves two steps.

* In the first step MnO 2 is fused with KOH to form potassium manganate (K2 MnO4 ).
2MnO2+4KOH →2 K2 MnO4+2H2O

* K2MnO4 is electrolytically oxidised to potassium permanganate.

K2MnO4 + Cl 2 → 2 KMnO4 + 2KCl

Struture of manganate and permanganate ions are tetrahedral

 *On heating it decomposes to manganate and Mn02
2KMnO4 →2 K2MnO4 +MnO2+O2
*Oxidising Property
KMnO4 is a good oxidizing agent in acidic, basic and neutral
medium

Acidified permanganate solution oxidises:

1) Iron(II) to iron(III)

5Fe2+ + Mn04- + 8H + → 5Fe 3+ + Mn2+ + 4H20

2) Iodides to free iodine.

10I - + 2Mn04- + 16H + → 5I2 +2Mn 2+ + 8H20

THE INNER TRANSITI0N ELEMENTS ( f-BLOCK)

• General electronic configuration—(n-2)f 1-14( n-1)d 0-1ns2

• In lanthanoids the most common oxidation state is +3.
• Cerium shows +4 oxidation state due to its noble gas configuration

Lanthanoid Contraction:
In lanthanoids, the atomic and ionic radii decrease regularly from lanthanum to lutetium.
This regular decrease in the atomic and ionic radii along lanthanoid series is called
lanthanoid contraction.
Reason: In lanthanoids, as theatomic number increases, the nuclear charge increases
one by one and the electrons are added to the anti-penultimate f-Subshell. Due to its
diffused shape, f orbitals have poor shielding effect. So the nucleus can attract the outer
most electrons strongly and as a result the radii decreases.
Consequences:
1) Due to lanthanoid contraction the 2nd and 3rd row transition series elements
have similar radii.
( Zr – 160pm and Hf-159pm).

2) lanthanoids have similar physical properties and they occur together in nature.
So their isolation is difficult.

3) As the size of the lanthanoid ions decreases from La3+ to Lu3+,the covalent
characterof the hydroxides increases and hence the basic strength
decreases. La(OH)3 is most basic while Lu(OH)3 is the least basic.

Uses of Lanthanides
An important alloy is mischmetal which consists of a lanthanoid metal(approx. 95%) and
iron(approx. 5%)and traces of S,C,Ca and Al.A great deal of mischmetal is used in
magnesium based alloy to produce bullets,shell and lighter flint.

Model questions:

1.what are transition and inner transition elements?

2.Zn,Cd &Hg are not transition elements.why?

3.Account for magnetic behaviour of transition metals[why transition

elements are paramagnetic?]

4.Transition elements form colored compounds.Why?

5.Why transition elements can form a number of complexes?

6.Transition elements are good catalysts.Why?

7.How is K2Cr2O7 is prepared?

8.Draw the structure of chromate ion and dichromate ion.

9.How is potassium permanganate prepared?

10.Draw the structure of manganate and permanganate ions?

11.What is lanthanide contraction?what is the reason for it?

12.what are the consequences of Lanthanide contraction?

13.What are the uses of d and f block elements?

 9. COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

Coordination compounds are complex compounds in which transition metal atoms are bound to a number of anions or neutral molecules.

Postulates of Werner’s theory of coordination compounds:

In coordination compounds, there are two types of linkages (valences) – primary and secondary.
The primary valences are ionisable and are satisfied by negative ions.
The secondary valences are non-ionisable and are satisfied by negative ions or neutral molecules.
Difference between a double salt and a complex:
In water, a double salt dissociates completely to give simpler ions. Examples of double salt: carnallite (KCl. MgCl 2. 6H2O), Mohr’s salt
[FeSO4. (NH4)2 SO4. 6H2O]
Complex ions do not dissociate further to give simpler ions. For example,
[Fe(CN)6]–4, [Fe(C2O4)3]3–

Ligands:
Ions or molecules bound to the central metal atom or ion in the coordination entity
Monodentate ligands
When a ligand is bound to a metal ion through a single donor atom,
–
Didentate – When a ligand can bind through two donor atoms
Ethane 1,2diamin and Oxalate

Polydentate – when several donor atoms are present in a single ligand

Eg; EDTA

Ambidentate –
(Can bind through two different atoms)

Coordination number: Number of ligand donor atoms bonded directly to the metal

Homoleptic and heteroleptic complexes:

Homoleptic complexes: In which metal is bound to only one kind of donor groups, e.g., [Co(NH3)6]3+
Heteroleptic complexes: In which metal is bound to more than one kind of donor groups, e.g., [Co(NH 3)4Cl2]+

Naming of mononuclear coordination compounds:

The cation is named first in both physically and negatively charged coordination entities.
The ligands are named in alphabetical order, before the name of the central atom/ion.
Names of the anionic ligands end in –o.
[Exceptions: aqua (H2O), ammine (NH3), carbonyl (CO), nitroryl (NO)]
 To indicate the number of the individual ligands, the prefixes mono–, di–, tri–, etc., are used. If these prefixes are present in the names of
ligands, then the terms bis–, tris–, tetrakis–, etc., are used.
Oxidation state of the metal is indicated in Roman numerals, in parentheses.

IUPAC nomenclature of coordination compounds:

[CoCl2(en)2] SO4 is Dichlorobis (ethylenediamine) cobalt (IV) sulphate

[PtCl3(NH3)3] Cl. is triamminetrichloridoplatinum(IV)chloride.

[Co(NH3)6]Cl3 is Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride

K3[Fe(C2O4)3] is Potassium trioxalatoferrate(III)

Isomerism in coordination compounds: Stereoisomerism –

Geometrical isomerism:
Arises in heteroleptic complexes due to different possible geometrical arrangement of ligands
Generally found with compounds having coordination numbers 4 and 6

Structural isomerism –
➢ Linkage isomerism:
Arises due to the presence of ambidentate ligand

➢ Coordination isomerism:
Arises due to the interchange of ligands between cationic and anionic entities of different metal ions
Co NH3 6 Cr CN 6 and Cr NH3 6 Co CN 6

➢ Ionisation isomerism:
 Arises due to the interchange of ligands between the inside and the outside of the coordination sphere
Co (NH3) 5SO4 Br and Co (NH3) 5 Br SO4

➢ Solvate isomerism (Hydrate isomerism when solvent is water):

Arises depending upon whether a solvent molecule is directly bonded to the metal ion or is present as a free solvent molecule.
Cr (H2O) 6Cl and Cr(H2O)5 Cl Cl2 H2O

violet (grey green)

VALENCE BOND THEORY (VBT):

Coordination number Type of hybridisation Distribution of hybrid orbitals in
space

4 sp3 Tetrahedral
4 dsp2 sp3d Square planar
5 sp3d2 Trigonal bipyramidal
6 d2sp3 Octahedral
6 Octahedral

Limitations of valence bond theory:

1.A number of assumptions are involved.
2.The exhibition of colour by coordination compounds is not explained.
Crystal-field theory:
[Crystal-field splitting is the splitting of the degenerate energy levels due to the presence of ligands.]
Crystal-field splitting in octahedral coordination entities:

Crystal-field splitting in tetrahedral coordination entities:

Colour in coordination compounds:
The colour of the coordination compounds is attributed to d–d transition of electrons.

Bonding in metal carbonyls:

Synergic bonding – both sigma and pi character

Applications of coordination compounds:

EDTA is used in the treatment of lead poisoning.
Cis–platin is used in the treatment of cancer..
chlorophyll is a coordination compound of magnesium,
haemoglobin is a coordination compound of iron
vitamin B12 is a coordination compound of cobalt.
Questions
1 Write the IUPAC names of the following compounds :
(a) [Ni(CO)4 (b) K3[Fe(C2O4)3
2 Draw a diagram depicting crystal field splitting in an octahedral environment of d-orbitals. Label the diagram properly.
3 [Co(NH3)5 SO4 ]Cl and [Co(NH3)5Cl]SO4 are co-ordination compounds.
a) Identify the isomerism shown by the above compounds. (1)
b) Write the IUPAC names of the above compounds. (2)
c) Identify the ligands in each of the above compounds. (1)
4.[Cr(NH3)4Cl2 ]Br is a co-ordination compound.
a) Identify the central metal ion of the above compound. (½ )
b) Name the ligands present in it. (1)
c) What is its co-ordination number? (½)
d) Write the IUPAC name. (1)
 Chapter 10 HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES
Methods of Preparation

(c) Sandmeyer’s reaction

When a primary aromatic amine is treated with cold aqueous mineral acid and sodium nitrite, a
diazonium salt is formed.
Physical Properties
(i) Boiling Point and Melting Point The boiling points of alkyl halides are higher than that of the
hydrocarbons of comparable molecular mass
(i) due to greater polarity, (ii) higher molecular mass as compared to the parent hydrocarbon (iii) the
intermolecular forces of attraction (dipole-dipole and van der Waals) are stronger in the halogen
derivatives.
The boiling points of alkyl halides decrease in the order: RI > RBr > RCl > RF. This is because with
the increase in size and mass of halogen atom, the magnitude of van der Waal forces increases.

Chemical Properties
Ambident Nucleophile: Nucleophiles having more than one linking atoms are known
̅ , −NO
as ambident Nucleophile. Eg. −CN ̅2 …

Towards SN2 reaction, various alkyl halides follow the reactivity order CH3 − X > 10 >
20 > 30 .
Stereochemical aspects of nucleophilic substitution reactions
A SN2 reaction proceeds with complete stereochemical inversion while a SN1 reaction proceeds
with racemisation.

Chiral and Achiral

A chiral molecule is a type of molecule that has a non-superposable mirror image.
Eg: A pair of shoes
Achiral objects are superimposable with their mirror images. For example, two pieces of paper are
achiral.

Enantiomers
The stereoisomers which are non-super imposable mirror images are called enantiomers.
The process of conversion of enantiomer into a racemic mixture is known as racemisation.

(ii) Elimination Reaction ( β-elimination or dehydrohalogenation)

Alkyl halides on treatment with alcoholic KOH, dehydrohalogenation occurs to form
alkenes. This reaction is also called β-elimination.
𝛾 𝛽 𝛼
alc.KOH
CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − Br → CH3 − CH = CH2

Alkyl halides having two or more β carbon atom on treating alcoholic KOH, more than
one alkene is formed. Among these, the most substituted alkene is the major product
and the latter is the minor product. This rule is known as Zaitsev rule.

REACTION WITH METALS

a) Reaction with Na: Alkyl halides on reaction with sodium, in dry ether to form
symmetrical alkanes having even number of carbon atoms. (Wurtz Reaction)
CH3 − CH2 − Br + 2Na + Br − CH2 − CH3 → CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − CH3 + 2NaBr
b) Reaction with Mg: Alkyl halides on treatment with Mg in ether to form Grignard
reagent (R-Mg-X), which on reaction with any substances that provides H + to give
hydrocarbons.
HOH
CH3 − CH2 − Br + Mg → CH3 − CH2 − Mg − Br → CH3 − CH2 − H + Mg(OH)Br

Reactions of Haloarenes
1. Nucleophilic substitution
Aryl halides are extremely less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reactions why?
(i) Resonance effect: In haloarenes, the electron pairs on halogen atom are in conjugation with
π-electrons of the ring.

(ii) Difference in hybridisation of carbon atom in C—X bond In haloalkane, the carbon atom
attached to halogen is sp 3 hybridised while in case of haloarene, the carbon atom attached
to halogen is sp 2 -hybridised.

(iii) Instability of phenyl cation: In case of haloarenes, the phenyl cation formed as a result of
self-ionisation will not be stabilised by resonance and therefore, SN1 mechanism is ruled
out.
(iv) Because of the possible repulsion, it is less likely for the electron rich nucleophile to approach
electron rich arenes.
 (ii) Replacement by hydroxyl group

Aryl halides also undergo SN reaction, if aryl halides contain electron with drawing group like –
NO2. As the number of electrons with drawing groups increases, the reactivity of aryl halides
increases towards SN reaction.

why does NO2 group show its effect only at ortho- and para positions and not at meta- position?
The presence of nitro group at ortho- and para-positions withdraws the electron density from the
benzene ring and thus facilitates the attack of the nucleophile on haloarene. The carbanion thus
formed is stabilised through resonance. The negative charge appeared at ortho- and para- positions
with respect to the halogen substituent is stabilised by –NO2 group while in case of meta-
nitrobenzene, none of the resonating structures bear the negative charge on carbon atom bearing the
–NO2 group. Therefore, the presence of nitro group at meta- position does not stabilise the negative
charge and no effect on reactivity is observed by the presence of –NO2 group at meta-position.

Electrophilic substitution reactions

a) Halogenations:

b) Nitration:
 c) Sulphonation:

a) Friedel craft’s reaction:

POLYHALOGEN COMPOUNDS
Dichloromethane (𝐂𝐇𝟐 𝐂𝐥𝟐 ): It is also known as methylene chloride. It is used as solvent,
as paint remover and used in the manufacture of drugs.
Trichloromethane (𝐂𝐇𝐂𝐥𝟑 ): CHCl3 is used as solvent and is also used in the refrigerant R-
22. CHCl3 is oxidised by air to form COCl2 (Phosgene).
light
2CHCl3 + O2 → 2COCl2 + 2HCl
It is therefore kept in closed dark coloured bottle completely filled, so that air is kept
out.
Triiodomethane (𝐂𝐇𝐈𝟑): It was used as antiseptic. Due to its objectionable smell, it has
been replaced by other formulations containing iodine.
Tetrachloromethane (𝐂𝐂𝐥𝟒 ): It is used as fire extinguisher. When CCl4 is released into
the air, it causes depletion of ozone layer. Depletion of ozone layer leads to skin cancer,
eye disease etc.
Freons: Chloro fluoro carbon compounds of CH4 and C2H6 are freons.
E.g. Freon-12 (CCl2F2). It is manufactured by Swartz reaction.
DDT: It is the first chlorinated insecticide. Paul Muller discovered the effectiveness of
DDT as insecticide. Its structure can be shown below,
 Chapter 11 ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS
Preparation of Alcohols
1. From alkenes:
(a) Alkenes on hydration in presence of catalyst alcohols are formed. Here addition reaction
occurs. If substrate and reagent, both are unsymmetrical Markovnikov’s rule is to be
considered.

NB: - Mechanism of reaction shows that, the reaction is proceeding through the formation of
carbocation intermediate.

(b) Alkenes on hydroboration (treating with B2H6) and addition product on oxidation alcohols are
formed. Here the net effect is the anti markovnikov addition of H2O to alkene.
B2 H6 /H2 O2
CH3 − CH = CH2 → CH3 − CH2 − CH2 − OH

2 From aldehydes and ketones

(a) Reduction of aldehydes and ketones: Reduction of aldehydes and ketones gives
alcohols.
Preparation of Phenols
Physical Properties
Boiling Point
(i) The boiling points of alcohols and phenols increase with increase in the number of carbon
atoms (increase in van der Waals forces).
(ii) In alcohols, the boiling points decrease with increase of branching in carbon chain.
(iii) The high boiling points of alcohols are mainly due to the presence of intermolecular
hydrogen bonding in them which is lacking in ethers and hydrocarbons.

Solubility
Solubility of alcohols and phenols in water is due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules. The solubility decreases with increase in size of alkyl / aryl groups.

Chemical Properties
Alcohols react both as nucleophiles and electrophiles. Alcohols react as nucleophiles when the bond
between O–H is broken. Alcohols act as electrophiles when the bond between C–O is broken.

(a) Reactions involving cleavage of O–H bond

Acidity of alcohols and phenols
(i) Reaction with metals: Alcohols and phenols react with active metals to yield corresponding
alkoxides / phenoxides.

Phenols react with aqueous sodium hydroxide to form sodium phenoxides.

(ii) Acidity of alcohols

The acidic character of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O–H bond. An electron-releasing group
(–CH3, –C2H5 ) increases electron density on oxygen tending to decrease the polarity of O-H bond.
This decreases the acid strength. For this reason, the acid strength of alcohols decreases in the

following order.
(iii) Acidity of phenols

(iv) Resonance structures of Phenoxide ion

2. Esterification
Alcohols and phenols react with carboxylic acids, acid chlorides and acid anhydrides to form esters.

Acetylation of salicylic acid produces aspirin

(b) Reactions involving cleavage of carbon – oxygen (C–O) bond in alcohols

1. Reaction with hydrogen halides
Alcohols react with hydrogen halides to form alkyl halides

ROH + HX → R–X + H2O

2. Test to distinguish 10, 20 and 30 alcohols (Luca’s Test)
3. Reaction with phosphorus trihalides
Alcohols are converted to alkyl bromides by reaction with phosphorus tribromide

4. Dehydration
Alcohols undergo dehydration (removal of a molecule of water) to form alkenes on treating with a
protic acid e.g., concentrated H2SO4 or H3PO4 , or catalysts such as anhydrous zinc chloride or
alumina.

5. Oxidation
A primary alcohol is oxidised to an aldehyde which in turn is oxidised to a carboxylic acid.

Test to distinguish 10, 20, 30 Alcohol

When the vapours of a primary or a secondary alcohol are passed over heated copper at 573 K,
dehydrogenation takes place and an aldehyde or a ketone is formed while tertiary alcohols undergo
dehydration.
(II) Reactions of phenols
(a) Electrophilic aromatic substitution
(i) Nitration: (a) With dilute nitric acid at low temperature (298 K), phenol yields a mixture of ortho
and para nitrophenols.

(b) Phenol is converted to 2,4,6-trinitrophenol on treatment with Conc. HNO3

(b) Bromination
(a) When phenol is treated with bromine water, 2,4,6-tribromophenol is formed

(c) When phenol is treated with bromine in CS2 at 273K we get ortho and para bromophenols.
3. Kolbe’s reaction
When phenol with sodium hydroxide we get Sodium phenoxide which on treatment with CO2 we get
Ortho hydroxybenzoic acid (Salicylic acid).

4. Reimer-Tiemann reaction
On treating phenol with chloroform in the presence of sodium hydroxide, we get ortho hydroxy
benzaldehyde (salicylic aldehyde).

5. Reaction of phenol with zinc dust

Phenol is converted to benzene on heating with zinc dust.

6. Oxidation
Phenols are slowly oxidised In the presence of air and dark condition to give coloured mixtures
containing quinones.

Some Commercially Important Alcohols

1. Methanol (CH3OH) or (wood spirit) Methanol is produced by catalytic hydrogenation of carbon monoxide at
high pressure and temperature and in the presence of ZnO – Cr2O3 catalyst.

It is highly poisonous in nature. (Ingestion of even small quantities of methanol can cause blindness and
large quantities causes even death.) Methanol is used as a solvent in paints, varnishes and chiefly for
making formaldehyde.

2. Ethanol (C2H5OH)
Ethanol is obtained commercially by fermentation.
 Ethers
Preparation Ethers
1. By dehydration of alcohols: Alcohols undergo dehydration in the presence of protic acids (H2SO4,
H3PO4) to give ethers.

2. Williamson synthesis
Alkyl halide is reacted with sodium alkoxide to give ethers.

Physical Properties
1. Boiling Point
Boiling point of alcohols are higher than that of ethers why? Boiling point of alcohols are higher than
that of ethers is due to the presence of hydrogen bonding in alcohols.

Chemical Reactions
1. Cleavage of C–O bond in ethers
When ethers are treated with hydrogen halides, we get alkyl halides and alcohol
2. Electrophilic substitution
(i) Halogenation
Anisole undergoes bromination with bromine in ethanoic acid to give o-bromo anisole and p-bromo
anisole.

(ii) Friedel-Crafts reaction

Anisole undergoes Friedel-Crafts reaction by alkyl halide and acyl halide in the presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride.

(iv) Nitration

Anisole reacts with a mixture of concentrated sulphuric and nitric acids to yield a mixture of ortho and para nitro
anisole.
ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids contain carbonyl group (C=O). so they are known
as carbonyl compound. Carbonyl carbon atom is sp2 hybridised. It forms three sigma (σ)
bonds and one pi (π) bond.C=O double bond is polarised due to higher electronegativity of
oxygen relative to carbon. High polarity of the carbonyl group is explained on the basis of
resonance

Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones

1. By oxidation of alcohols: Primary alcohols on oxidation with mild oxidising agents like
CrO3 to give aldehydes while secondary alcohols give ketones.
R-CH2OH (primary alcohol) + [O] R-CHO (aldehyde)

2. By dehydrogenation of alcohols: Alcohols when heated with Cu catalyst at 573K, Primary

alcohols give aldehydes, secondary alcohols give ketones.
R-CH2OH (primary alcohol) + Cu/573 K R-CHO (aldehyde)

3. Preparation of Aldehydes from acyl chloride:

Rosenmund’s Reduction: Acid chlorides react with hydrogen in presence of Pd supported on
BaSO we get aldehydes.
Pd/BaSO4
R-COCl (acid chloride) + H2 R-CHO (aldehyde) + HCl

Preparation of Aromatic aldehydes:

1. By oxidation of methylbenzene: Methyl benzenes when oxidised using mild oxidising

agents like Chromyl chloride (CrO2Cl2 ) or chromic oxide (CrO3 ) in acetic anhydride, we get
benzaldehyde.

2. Etard reaction: Chromyl chloride oxidises methyl group to a chromium complex, which
on hydrolysis gives corresponding benzaldehyde.

3. By Gatterman – Koch reaction: When benzene is treated with carbon monoxide and
hydrogen
chloride in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride , we get benzaldehyde.

4. Preparation of Ketones:
Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction: When benzene or substituted benzene is treated with acid
chloride (R-COCl) in the presence of anhydrous aluminium chloride, we get a ketone.

Chemical reactions

1) Reduction to alcohols: When reduced using sodium borohydride (NaBH4 ) or lithium

aluminium hydride (LiAlH4 ) or H2 in presence of Ni, Pd or Pt catalyst (Catalytic
hydrogenation), aldehydes give primary alcohols, while ketones give secondary alcohols.
2) Reduction to Hydrocarbons:
a) Clemmensen reduction: Aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to alkanes on treatment
with zinc amalgam and concentrated hydrochloric acid. During this reaction,
the carbonyl group is reduced to -CH2 - (methylene) group.
b)Wolff-Kishner reduction: Carbonyl group can be reduced to methylene group, by treating
with hydrazine followed by heating with sodium or potassium hydroxide in high boiling
solvent like ethylene glycol.

3) Oxidation:
a)Aldehydes are easily oxidised to carboxylic acids on treatment with oxidising agents like
nitric acid. Mild oxidising agents like CrO3 , Tollens’ reagent and Fehlings’ reagent can also
oxidise aldehydes. [O]
CH3 -CHO (aldehyde) CH3 -COOH (carboxylic acid)
Ketones when oxidised using strong oxidising agents and at high temperatures, we get a
mixture of carboxylic acids having lesser number of carbon atoms.

b) Tollens’ test: Tollen’s reagent is freshly prepared ammoniacal Silver nitrate. Tollens’
reagent, give a silver mirror with aldehydes.
c) Fehling’s test: Fehling reagent is a mixture of Fehling solution A and Fehling solution B.
Fehling solution A is aqueous copper sulphate and Fehling solution B is alkaline sodium
potassium tartarate (Rochelle salt). On heating with Fehling’s reagent, aldehyde gives a
reddish brown precipitate of cuprous oxide (Cu2O). Aromatic aldehydes do not give this test.

4) Aldol condensation Reaction:

Aldehydes and ketones having at least one α-hydrogen atom when treated with dilute alkali,
we get β-hydroxy aldehydes (aldol) or β-hydroxy ketones (ketol) respectively.

5) Cannizzaro Reaction:
Aldehydes having no α-hydrogen atom (e.g. HCHO, C6H5 -CHO, CCl3 -CHO etc), when
treated with Conc. Alkali (NaOH or KOH) undergo self oxidation and reduction
(disproportionation) to form one molecule of the alcohol and one molecule of carboxylic acid
salt. This reaction is called Cannizzaro reaction.

2 HCHO + Conc. KOH CH3-OH + H-COOK

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Preparation of Carboxylic acids:

1. From aldehydes: Aldehydes on oxidation with mild oxidising agents like CrO 3 or Tollen’s
reagent to give carboxylic acids.
[O]
CH3 -CHO (aldehyde) CH3 -COOH (carboxylic acid)
2. From alkylbenzenes:
Aromatic carboxylic acids can be prepared by vigorous oxidation of alkyl benzenes with
chromic acid. The entire side chain is oxidised to the carboxyl group.

Chemical Reactions:

A) Reactions Involving Cleavage of O–H Bond:

1. Acidity: Carboxylic acids react with metals and liberate hydrogen gas.
2 R-COOH + 2 Na 2 R-COONa + H2
2. Reaction with sodium carbonates and bicarbonates :
give brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide
R-COOH + NaHCO3 R-COONa + H2O + CO2
Due to the formation of hydronium ion in water, carboxylic acids are acidic in nature.
The acidity of a substance is expressed in terms of pKa value, greater the value of Ka,
smaller will be pKa and stronger will be the acid.

Comparison of acidic character:

Carboxylic acids are weaker than mineral acids, but they are stronger acids than other organic
compounds like alcohols and many simple phenols. The carboxylate ion formed is stabilised
by equivalent resonance structures. Therefore carboxylate ion is more stable than phenoxide
ion so it is more acidic.

Effect of substituents on the acidity of carboxylic acids:

Electron withdrawing groups increase the acidity. But electron donating groups decrease the
acidity.

B) Reactions Involving Cleavage of C–OH Bond

1. Reaction with ammonia: Carboxylic acids react with ammonia to give ammonium salts
which on further heating at high temperature give amides.

2. Kolbe’s electrolysis: An aqueous solution of potassium salt of carboxylic acid is

electrolysed, we get alkanes having twice the number of carbon atoms that present in the alkyl
group of the acid. Thisreaction is known as Kolbe electrolysis.
electrolysis
2 CH3 -COOH + 2H2O CH3 -CH3 + 2KOH + H2 +
2CO2

C) Substitution Reactions in the Hydrocarbon Part:

1. Halogenation [HVZ Reaction]: Carboxylic acids having α-hydrogen atom, when treated
with halogen in the presence of red phosphorus, we get α-halocarboxylic acids. This reaction
is known as Hell-Volhard-Zelinsky (HVZ) reaction.
2. Electrophilic substitution reactions: The –COOH group is a deactivating group and meta-
directing. So on electrophilic substitution reactions, we get metaderivatives.

A) Nitration: Benzoic acids in presence of conc. Nitric acid/Conc. Sulphuric acid gives m-
Nitrobenzoic acid.

B) Bromination: Benzoic acids in presence of Br2 /FeBr3 gives m-Bromobenzoic acid.

Note : Carboxylic acids do not undergo Friedel-Crafts reactions because the carboxyl group is
deactivating and the catalyst aluminium chloride (Lewis acid) gets bonded to the carboxyl
group to form salts.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1) Explain the following reactions:
a) Rosenmund reduction b)Gatterman–Koch c) Clemmensen reduction d) Aldol condensation.
Hint: a) Acid chlorides with H2 , b) benzene treat with CO, c) aldehydes and ketones with
Zn/Hg and HCl, d) aldehydes and ketones having α-hydrogen atom with dilute alkali
2) Explain the acidity of carboxylic acids.
Hint: carboxylic acids are acidic
3) What is Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction?
Hint: benzene with acid chloride/anhydrous aluminium chloride
4) What are the products on the oxidation of primary alcohols and secondary alcohols?
Hint: Primary gives aldehydes, secondary gives ketones.
5) Aromatic aldehydes undergo electrophilic substitution reactions. Write the nitration
reaction of benzaldehyde with chemical equation.
Hint:

6) How would you account for the followings :

a) Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones towards nucleophilic addition reaction.
b) Boiling point of aldehydes are lower than alcohols.
c) Addition reaction of sodium hydrogen sulphite is useful for the separation and purification
of aldehydes.
Hint: a) aldehydes have only one electron-donating group bonded to the carbonyl carbon.
This makes aldehydes more electrophilic than ketones.
b)due to absence of intermolecular H–bonding in aldehydes and ketones
c) Aldehydes and Ketones form addition compounds with NaHSO3 whereas impurities do
not. On hydrolysis we get pure aldehydes and Ketones back.
7) Choose the IUPAC name of the compound (CH3)2CH-COOH.
(i)Butanoic acid (ii) Ethanoic acid (iii) 2-Methylpropanoic acid (iv) Propanoic acid
Hint: 2-Methylpropanoic acid
8) a) Write a test to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
b) How will you prepare benzaldehyde by Etard's reaction?
Hint: refer above notes
 13.AMINES

Physical Properties

⚫ Lower aliphatic amines are soluble in water because they can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules.
⚫ the order of boiling points of isomeric amines is as follows Primary > Secondary > Tertiary
amines.

5. Reaction with nitrous acid

(a) Primary aliphatic amines react with nitrous acid to form aliphatic diazonium salts which being
unstable, liberate nitrogen gas to form alcohols.

(b) Aromatic amines react with nitrous acid at low temperatures (273-278 K) to form diazonium
salts.
6 Hinsberg's Test (Reaction with aryl sulphonyl chloride)

7. ELECTROPHILIC SUSBSTITUTION REACTION

(a) Bromination

Aniline reacts with bromine water at room temperature to give a white precipitate of 2,4,6-tribromoaniline.
(b) Nitration

(c) Sulphonation
Aniline reacts with concentrated sulphuric acid to form p-aminobenzene sulphonic acid, commonly known
as sulphanilic acid.

DIAZONIUM SALTS
Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts Benzene diazonium chloride is prepared by the reaction
of aniline with nitrous acid at 273-278K.
REPLACEMENT REACTION
 CHAPTER14 BIOMOLECULES
CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are defined as polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or the compounds, which produce such
units on hydrolysis.
CLASSIFICATION OF CARBOHYDRATES: Based on their behaviour towards hydrolysis, carbohydrates
are classified in to three.
1. MONOSACCHARIDES: These carbohydrates cannot be hydrolysed in to simpler polyhydroxy
aldehydes or ketones. E.g. glucose, fructose etc.
2. OLIGOSACCHARIDES: These carbohydrates will give 2 to 10 monosaccharides on hydrolysis. E.g.
Sucrose, Maltose and Lactose.

3. POLYSACCHARIDES: The carbohydrates that give very large number of monosaccharides on

hydrolysis. E.g. Starch, Cellulose and Glycogen etc.
Based on their reducing nature, carbohydrates are of two types reducing sugar and non-reducing sugar.
Carbohydrates that contain free aldehydic or ketonic group are called reducing sugars. All
monosaccharides are reducing sugars. Disaccharides like maltose and lactose are reducing, while sucrose
is non-reducing.
GLUCOSE
Preparation:-
a) From Sucrose (Cane sugar): If sucrose is boiled with dil.HCl or H2SO4, glucose is formed.
C12 H22 O11 + H2 O ⟶ C6 H12 O6 + C6 H12 O6

REACTIONS OF GLUCOSE

REACT WITH PRODUCT

HI n-hexane
HCN Cyanohydrin
NH2OH Oxime
Bromine water Gluconic acid
Acetic anhydride Glucose pent acetate
Conc.HNO3 Saccharic acid

DISACCHARIDES
Here two Monosaccharides are linked through c-o-c linkage (glycosidic linkage).
Sl Sugar Reducing Mono saccharides Glycosidic linkage
No. character
1 Sucrose Non α - D - glucose +  - D - fructose C1 of α-glucose and C2 of -fructose
reducing
2 Maltose Reducing α - D - glucose + α - D - glucose C1 of α-glucose and C4 of α-glucose

3 Lactose Reducing  - D - glucose +  - D - C1 of galactose and C4 of glucose

galactose
INVERSION OF SUGAR: Cane sugar is Sucrose, which hydrolysis gives an equimolar mixture of
D(+)glucose and D(-)fructose.

Sucrose is dextrorotatory, but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose and laevorotatory fructose. But
the mixture of glucose and fructose as a whole is laevorotatory. So the process is called inversion of cane
sugar and the product formed is Invert sugar.

POLYSACCHARIDES
Sl Sugar Reducing Mono saccharides Glycosidic linkage between
No. character
1 Starch Non α - D - glucose It has two components – Amylose and
reducing Amylopectine.
1. AMYLOSE: It is linear polymer
of α-D-glucose (C1-C4)
2. AMYLOPECTINE: It is a
branched chain polymer of α-D-
glucose (C1-C4 & C1-C6)
2 Cellulose Non β- D - glucose C1 of one glucose and C4 of another
reducing glucose
3 Glycogen Non α - D - glucose Similar to amylopectin
reducing
IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATES
1) As storage molecules as starch in plants and glycogen in animals.
2) Cell wall of bacteria and plants are made up of cellulose.
3) Used as raw materials for industries like textiles, paper etc.
4) Carbohydrates in the form of wood is used for making furniture.
PROTEINS
They are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
CLASSIFICATION OF AMINO ACIDS:
Amino acids are classified in to two,
A. ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: These are amino acids, which should get through diet. E.g.
Lysine, leucine, isoleucine etc.
B. NON ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS: These are amino acids, which one synthesised by a body.
E.g. Alanine, glycine, glutamic acid etc.

Based on the relative number of –COOH and –NH2 groups, amino acids are classified in to three.
1) ACIDIC AMINO ACID: Here the number of –COOH group is more than that of –NH2 group. E.g.
Aspartic acid, glutamic acid.
2) BASIC AMINO ACID: Here the number of –NH2 group is more than that of –COOH group. E.g.
Lysine, Histidine.
3) NEUTRAL AMINO ACID: Here the number of –NH2 and –COOH group is same. E.g. Glycine.
 FORMATION OF ZWITTER ION: Since it contains acidic –COOH and basic –NH2, it can form Zwitter
ion.
E.g. NH2 − CH2 − COOH ⇌ NH3+ − CH2 − COO−

PEPTIDE LINKAGE
In proteins, amino acids are linked through –CONH linkage called peptide linkage.
CLASSIFICATION OF PROTEINS
Based on the shape of protein, they are classified in to two,
1) FIBROUS PROTEINS: These are fibre like structure and here α-helixes run parallel and are held
together by Hydrogen bonds. These are water insoluble.
E.g. Keratin, Myosin.
2) GLOBULAR PROTEINS: These are spherical shaped and here the polypeptide chain coils. These
are water soluble.
E.g. Insulin, Albumin.
LEVELS OF PROTEIN STRUCTURE
10 STRUCTURE: It describes the sequence of amino acids.
20 STRUCTURE: It is the shape in which a long poly peptide chain can exist. It is of two types,
a) α-helix: A protein thread is folded in the form of helix. It is maintained by H-bonds. It has only right
hand helices.
b) -pleated sheet: Here polypeptide chains lie side by side in zig-zag manner.
30 STRUCTURE: Long protein chains folded extensively upon itself. It is maintained by H-bond, Van der
Waals force and electrostatic force of attraction. It gives rise to fibrous and globular shape.
40 STRUCTURE: Some proteins are assembly of more than one polypeptide or sub units. There are held
together by hydrophobic interaction.

DENATURATION OF PROTEIN
When a protein in its native form is subjected to change in pH or change in temperature, it loses its
biological activity. It is denaturation of protein.
During denaturation, its 20 and 30 structure are destroyed, but its 10 structure remain intact.
E.g. boiling of egg, curdling of milk etc.
VITAMINS: Organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological
functions for normal maintenance of optimum growth and health of organism. They are designated by
alphabets A, B, C & D etc.
Vitamins are mainly classified into two,
1. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS: These are soluble in fat and oils, but isoluble in H2O. E.g.
Vitamins A, D, E, K…
2. WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS: These are soluble in water.
E.g. Vitamins B & C.
Water soluble vitamins must be regularly supplied in the diet, because they are readily excreted in
the urine.
Important vitamins and their deficiency disease are given below,

NAME OF VITAMINS DEFICIENCY DISEASE

Vitamin – A Xerophthalmia, Night blindness
Vitamin – B1 Beri beri
Vitamin – B2 Chielosis
Vitamin – B6 Convulsions
Vitamin – B12 Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin – C Scurvy
Vitamin – D Rickets
Vitamin – E Increases fragility of RBC & muscular weakness
Vitamin – K Increased blood clotting time

NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides, they are also known as poly nucleotides. It is of two types, DNA
and RNA.
Nucleic acids contain a pentose sugar, phosphoric acid and nitrogen bases. DNA contains pentose sugar, -
D-2-deoxy ribose, nitrogen bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine. RNA contains pentose sugar -
D-ribose and nitrogen bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and uracil.
In Nucleic acids, pentose sugar combines with Nitrogen bases through their 1 st carbon to form Nucleoside.
These nucleosides on combination with H3PO4 through 5th carbon of nucleoside gives nucleotides. These
Nucleotides on joining through phosphodiester linkage to give Nucleic acids.
RNA molecules are of three types and they perform different functions. They are m-RNA, r-RNA and t-
RNA.
James Watson and Francis crick gave a double strand helix structure for DNA. Two nucleic acid chains are
wound about each other and are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases. Here Adenine
forms hydrogen bonds with thymine, whereas cytosine forms hydrogen bonds with guanine.
DNA Finger Printing
It is used for,
a) Identification of criminals in forensic labs.
b) To determine the paternity of individual.
c) To identify dead bodies.
BIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS OF NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA is responsible for heredity and it is used as reserve for genetic information. Nucleic acids are involved
in protein synthesis.

SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Suggest a method for preparation of glucose?(answer: refer the notes)
2. Give two examples of disaccharides? Give the name of linkage of in polysaccharides?(answer:
refer the notes)
3. Give the names of products when glucose is treated with
 (a)HI (b) Conc.HNO3
4. Write the importance of carbohydrates?(answer: refer the notes)
5. Name the type of linkage in proteins?(answer: refer the notes)
6. Differentiate between fibrous and globular proteins?(answer: refer the notes)
7. What is denaturation of protein? Give two examples?(answer: refer the notes)
8. Give an example of each of fat soluble and water soluble vitamin?(answer: refer the notes)
9. Name the type of linkage in nucleic acids?(answer: refer the notes)
10. Differentiate between DNA & RNA (answer: refer the notes)