Homeostasis

The maintenance or regulation of a fairly constant internal environment of an organism. The internal
environment of an organism is made up of fluids such as blood lymph and intercellular fluid. Regulating
the solute concentration of this fluids ensure the proper functioning of the body.

Homeostasis or osmoregulation in amoeba

Unicellular organisms such as amoeba possess contractile vacuole which enables them to carry out
osmoregulation or homeostasis. The cell content of these animals is hypertonic to the external medium,
hence water enters them by osmosis into the cytoplasm and then into the contractile vacuole. In order
to prevent the cell from being over turgid the contractile vacuole discharges its content from time-to-
time thereby maintaining water balance within the organism.

Homeostasis in higher animals

Homeostasis is done by regulating the amount of water in the body, the solute concentration of gases,
sugar, protein and lipids. It also involves regulating the body temperature for optimum performance. 4
organs of the body work together in a coordinated manner to achieve homeostasis. They include

1. The kidney

It regulates water content of the body as well as salt and pH balance

2. The liver

It regulates the amount of food substances such a as carbohydrates, protein and lipids

3. The skin

It regulates the body temperature

4. The brain

It oversees all the homeostatic processes

The kidney

A. Osmoregulation

The kidney is regarded as the major osmoregulatory organ of the body. Osmoregulation is the regulation
or maintenance of the water content of the body. The main function of the kidney is urine formation.
There are three stages of urine formation ultrafiltration, selective reabsorption and hormonal secretion
or control

The kidney regulates the amount of water in urine at the third and final stage of urine formation. The
amount of water pressure in the blood is monitored by osmoreceptors found in the hypothalamus of the
brain . When blood is too concentrated (high osmotic pressure) the osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
detects this and the hypothalamus turn signals to the pituitary gland of the brain to release antidiuretic
hormone. The ADH is transported by blood to the distal convoluted tubule of nephrons . At the distal
convoluted tubule the ADH increases the permeability of the walls so that more water can be withdrawn
from urine to dilute the concentrated blood , as a result, small amount of concentrated urine is
produced.

Factors that can increase the osmotic pressure of the blood includes:

 Eating too much salt

 Strenuous exercises
 Medication and drugs
 Taking too little water and meals
 Hot weather

On the other hand, when osmotic pressure of the blood is low (too much water in the blood) the
osmoreceptors signals the pituitary gland to stop the production of ADH. Therefore water is not
withdrawn from urine and large quantity of dilute urine is produced

B. pH balance

The kidney maintains the pH of the body by regulating the acid/base content of the blood. This is done
during the second stage of urine formation (selective reabsorption). When the body fluid becomes
acidic, more acidic ions (cations) are excreted with the urine . Also when the body fluids tends to be
more alkaline, more basic ions(anions) are excreted

C. Salt balance

The kidney also regulates the salt content of the blood during selective reabsorption. If certain salts are
too much in the blood, they are not selectively reabsorbed. Certain salts or ions are actively transported
against concentration gradient e. g sodium ions

Kidney diseases

The kidney may become damaged and unable to perform it’s function. The following are the major
kidney diseases

1. Nephritis

The inflammation of the kidney tubules or urinary tubules such that materials can easily pass through
the glomeruli and id evident when red blood cells is a major content of the urine. Nephritis may be
caused by wandering bacteria

Effects

o Inflammation of the kidney

o Presence of amino acids in urine
o Weakness of the body
o Fever
o Pains.

Remedy

 Use of dialysis – an artificial kidney can be adopted to take over the work of the normal kidney
 Kidney transplant - the diseased kidney can be replaced with a healthy one
  Use of antibiotics - antibiotics can be used especially if the disease is caused by bacteria

2. Diuresis

The passage of large quantity of urine. There are two types of diuresis:

 Water diuresis

This is not a clinical problem. It occurs when an individual takes a large quantity of water or fluid meals

 Diuresis in diabetes

Diabetic patients lack the necessary hormones (insulin) to convert excess glucose to glycogen. The
excess glycogen is excreted with urine. This makes the urine to be too concentrated. Water is withdrawn
from the blood to dilute the concentrated urine. The patient therefore urinates often.

Effects

o It leads to excretion of large amount of urine

o Diuresis leads to loss of weight
o It leads to emaciation
o There is high thirst for a lot of water

Remedy

 Surgical operation should be performed on the patient

 Drugs such …….as should be administered to get rid of excess water in the body

3. Oedema

Also known as dropsy is a condition in which the cells of the Bowman capsules are unable to absorb
water from the blood in the tubules. As a result a lot of water is retained in the blood or tissue.

Effects

o It leads to swelling in faces and ankle

o It causes sluggishness
o It leads to abdominal pain
o There is constant weakness or fatigue

Remedy

 The patient should seek medical treatment from specialist doctor

 There should be reduction in the intake of water
 Kidney transplant can be performed if the condition is critical

4. Kidney stones

Kidney stones are caused by some diseased growths within the tubules. These diseased growths may
narrow urine passage thus reducing free flow of urine. In most cases the diseased growth may block the
urine passages making the removal of urine extremely difficult
Effects

o It obstructs the passage of urine

o Pain is experienced on passing out urine
o Severe abdominal pain is experienced
o It leads to high blood pressure, fever, chills, blood in urine

Remedy

 Surgery called nephrectomy can be performed. This involves the opening up of the kidney to
remove the stones
 Patients should avoid excess intake of calcium
 A lot of water should be taken
 There should be reduction in protein intake

Kidney dialysis

A procedure to remove excess waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidney stops
working properly. It often involves diverting blood to a machine to be cleaned. Normally the kidney
filters the blood removing harmful waste products and excess fluids and turning these into… …

The liver

The liver is responsible for maintaining the food soluble concentration of the blood after digestion of
food and absorption of food by the villi, The blood capillaries rejoin to form hepatic portal vein which
carries digested food from small intestine into to the liver. The liver is also supplied by hepatic artery
bringing oxygen to the liver.

Assignment

Diagram of the liver

The liver regulates the food content of the blood in three ways

Carbohydrate metabolism

Protein metabolism

Lipids metabolism

Carbohydrate metabolism

The liver ensures that there are no little or too much sugar in the blood. it converts excess sugar to
glycogen in the presence of insulin. The glycogen is stored in the liver cells and as well as muscle cells for
future use. Note that insulin is produced by the pancreas. The liver also converts glycogen back to
glucose in the presence of glycogen when the glucose content of the blood is too low . Glycogen is also
produced by the pancreas. Note that the average glucose level of the blood is 90mg/100ml of blood

Protein metabolism

The liver regulate the amount of protein in the blood by maintaining the amino acid level of the blood.
Amino acids required for growth, repair of one worn out tissues, synthesis of hormones, enzymes and
other plasma proteins are released in the bloodstream. The liver then destroys the excess amino acids.
This is known as deamination. Deamination is the removal of amino acids and its conversion so urea.
The urea is released into the blood and taken to the kidney for removal. They keno group of the amino
acid can be converted to other useful materials such as fat, pyruvic or glucose or glycogen

Lipids metabolism

The liver also removes lipids from the blood, converts them to glucose and oxidizes them to release
energy during aerobic respiration

Functions of the liver

1. Detoxification: The liver can also convert poisonous and toxin materials such as drugs, alcohol,
etc. in the body into harmless substances which are later excreted.
2. Production of bile: The liver is the organ known to produce or synthesize the bile while the gall
bladder stores the bile. The bile formed is transported to the duodenum via the bile duct. The
bile aids the emulsification of fats which enhance its digestion and absorption
3. Production of heat: The activities of the liver generate heat which helps to maintain the body
temperature
4. Formation of red blood cells: In the foetus (embryo), the liver forms the red blood
cells(erythrocytes) but in adults the marrow of the long bones form the red blood cells.
5. Manufacture of essential proteins:The liver manufactures most of the essential blood proteins
like fibrinogen prothrombin, globulins etc. These proteins play an important role in the clotting
of blood.

Diseases of the liver

 Diabetes mellitus:

This disease is caused as a result of the inability of the liver cells to convert excess glucose in the blood
to glycogen. This is as a result of the failure of the pancreas to produce a hormone called insulin.
Consequently, excess sugar is left in the blood and lost through urine.

Effects of Diabetes Mellitus

o It results in continuous dehydration.

o It may cause exhaustion or muscular weakness.
o It may lead to blurred vision.
o It also leads to loss of weight.

Remedy

 Drugs like Diabinese should be used.

 There must be regular doses of insulin injection intravenously throughout life.
 Carbohydrate-rich food must be avoided.

 Infective hepatitis:
This is the inflammation of the liver which may be due to viral infection or toxic substances like poison
and drugs. As a result of this, the liver is unable to store or reconvert already stored glycogen into
glucose.

Effects of Infective Hepatitis

o It leads to loss of appetite.

o It causes severe headache and nausea.
o It may lead to yellow colouring of the eyes and urine
o It results in general weakness of the body.

Remedy

o Drugs must be administered.

o Patient should be placed on special diet.
o After treatment, alcoholic drinks must be avoided.

 Gall Stones:

Gall stones are hard objects which are formed in the bile duct and block the passage of the bile. This
condition is caused as a result of the precipitation of cholesterol in the gall bladder or bile duct. This
blockage then leads to obstructive jaundice in which the skin (in light complexion people) acquires a
characteristically yellow appearance due to retention of bile pigment (bilirubin) in the blood.

Effects of Gall Stones

 Gall stones lead to yellowing of the skin and eyes.

 It causes general weakness of the body.
 It results in inability to digest fats and oil properly.

Remedy

o Drugs must be effectively administered.

o The stones may be dissolved by oral feeding on a bile acid.
o Surgical operation can be performed to remove the stones.

 Cancer of the Liver:

This is a distorted form of production of liver cells. In other words it leads to the outgrowth or
uncontrollable swelling of cells which do not retain the normal function of the tissue in which they arise.
This continuous outgrowth eventually will prevent the liver from performing its normal role.

Effects

 It leads to general weakness of the body

 The body is exhausted.
 It can lead to death.

Remedy
  Surgery can be done if detected early in life.
 The cancer can be destroyed by the use of radiation (radiology) or chemotherapy.
 Liver transplant may be carried out.

 Cirrhosis of the liver

This is a serious liver disease in which the damaged liver cells become replaced by dead and useless
fibrous tissue. As a result of this, the liver feels very firm and irregular, Cirrhosis may be caused by
excessive drinking of alcohol over a long period of time or by hepatitis.

Effects of Cirrhosis

 It results in general weakness of the body.

 It leads to loss of appetite.
 It can lead to death.

Remedy

 Patient should avoid alcoholic drinks.

 Surgery may be done on the patient
 Transplanting of the liver may be carried out.

The Skin

The skin is the most extensive organ in the body because it covers the entire body. The only homeostatic
function of the skin is temperature regulation. In order to understand this, the structure of the
components of the skin and their functions must be well understood

Assignment

Diagram of the longitudinal section through a mammalian skin

Structure of the mammalian skin

The skin is made up of 2 main layers namely:

Epidermis

Dermis

1. Epidermis

The outermost layer of the skin and it is also made up of 3 layers

I. Horny/cornified layer
II. Granular layer
III. Germinative /malphighian layer
I. Horny/cornified layer

The outermost layer consistent of dead celated cells. This layer is impregnated with protein keratin
which makes the layer tough, flexible and waterproof. The layer varies in the thickness depending on the
part of the body. The cells in the cornified layer are constantly being worn out and replaced by cells
from the layers below.

II. Granular layer

The layer consists of living cells. The cells move upwards towards the surface so as to replace the horny
layer. While moving upward they accumulate keratin and become flattened and die. Therefore
becoming the horny layer.

III. Malphighian layer

Also known as the germinative layer. It is the region of active cell division. The actively dividing cells
keep moving up to the granular layer and eventually to the horny layer. The layer consists of melanin, a
pigment which gives the skin it’s characteristics colour. The higher the concentration of melanin, the
darker the skin and vice versa. The malphighian layer is thrown into many folds sometimes penetrating
deep into the dermis to form hair follicles and sebaceous glands. The cells in the malphighian layer
obtain nutrients through diffusion and active transport from the blood capillaries in the dermis I. e
where there is no blood in the epidermis

2. Dermis

The second layer of the skin. It is made up of collective tissues, blood capillaries, hair follicles, sweat
glands, sensory receptors/nerve endings, sebaceous glands and adipose tissue (fat cells)

I. Blood capillaries

These supply oxygen and nutrient to the skin cells and other also remove metabolic waste from
themselves. Follicles and sweat glands are closely associated with blood capillaries.

II. Hair follicles

These are formed by infoldings of the malphighian layer. The malphighian cells at the base of the pit
divides severally to form a long cylindrical hair. Erector muscle is attached to each hair follicle. When the
erector muscle contracts it pulls the hair to an upright position and when it relaxes the hair lies flat on
the surfaces of the skin. There are also sensory receptors at the base of the hair follicle which respond
when the hair is touched

III. Sebaceous glands

A gland that secretes only substances known as sebum into the hair follicles. Sebum is antiseptic in
nature, it also lubricates the hair and skin and makes the skin supple

IV. Sweat glands

These are curled structures found in the dermis. They continue as tube through malphighian and
granular layer (sweat duct) and finally open to the external as sweat pore. Blood capillaries are closely
associated with each sweat gland. Sweat consisting of water, small amount of urea and salt diffuses
from the blood capillaries into the sweat gland. The sweat moves from the sweat duct and finally out of
the body through the sweat pore.

V. Sensory nerve endings

The skin is also a sense organ. It contains sensory cells which can receive stimuli from external
surroundings and send them to the appropriate parts of the body

VI. Sub cutaneous fat

Below the dermis is a layer of connective tissue which contains variable number of fat cell. This is the
sub cutaneous fatty (adipose) tissue. It acts as a long term food store as well as an insulating layer that
prevents heat loss from the body.

Functions of the skin

1. Protection:

The skin protects the body against entrance by microbes, mechanical injuries., ultra-violet rays of the
sunlight and desiccation by acting as waterproof. The pigment, melanin absorbs ultra-violet rays from
the sun which is harmful to the body.

2. Excretion:

The skin excretes excess water, mineral salts and some nitrogenous wastes through the sweat glands as
sweat

3. Sensitivity:

The skin is sensitive to the environment through the specialized sensory nerve endings scattered in the
dermis. The skin is sensitive to such stimuli as changes in temperature, pressure, pain and cold.

4. Production of vitamin D:

The skin is able to manufacture vitamin D by using infra-red rays from the sunlight.

5. Production of milk:

The mammary glands in female animals that are modification of the skin produce milk which are used to
feed the young ones.

6. Storage of food:

Fats are stored under the dermis of mammals. Fats so stored form and insulating layer.

7. Regulation of body temperature:

Animals are able to regulate their body temperature in their various habitats or environment. Based on
body temperature, vertebrates are grouped into two categories:

I. Homoiothermic animals:

These are animals whose body temperature remain constant regardless of the changes in the
temperature of their external environment. Examples of homoiothermic animals are mammals and aves.
They are also known as warm blooded animals.

II. Poikilothermic Animals:

These are animals whose body temperature fluctuates. Amphibians and reptiles are examples of
poikilotherms. They are also known as cold blooded animals.

Temperature regulation in mammals

Mammals are homotherms I. e their body temperature remain constant e. g the optimum body
temperature of man is 36.7°c but it can vary between 35.8°c and 37.7°c. Extreme cold and extreme heat
can lead to death. The thermoreceptors of the skin monitors the environmental temperature of the
blood flowing through it. Within the hypothalamus is a temperature regulatory centre with two regions

I. Heat gain center

II. Heat loss center

I. Heat gain center

This is stimulated when the body temperature is low and the body needs to generate and conserve heat

a. Vasoconstriction

The capillaries near the skin constrict. This reduces the diameter of the blood vessel and smaller volume
of blood flows in the blood vessel near the skin surface. This will greatly reduce heat loss through
conduction, radiation and convection thereby conserving body heat

b. Reduction in sweat production

As a result of vasoconstriction the sweat glands becomes inactive therefore little or no sweat is
produced. As a result heat loss via evaporation of sweat is greatly reduced, this helps to conserve heat.

Note that breathing rate is also reduced so as to minimize evaporation of water through mouth, tongue
and nose.

c. Increasing metabolic rate

The metabolic rate of the liver increases so as to produce more heat. Also shivering caused by
involuntary contraction and relocation of skeletal muscles help to generate a lot of heat

d. Raising of hairs

In animals with hairs,the erector muscles attached to each hair follicles contract pulling each hair to an
upright position. A layer of hair is trapped between the hair strands serving as an insulator and
preventing heat loss from the body

e. Behavioral changes

Animals change their behaviors. Some in nests while some huddle into a ball to reduce surface area.
Human beings wear wollen clothing, jacket or coat

II. The heat loss center

On a hot day, weather or environment a mammal keeps it’s body temperature constant. A rise in body
temperature as a result of rise in environment temperature stimulates the following processes to get rid
of excess body heat

a. Vasodilation

The capillaries near the skin surface dilate. How vasodilation and vasocufection of the capillaries near
the surface of the skin control heat loss while those in the deep layer of the skin constrict. This causes a
large volume of blood to flow near the surface of the skin so that heat is lost to the surroundings via
conduction

b. Sweating in humans

The sweat glands become active and produce large amount of sweat that flow into the surface of the
skin. As the sweat evaporates heat from the body is used up thus cooling the body

c. Decreasing metabolic rate

The body slows down its activities to reduce the metabolic rate. This reduces the heat released by
metabolic reactions, hence hair protection within the body is reduced.

d. Lowering of hairs

In an hairy mammal, the hair erector muscles relax causing the hair to be flat on the skin surface. This
forces out most of the hair trapped among the hairs. Without this insulating layer, the animal losses
more heat from its body

e. Behavioral changes

Many mammals keep cool by staying in the shade. Human beings wear light clothes with light colored
absorbent

Care of the skin

There is need to properly take good care of the skin. If the sweat and only substances are not removed
from the skin on time, duct and bacteria will stick to the surface of the skin. Major care of the skin
include

1. Regular cleaning:

The skin should be cleaned (bath) at least once a day with soap and water to remove dirt.

2. Exposure to fresh air:

The skin should be exposed to fresh air and sunlight always

3. Eating of balanced diet:

A balanced diet containing vitamins A and B2(riboflavin) should be taken to keep the skin healthy.

4. Regular exercise:

The body should be exercised regularly to remove sweat and

Keep the skin healthy.

5. Dressing of wounds or cuts:

Wounds and cuts should be cleaned regularly to get rid of dirt and then dressed with antiseptic to
prevent infection from entering such opening.

6. Proper treatment of skin diseases:

Skin diseases such as eczema, chickenpox and small pox etc. Should be reported to a qualified medical
doctor or a dermatologist for proper treatment.

7. Wearing of clean clothes:

Clothes worn or which come in contact with the

Skin should be kept clean.

8. Avoidance of the use of injurious chemical:

Certain chemicals (creams) which bleach the skin should be avoided as this tends to destroy the melanin
pigment and the skin generally.