Vector It is a quantity which has both magnitude and direction. Position Vector For a point P(x, y, z) in 3-D coordinate system, OP or Fis the position vector with origin O as initial point. Magnitude of OP =|OP| =f&+ y° +2 P(x y, z)
O(0, 0,0)
Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios
0 Position vector OP makes angle a, Band ywith x, yand zaxes. 2 cos a, cos Band cos y are the direction cosine of vector OP and denoted by I, m and n. 8 Direction cosines are unique for a given line 9Number proportional to direction cosines are called as direction ratios, denoted by a, b and c. P(x, y, z)
6 We also have P+ m² +n =1.
Types Of Vectors OZero Vector Vector with zero magnitude, denoted asõ 2 Unit Vector Vector whose magnitude is 1unit. Unit vector along is denoted as â 3 Cointial Vectors Two or more vectors with same initial point 4 Collinear Vectors Two or more vectors lying on the same or parallel lines. 5 Equal Vectors Two or more vectors with same magnitude and direction. ONegative Vectors Vector with same magnitude but opposite direction as that of the given vector. Addition Of Vectors Triangle Law Of Addition AC= AB +BC i.e AB + BC- ÁC= 0 AB + BC + CÀ=0 AB +BC +CA= AA Parallelogram Law Of Addition
OÀ + OB =0C i.e +b=t Properties Of Vector Addition +b=b+; commutative property ( +6)+=ã+ (b+); Associative property
O toppr Vector Algebra - Part Il Multiplication Of Scalar and Vector OMultiplication of scalar Awith vector is A. 2 a is collinear to vector . 3 Direction of d depends upon A. If is positive its direction is same as that of a. OIf is negative its direction is opposite to that of a. OMagnitude of A a =| ha| =|^|| a| Components Of Vectors For position vector OP of a point P(x, y, z), We have OP =xi+ yj +zk Where i, j and kare unit vectors along x, yand z-axes, and 7
P(x, y, z) zk
P.
xÉ, yj and zk are the components of vector OP along x, yand z- axes.
Vector Joining Two Points
.P(x, x, z)
Section Formula
Internal Division
f= mb+ nã m +n
External Division
m mb-nã m-n
Midpoint Formula toppr Vector Algebra - Part lII Scalar Product For vectors and b. It is denoted as .b= | |5| cos 0 Where is angle between aand b,0<0<I Properties Of Scalar Product 0.bis a scalar quantity. 8a.b= b.ã 2a.b=0 l b 9 a.(b+t) =.b + ä.c 10 ifa= a,i +aj +a,k 4a.b=-al |b| > 0= 180 and
Sjj=kk=1 b=b,i+ b,j+ b,k
then 6ij-jk=ki=0 .b= a,b,+ a,b, + ajb, .b 7 cos 0= 0 (h).b = A(a.b) = .(A.b)
Vector Product
For vectors and b it is defined as
xb= (a||5|sin 9 n Where is anangle between and b, 0 < 0sI and Dis the unit vector perpendicular to both and b such that , b and n form a ight handed system Properties Of Vector Product 0xbis a vector. 6xb=-bx 2 xb=0 a|| b 7 x (b+)=xb+xe ixi =jxj = kx k= 0 8A(xb) =(A) xb=äx (Ab) Oixj=jxk=i, kxi=j 9 ifå= a,i + a,i + a,k and 6=bi+bj + b,k then
äxb=| a, a, as b, b, b, S sin = | xb| |a|.|5| MaxwellI First Equation Maxwell's first equation is based on the Gauss law of electrostatic, which states that "when aclosed surface integralof electric flux density is always equal to charge enclosed over that surface"
Mathematically Gauss law can be
expressed as,
Over a closed surface, the product of the
electric flux density vector and surface integral is equal to the charge enclosed. 6 D. ds = Qenclosed' -(1)
Any closed systenm will have multiple
surfaces but asingle volume. Thus, the above surface integral can be converted into a volume integral by taking the divergence of the same vector. Thus, mathematically it is $D. ds = [f y.Ddi- (2) Thus, combining () and (2), we get Hi there! Got any ques tions? Ican help you... $D. ds = y. Ddi- - (2) Thus, combining () and (2), we get fv. Ddi = Qencloscd' -(3) SBYJU'S The kesnry Ap
++++t+++
Charges in a closed surface will be
distributed over its volume. Thus, the volume charge density can be defined as
pu = dQ du measured using c/m3
On rearranging,we get dQ = pvdu On integrating the above equation, we get
Q= pvdu-(4) The charge enclosed within a closed surface is given by volume charge density Over that volume.
Substituting (4) in (3) we get
JTv. Ddv = pvdv Canceling the volume integral on both the sides, we arrive at Maxwell's First Equation
’V.Ddu = pu
MaxwellSecond Equation Maxwell second equation is based on Gauss law on magnetostatics. Gauss law on magnetostatics states that "closed surface integral of magnetic flux density is always equalto total scalar magnetic flux enclosed within that surface ofany shape or size lying in any medium."
Mathematically it is expressed as - $B.ds Oenclosed -(1) Scalar Electric Scalar Magnetic Flux (y) Flux (o)
They are the
They are the circular imaginary lines magnetic field of force generated arou radiating inan outward current-carrying conductor. direction Acharge can be No source/sink SOurce or sink
Hence we canconclude that magnetic flux
cannot be enclosed within a closed surface of any shape.
$B. ds =0 -(2) Applying the Gauss divergence theorem to equation (2), we can convert it(surface integral) into volume integral by taking the divergence of the same vector.
’ $B. ds = [I y. Bdv- -(3)
Substituting equation (3) in (2) we get y.Bdu = 0 - (4) Here to satisfy the above equation either f du = 0 Or
V.B= 0 The volume of any body or object can never be zerO.
Thus, we arrive at Maxwell's second
equation.
V.B= 0 Where,
B= pH is the flux density.
’V.H=0 solonoidal vector is obtained when the divergence of a vector is zero. Irrotational vector is obtained when the cross product is zero]
MaxwellIThird Equation Statement: Time-varying magnetic field willalways produce an electric field. Maxwell's 3rd equation is derived from Faraday's laws of Electromagnetic Induction. It states that "Whenever there are n-turns of conducting coilin a closed path placed in a time-varying magnetic field, an alternatingelectromotive force gets induced in each coil." Lenz's law gives this. Which states, " An induced electromotive force always opposes the time-varying magnetic flux." When tWO coils with N number of turns, A primary coil and a Secondary coil. Th primary coil isconnected to an altern current source,and the secondary coil is Connected in a closed loop and is placed connected in a closed loop and is placed at a small distance from the primary coil. When an ACcurrent passes through the primary coil, an alternating electromotive force getsinduced in the secondary coil. See the figure below. Mathematically it is expressed as - Alternating emf, emfalt = -N dt -(1) Where,
N is the number of turns in a coil.
is the scalar magnetic flux.
The negative sign indicates that the
induced emf always opposes the time varying magnetic flux. Let N=1,
’ emfalt =do t (2)
Here, the scalar magnetic flux can be replaced by -
¢= [fB. da - (3) Substitute equation (3) in (2) emfalt = - B. ds Which is a partial differential equatio given by emfalt = | SB ds (4) emfalt = -(4) The alternating electromotive force induced in a coil is basically a closed path.
’ emfalt=fE.dl- - (5) Substituting equation (5) in (4) we get ’fEdl = - . d - -(6) The closed line integral can be converted into surface integral using Stoke's theorem. Which states that the "Closed line integral of any vector field is always equal to the surface integralof the curlof the same vector field"
f Edl = (vx).da -(7)
Substituting equation (7) in (6) we get SB ds St -(8 The surface integral can be canceled on both sides. Thus, we arrive at Maxwell's third equation
St
Hence, we can conclude that the time
varying magnetic field willalways prq an electric field.
Extended Maxwell's third equation of
Maxwell's third eauation for the static Extended Maxwell's third equation of Maxwel's third equation for the static magnetic field
Which states that the Static electric field
vector is an irrotationalvector. Static field implies the time-varying magnetic field is zero, SB
’Vx E=0 Hence it is an irrotational vector.
Maxwell's Fourth Equation
It is based on Ampere's circuit law. To understand MaXwell's fourth equation, it is crucial to understand Ampere's circuit law,
Consider a wire of a current-carrying
conductor with the current I. Since there is anelectric field, there has to be a magnetic field vector around it. Ampere's circuit law states that "The closed line integral of magnetic field vector is always equal to the total amount of scalar electric field enclosed within the path any shape", which means the curren flowing along the wire (which is a scalc quantity) is equalto the magnetic field 0s equal to the magnetic field vector (which is a vector quantity) Mathenmatically it can be written as -
fH. dl = Ienclosed(1) Any closed path of any shape or size will Occupy one surface area. Thus, LLH.S of equation (1) can be converted into surface integralusing Stoke's theorem, Which states that "Closed line integral of any vector field is always equal to the surface integral of the curl of the same vector field"
fÄ.dl = T(vx0). ds - (2)
Substituting equation(2) in (1) we get J(x).a+=londoset (3) Here,
T x H). dl is a vector quantity and
Toconvert this scalar quantity into th J= aN measured using (A/m²) Therefore, 7 Difjference in scalar electric field difference in vector surface area J= dI ds dI = J.da ’I= fJ. ds --(4) Thus,the scalar quantity is converted into vector quantity. Substituting equation(4) into (3) we get
’f(x &). dl = J. ds -(5)
In the above equation, R.H.S and LH.S both contain surface integral. Hence we can cancel it.
Thus, we arrive at Maxwell's fourth
equation
j=yx -(6)
We can conclude that the current density
vector is acurl of the static magnetic field vector.
On applying the time-varying
field (differentiating by time) we get -(7) Apply divergence on both sides of equation(6) v-(x) =vx The divergence of the curl of any vector willalways be zero.
v(vx) =0- - (8)
Thus, from equations (7) and(8) we can Thus, from equations (7) and(8) we can write that öpu
Which contradicts the continuity equation
for the time-varying fields. To overcome this dravwback Wwe add a general vector to the static field equation(6)
(vxi) =j+& 9) Applying divergence on both sides
v(7xi)=v.(J+&) The divergence of the curl of any vector willalways be zero. 0= y.J+y.G V.G=-v.J-(10) Substituting equation(6) in (10) we get V.G `pu Ot -(11) By Maxwell's first equation,
pu= . D Substituting the value of pv in equation (11) we get
V.G= Ñt -(12) Here,
is time varient and
V. is space variant and both are independent to each other. Thus, on rearranging equation (12) we get
v.G=Vt Thus cancelling the like terms we get G= D = Jp (13) Substituting them in
(vxÄ) =j+ This is an insulating current flowing in the dielectric medium between two conductors.
Hence maxwell's fourth equation will be
’(x ) =J+ Jp Or
»(x)=J+: St
Where,
Jp is Displacement current density.
We know that magnetic flux is equal to the product of the electric flux and permi = eÉ- -(14) substituting equation (14) in (13) we get s(cE) = Jp
1.Gauss Law Gauss law describes the nature of the electric field around electric charges. The law is expressed in terms of electric charge density and electric charge density.
VD=py The inverted triangle is called the divergence operator. The equations hold good at any point in space. When the electric charge exists any somewhere, the divergence of Dat that particular point is nonzero, else it is zero.
2. Gauss' Magnetism Law
You need to be familiar with Gauss Law for the electric field to understand this
equation.
VD=py VB=0 You can see that both the equations indicate the divergence of the field. The top equation states that the divergence of the electric flux density Dequals the volume of electric charge density. The second eaquation states the divergence of the Magnetic Flux Density (B) isnul.
3.Faraday's Law OB VxE= ôt
Faraday was a scientist whose experiment
setup led to Faraday's Law which is shown in the figure below. SBYJU'S fhe keamg Ap
Switch Ammeter
Battery
Magnetic Core
Byjus Cor
The experiment is not very complex. When
a battery is disconnected, no electric flows through the wire. Hence, no magnetic flux is induced in the iron (Magnetic Core). The iron acts like a (Magnetic Core). The iron acts likea magnetic field that flows easily in a magnetic material. The purpose of the core is to form a path for the flow of magnetic flux.
Ampere's Law OD VxH= -+J ot The law shows the relationship between the flow of electric current and the
magnetic field around it. Suppose the wire
carriesa current I, the current produces a magnetic field that surrounds the wire.
Video on Maxwell's Equations
You will learn about the four Maxwell's equation with help of animations in the video.
The Leaming App JEF
IEE CONCE Etromagnetic Wa Maxwell's 3Free Live classes Worth 999 with BYJU'S Classes Bootca. X DEFINITION
Poynting Vector Definition: Poynting vector is defined as S =x& where E is the electric field vector and H is the magnetic field vector. it represents the directional energy flux density (rate of energy flux per unit area) of an electromagnetic field.
Example: In a wave if Eo =100Vm1. Then find the
magnitude of Poynting vector.
Solution: E EB E2 104 B= C Clo 3x 108 x 4T x 10-7 26.5Wm2
REVISE WITHCONCEPTS
Nature of EM Waves Example Definitions " Formulaes
LEARN WITH VIDEOS
Boundary conditions at interfaces between different media Now we think a interface which is the boundary medium 1 and 2 as shown in Fig.1. From Gauss law, we can get the following for the Gauss box which include the interface inside the box, (38)
In the limit that the Gauss box is very thin
(39)
where vector . means the unit vector
pointing from media 1 to 2. n [D, - D;] =Qb/S = Og (40)
