J Therm Spray Tech

https://doi.org/10.1007/s11666-022-01404-1

REVIEW

A Review of Thermally Sprayed Polymer Coatings

Heli Koivuluoto1

Submitted: 3 November 2021 / in revised form: 10 April 2022 / Accepted: 11 April 2022
Ó The Author(s) 2022

Abstract Thermal spraying of polymer coatings has been improve coating processability, and feedstock materials
applied for many decades. Initially, the focus was primarily have been developed and tailored to achieve better per-
on corrosion and wear protection. Manufacturing was formance. An important application field for thermally
performed with traditional methods, such as flame and sprayed polymer coatings is used as protective layers to
plasma spraying. Later, thermal spray technologies were address several conditions. Petrovicova and Schadler (Ref
developed, and interest increased in producing polymer or 1) summarized the most important advantages of thermally
polymer-composite coatings from different polymer mate- sprayed polymer coatings over other polymer coatings; this
rials with advanced spray processes. Additionally, novel included environmental aspects, such as obviating the need
application fields were studied, such as the use of thermally for solvent systems containing volatile organic compounds.
sprayed polymer coatings for anti-icing and anti-fouling Other advantages were related to ease of manufacturing as
purposes. This review summarizes thermally sprayed well as suitability for coating onto large surfaces, the use of
polymer coatings from the standpoints of materials, pro- different processing conditions and development of mate-
cesses used and selected latest application fields. rials exhibiting high viscosities. Petrovicova and Schadler
(Ref 1) published their review on thermal spraying of
Keywords anti-fouling
anti-icing
cold spraying
polymers almost twenty years ago, so it is now appropriate
corrosion protection
flame spraying
polymer coating
to review the state-of-the-art for thermally sprayed poly-
thermal spraying mers and polymer-based coatings again.
Thermal spray processes for polymer coating production
include flame spraying, high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF)/
Introduction high-velocity air fuel (HVAF), plasma spraying (Ref 1) and
cold spraying. Figure 1 summarizes the main factors
Polymer coatings have been manufactured by thermal affecting thermal spray processes, which depend on and
spraying for decades, and development has continued to vary with the process, the polymer material and the sub-
date. Thermal spray processes have been modified to strate conditions. Many factors must be taken into account
when optimizing thermal spray processing with polymer
and polymer-based coatings. Flame spraying is a thermal
This invited article is part of a special issue focus in the Journal of spray technology used for production of polymer coatings.
Thermal Spray Technology celebrating the 30th anniversary of the Polymeric feedstock material is fed to the gun, melted, and
journal. The papers and topics were curated by the Editor-in-Chief
Armelle Vardelle, University of Limoges/ENSIL.
accelerated toward the substrate surface, and the particle
velocity can reach approximately 50-100 m/s (Ref 2). One
& Heli Koivuluoto advantage of flame spraying is that it can be used on site, so
[email protected] it is a very flexible processing method. Earlier flame
1 spraying was done manually, whereas current processes are
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Materials
Science and Environmental Engineering, Tampere more automated due the use of robotics. Flame-sprayed
University, Tampere, Finland polymer coatings used to protect pipelines from corrosion

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have included polyethylene (PE) coatings with thicknesses example, PE and PS are thermoplastics (Ref 11, 19). When
of 1-3 mm (Ref 3, 4). Additionally, HVOF, plasma they are cooled, they harden. In addition, this processing
spraying, and cold spraying have been used to produce can be repeated (Ref 9), and these materials are therefore
polymers or polymer-based coatings. suitable for thermal spraying.
In addition to PE, thermal spraying has been used to Table 1 shows some examples of materials, and the
produce coatings comprising polypropylene (PP) (Ref 5), melting points are relatively low compared to those of
polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Ref 6), polyamide (PA) other thermally sprayable materials, such as metals, hard-
(Ref 7), polyether sulfone (PES) (Ref 8), polycarbonate metals and ceramics. Thermal spraying of polymers can
(PC) (Ref 1), polyphenylene sulfide (PPS) (Ref 1), be performed, but it requires process optimization, modi-
polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) [9], polyether ether ketone fication and more temperature control than processes for
(PEEK) (Ref 7, 10), polyimide (PI) (Ref 7), polyvinyl other materials. By using optimized process parameters,
chloride (PVC) (Ref 5–11), polyvinylidene fluoride degradation can be avoided. Several studies have reported
(PVDF) (Ref 12), ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene no detectable deterioration (Ref 14, 20) or minimal
(ECTFE) (Ref 12), perfluoroalkoxy alkane (PFA) (Ref 12), degradation by using Fourier transform infrared spec-
fluorinated perfluoroethylenepropylene (FEP) [Ref 13], troscopy (FTIR) (Ref 21).
ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA) (Ref 14), polystyrene Thermally sprayed polymer coatings are protective, but
(PS) (Ref 15) and the copolymers ethylene vinyl acetate they are inexpensive and easy to manufacture (Ref 1, 24).
(EVA) and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVAl) with PE (Ref For example, thermally sprayed polymer coatings have
16). Polyethylene is one of the most common polymers been considered for corrosion protection, and biocompati-
used in thermal spraying. It has been used in powdered ble polymer coatings have been studied as potential solu-
forms with different densities, such as low-density poly- tions for problems in the medical sector. Additionally,
ethylene (LDPE) (Ref 17), high-density polyethylene thermally sprayed polymer coatings have been investigated
(HDPE) (Ref 15), and ultrahigh molecular weight poly- for low-friction applications and wear protection. In this
ethylene (UHMWPE) (Ref 18). Polymers are materials that case, high-performance polymers were used, e.g., PEEK
consist of organic compounds, and they can be produced (Ref 25). One way to enhance the mechanical properties of
synthetically or transformed from natural products. Ther- thermally sprayed polymer coatings is by adding rein-
moplastics, in turn, are physically linked macromolecules forcement agents that act as polymer nanocomposite
with linear or branched bonds, whereas elastomers and coatings (Ref 26). The latest application fields under study
thermosets are cross-linked. Thermoplastics can be crys- are focused on protecting against environmental stresses
talline, semicrystalline or amorphous (Ref 11). When such as icing (Ref 5) and fouling (Ref 2).
thermoplastics are heated, they can soften and flow. For

Fig. 1 Summary of factors

influencing thermal spray
processing of polymer powders.
Modified from (Ref 1), reprinted
by permission of Taylor &
Francis Ltd.

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Table 1 Melting points of

Polymer Melting point, °C References
polymer materials used in
thermal spraying Polyethylene, PE 140 19
Polypropylene, PP 176 19
Polyvinyl fluoride, PVF 200 19
High-density polyethylene, HDPE 128 22
Polyurethane, PU 92 22
Polyamide, PA 180 22
Polystyrene, PS 175 22
Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene, UHMWPE 130 22
Polyethylene terephthalate, PET 243 23
Polyvinylidene fluoride, PVDF 155-170 12
Ethylene chlorotrifluoroethylene, ECTFE 240 12
Perfluoroalkoxy alkane, PFA 300-310 12
Fluorinated perfluoroethylenepropylene, FEP 250-280 12
Ethylene methacrylic acid, EMAA 80-105 20

Flame Spraying of Polymer Coatings Flame spraying of amorphous PEEK for wear protection
and friction reduction has been studied. In this case, the
Flame spraying is the most common thermal spray process particle sizes were much lower than 25 lm. The metal
used for production of polymer coatings. More information substrate was preheated prior to coating production, and the
on flame spraying and other thermal and cold spray pro- sample was quenched after spraying. As a result, the
cesses used in coating production can be found (Ref 1, 4). semicrystalline coating had higher hardness and expected
There are special flame spray guns available for polymer improved wear and friction properties (Ref 25). Further-
spraying, as well as tailored systems, to manufacture more, Soveja et al. (Ref 30) observed that an FS PEEK
coatings from hybrid feedstock materials. Flame-sprayed coating could be densified by using laser treatment as a
methacrylic acid (MAA) PE coatings have been studied for remelting process. In addition to providing the denser
protection of steel substrates from corrosion. The typical coating structure, laser treatments improved the adhesion
particle size of the PE powder was 149 lm, and propane between FS PEEK and the steel substrate due to fusion of
was used as a fuel gas. Adhesion between the coating and the polymer. As noted, flame spraying of PEEK requires
substrate was influenced by processing parameters such as specific preheating or posttreatment to ensure successful
gas and air pressures, as well as the traverse speed of the production of the coating. A key factor was a low pro-
gun. Additionally, it has been reported that cathodic cessing temperature, which was enabled by process and
delamination (corrosion resistance) is correlated with nozzle development. In this way, a dense PEEK coating
adhesion; i.e., higher adhesion leads to better corrosion (Fig. 2) was produced for corrosion protection (Ref 10).
resistance (Ref 2). Flame-sprayed PE (FS PE) coatings Dense FS PEEK and PEI and PA coatings have been
have shown potential for use in anti-icing applications. produced by Lima et al. (Ref 7). The surface and structure
Hydrophobic and icephobic FS PE coatings have been of flame-sprayed PE and PE composite coating containing
produced by using flame spraying with an acetylene-oxy- natural components from capsaicin are presented in Fig. 3.
gen flame (Ref 5, 21, 28). Processing parameters influenced Additionally, dense PE-based coatings have been pro-
the properties of flame-sprayed polymer coatings. For duced, showing successful tailoring of coating structures
example, the coating thickness increased with increasing by modifying the feedstock material (Ref 27).
spraying distance when slow a traverse speed was used In addition to those on PE and PEEK, investigation of
(Ref 21). Another approach for thermally sprayed PE the flame-sprayed fluoropolymer PVDF, ECTFE, PFA and
coatings was the production of porous PE structures by FEP coatings showed their dense and smooth coatings,
using flame spraying with an acetylene-oxygen flame. which were beneficial for corrosion protection (Ref 12).
These porous structures have been impregnated with a Flame-sprayed EMAA splats (Ref 14) and PP splats (Ref
lubricant to act as slippery liquid infused porous surfaces 31) were studied to evaluate the influence of process
(SLIPS). In this way, slippery surfaces can be produced, parameters on splat formation. For example, spray distance
and high icephobicity can be achieved due to the slipper- influenced the flattening of EMAA particles, and the use-
iness of the surface (Ref 29). able distance range depended on the substrate material. A
higher spray distance can be used for glass substrates than

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the HDPE coating due to the inclusion of Cu. Additionally,

Liu et al. (Ref 27) used flame spraying to produce com-
posite coatings with HDPE and capsaicin for anti-fouling
purposes. Furthermore, PHBV/50PMMA coatings for
biomedical purposes have been produced with oxygen-
acetylene flame spraying. Flame spraying has enabled the
Fig. 2 Flame-sprayed PEEK coating on steel substrate. Modified
from (Ref 10) production of hydrophilic and biocompatible polymer
coatings for drug delivery systems after implant surgery
for steel substrates (Ref 14). Flattening of FS EMAA splats (Ref 36). Flame-sprayed maleic anhydride (MAH)-grafted
on glass substrate increased up to a distance of 30 cm, (g)-LDPE and MAH-g-LDPE/UHMWPE composite
whereas the distance limit for steel substrates was 25 cm, coatings have been produced for corrosion protection and
as reported by Xie et al. (Ref 14). This has been explained further blended with nanocomposite coatings (MAH-g-
by a higher splat temperature on the steel substrate, which LDPE/UHMWPE); they showed better corrosion resis-
in turn was due to the higher thermal conductivity of steel tance, whereas abrasion resistance was higher with MAH-
compared with glass (Ref 14). Recently, liquid flame g-LDPE (Ref 37). Additionally, a flame-prayed grafted
spraying (Ref LFS) of polymers has been introduced by maleic acid (MAc) LDPE coating showed higher adhesion
using precursors (Ref 32) or suspensions (Ref 3) as feed- than a flame-sprayed LDPE coating (Ref 17). Li et al. (Ref
stock materials. When a feedstock in liquid form is fed to 3) studied flame-sprayed PEEK with CNTs, which exhib-
the flame spray gun, it must be synthesized by the flame ited high coating quality and high tribological performance
and then sprayed on the substrate surface (Ref 3). Wang due to improved lubrication provided by the CNTs and
et al. (Ref 32) used an oxygen-acetylene flame with LFS of therefore better results in wear tests. Application of PEEK/
PI and PI with Cu coatings. Liu et al. (Ref 33) studied CNT powder with an ultrasound dispersion method pro-
suspension flame spraying to produce PI-Cu coatings for vided denser coatings than mechanically blended powders.
anti-fouling and anti-corrosion purposes by combining the Higher splatting of PEEK was thought to be the reason for
functional effects of both organic and inorganic materials enhanced performance of the powder applied with ultra-
in the composite structure. sound dispersion (Ref 38).
Flame spraying of HDPE and HDPE with Cu has also Flame spraying of PA, HDPE and PET was performed
been studied for anti-fouling and anti-corrosion purposes. with an air-propane flame spray gun (Ref 24). Here, heat
This approach was used for the manufacturing homogenous generation can be varied with the nozzle design, as shown
and dense HDPE ? Cu coatings from Cu-coated HDPE in Fig. 4. By changing the combustible mixture exiting
particles (Ref 34). In addition, FS HDPE and HDPE ? Cu from the central part (V) and using additional air flow (Vg),
coatings have been studied for anti-aging protection (Ref the flame shape can be changed, which, in turn, influences
35). Aging was performed with a xenon lamp, and the formation of the coating and the resulting properties (Ref
HDPE ? Cu coatings showed better aging resistance than 24). The flame can generate oxidizing, stable or reducing

Fig. 3 Surfaces and structures

of flame-sprayed PE and
PE ? capsaicin coatings.
Modified from (Ref 27),
reprinted with permission from
Elsevier

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conditions depending on the gas-air mixture ratio (Ref 39). but more bubbles were formed inside the coating structure
For example, FS PA coatings show higher adhesion when at higher temperatures. This was attributed to greater
sprayed with an oxidizing flame. Improved coating-sub- degradation of PET caused by higher temperatures (Ref
strate adhesion was explained by the high number of 23). The coefficient of friction for a HVOF PA coating with
oxygen-containing groups formed on the polymers due to silica was lower than that for a HVOF PA coating, which
oxidizing flame conditions (Ref 24) was possibly due to crystallinity (Ref 47). The mechanism
Table 2 provides an overview of polymer coatings for wear of the polymer coating in sliding wear was
produced with flame spraying. Work on the development of identified as smearing, whereas other wear mechanisms
thermally sprayed polymer coatings and polymer-com- also include abrasive and fatigue wearing of polymer-
posite coatings mainly occurred in the 2000 century. Sev- composite coatings (Ref 47).
eral different polymer materials and protective purposes Single splat tests for PEEK particles were performed
have emerged as features of flame-sprayed polymer coat- with HVOF and assisted combustion high-velocity air fuel
ings. Additionally, tailoring of feedstock materials has (AC-HVAF) by evaluating the effects of surface roughness
enabled the production of polymer-based composite coat- and chemistry on particle bonding (Ref 4). The skewness of
ings with important properties. a substrate surface has a significant effect on splat forma-
tion, although the surface roughness values were at the
same level. This skewness indicated the shapes of peaks
High-Velocity Flame Spraying of Polymer and valleys and, whether the shapes were blunt or sharp,
Coatings which cannot be seen from the roughness itself. Positive
skewness, where roughness peaks were sharp, increased the
This section is focused on polymer coatings made with contact areas for the splats and improved mechanical
high-velocity flame spraying, and more information on the interlocking (Ref 8). Additionally, HVAF-sprayed PEEK
process itself is presented in (Ref 1, 4). PET coatings have splats were studied by Withy et al. (Ref 49) who showed
been produced via high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) that the surface chemistry and roughness of the substrate
spraying (Ref 6). This indicated crystallization of the strongly affected splat formation, whereas Patel et al. (Ref
amorphous feedstock during thermal spraying. However, 48) noticed that the amount of PEEK particles was higher
later melting and quenching decreased the extent of crys- on grit-blasted steel than on etched steel and lowest on
tallization. Heat-treated thermally sprayed PET coatings degreased steel. In addition to roughness, skewness was
exhibited better tribological properties than PET because also found to affect adhesion of PEEK particles on steel
they showed lower friction and wear rates (Ref 6). In substrates at room temperature. The positive skewness of
another study, a PET coating was successfully deposited by the substrate surface increased adhesion because the areas
using a low-velocity oxygen fuel (LVOF) process; this available for mechanical interlocking were increased (Ref
prevented corrosion by gasoline, diesel oil and alcohol and 48). More HVAF PEEK splats were bonded to the polished
confirmed the potential for use these coatings as corrosion substrate and the polished and thermally treated aluminum
barriers in fuel tanks (Ref 3). Figure 5 shows the structures substrate than to etched and boiled substrates with and
of LVOF PET coatings on a steel substrate. When the without thermal treatment (Ref 49).
substrate was not preheated, a layered structure resulted, HVOF ceramic/polymer (silica/nylon) coatings have
and adhesion was poor. Preheating of the substrate been studied to determine wear resistance. The powders
improved adhesion between the coating and the substrate, used had a nylon core and shells with embedded silica

Fig. 4 Flame shapes with

different nozzle designs.
Modified from (Ref 24),
reprinted with permission from
AIP Publishing

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 Table 2 Summary of flame-sprayed (FS) polymer coatings and their purposes and performances
Coating material TS-process Purpose/properties Findings/performance Reference (Publication

123
year)

MA-modified PE FS (propane/air) Deposition on steel substrate, effect Higher bond strength led to a Ref 2 (1995)
of process parameters lower delamination rate in
corrosion studies.
PVDF, ECTFE FS (oxygen/acetylene, air/propane) Dense and smooth coatings Corrosion protection Ref 12 (2004)
LDPE LDPE-g-MAc FS (acetylene/air) Improved adhesion with maleic Corrosion protection Ref 17 (2007) Ref 40 (2011)
acid crafting
EVA, EVAl ? PE FS EVA/PE coatings high corrosion Anti-corrosive coatings Ref 16 (2010)
resistance in sea water conditions
PP FS (acetylene/oxygen) Splats on glass Understanding of splat Ref 31 (2010) Ref 41 (2011)
formation and flattening
Epoxy FS (acetylene/air) Flame spraying of thermoset Additional heating to cure the Ref 42 (2012)
powders. Modeling of cure epoxy. Curing rate models as
kinetics. process control
PHVB/PMMA FS (oxygen/acetylene) Adhesion depends on spray Biocompatible polymer Ref 36 (2012)
parameters, hydrophilic coatings coatings for drug delivery
systems
EMAA, EMAA/ZrO2, EMAA/Al2O3 FS (propane/air, acetylene/oxygen) Splats on heated and unheated mild Substrate chemistry affected Ref 20 (2013)
steel and glass splat morphology, more
amorphous when sprayed with
acetylene rather than propane
EMAA FS (propane/air) Splats on mild steel Effect of spray distance on Ref 20 (2013) Ref 14 (2014)
splat flattening, no degradation
PA ? PU microcapsules FS with additional feeding for capsules Liquid–solid lubrication with flame Low-friction coatings with self- Ref 43 (2013)
spraying lubricating and self-healing
properties
PEI, PEEK, PA FS (acetylene/Oxygen) Dense and smooth coatings, good Better wear and corrosion Ref 7 (2013) Ref 44 (2016)
adhesion performance for PA then
PEEK, and weakest for PEI
LDPE FS (acetylene/oxygen) Low or medium-low ice adhesion Anti-icing coatings Ref 28 (2017) Ref 29 (2018)
Ref 21 (2020) Ref 5 (2020)
PP, PE ? FEB, PEEK, UHMWPE FS (acetylene/oxygen) Low, medium-low or medium ice Anti-icing coatings Ref 5 (2020)
adhesion
PEEK FS Coatings’ crystallinity and hardness Mechanical and tribological Ref 10 (2020)
increased with heat treatment performance, heat treatment
lowered friction and wear rate
LDPE ? solid lubricants FS (acetylene/oxygen) Low ice adhesion, resistant to Anti-icing coatings Ref 45 (2020) Ref 46 (2021)
corrosive medias
PEEK ? CNTs (carbon nanotubes) FS (acetylene/oxygen) Powder blending using mechanical Ultrasound dispersion resulted Ref 38 (2022)
blending and ultrasound dispersion in denser coatings and better
tribological performance
J Therm Spray Tech
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Fig. 5 Structures of LVOF-

sprayed PET coatings produced
on steel substrates with different
preheating temperatures,
including no preheating and
preheating at 170, 200 and
215 °C. Modified from (Ref
23), reprinted with permission
from Elsevier

Table 3 Summary of high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) and plasma-sprayed polymer coatings and their purposes and performance
Coating material TS-process Purpose/properties Findings/Performance Reference
(Publication year)

PA, PA ? fumed SiO2 HVOF (hydrogen/oxygen) Sliding wear properties, Improved wear resistance Ref 50 (1997) Ref
substrate steel with nanoceramic particles 47 (2007)
PMMA Plasma spray (argon/ Effect of gun speed and gas Decomposition increased Ref 52 (1997)
hydrogen, nitrogen- composition with large temperature
hydrogen gradients; wear resistance
improved with high torch
speed
PET HVOF (Kerosene) Thickness * 350 lm, low Heat-treated coatings had Ref 6(1999)
friction of coefficient better wear resistance
compared to PET bulk
material
PET Low-velocity oxygen fuel Role of substrate preheating Higher preheating Ref 23 (2004)
(LVOF) spray (propane, to characteristics of the temperature, higher
oxygen, air) coatings degradation but also higher
adhesion
PVDF, ECTFE, PFA, FEP Plasma spray (argon/ Dense and smooth coatings Corrosion protection Ref 12 (2004) Ref
PFA ? ceramics hydrogen) Plasma spray Homogenous composite Improved wetting behavior 53 (2005) Ref 54
PTFE ? ceramics (argon/hydrogen) coating with modified and lower friction (2006)
powder feeding coefficient

particles, as well as pure nylon particles alone. Wear Plasma Spraying of Polymer Coatings
resistance was greater for the silica/polymer coating com-
pared with the pure polymer coating due to the chemical Plasma spraying of fluoropolymers, PVDF, ECTFE, PFA
changes caused by adding nanosized ceramic fillers (Ref and FEP powders (Ref 12) and ceramic/fluoropolymers
50). Additionally, HVOF spraying was used to produce (Ref 54) has been studied. More details on the process of
polymer (nylon 11) nanodiamond composite coatings. plasma spraying can be found in (Ref 1, 4). Plasma
Nanodiamond addition improved adhesion of the coating spraying has been used to produce polymer-steel coatings
by densifying the structure. Hard nanodiamonds reinforced for low-friction applications. In this case, plasma spraying
the composite coating structure and coating–substrate was used to apply a thin polymer coating on a plasma-
interface (Ref 51). Table 3 presents a summary of HVOF sprayed steel coating to improve lubrication. Thin plasma-
and plasma-sprayed polymer coatings. The latest devel- sprayed coatings were made from PA, PA with solid
opments have been focused more on flame spraying lubricant, UHMWPE, UHMWPE with solid lubricant,
(Table 2) and cold spraying (Table 4) than on high-velocity PTFE and PTFE with PA. Both MoS2 and graphite addi-
processes or plasma spraying. However, HVOF and tives were tested. The best wear performance was achieved
plasma-sprayed polymer coatings have primarily been with pure PA (nylon 11) as the top coating, whereas a
studied for wear resistance. continuous coating of plasma-sprayed PTFE could not be
produced. All plasma spray process parameters used
degraded PTFE particles, which resulted in poor adhesion

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Table 4. Summary of cold-sprayed polymer coatings and their purposes and performance
Coating material TS-process Purpose/properties Findings/performance Reference
(Publication
year)

HA-Ag/PEEK Cold spray (air) Successful deposition of Antibacterial coatings Ref 56 (2009)
composite coatings
Chitosan-Cu/Al Cold spray (He) Successful deposition of Antibacterial coatings, Ref 57 (2009)
composite coatings deposition of biopolymer
with metallic powders
PE Cold spray (air) Numerical and Nozzle development for Ref 58 (2012)
experimental studies (CFD polymer coating
models, Schlieren photos) production. No melting of
polymer particles.
UHMWPE, Low-Pressure Cold spray (air) Effect of addition of Thick UHMWPE?nano- Ref 59 (2015)
UHMWPE ? nano- ceramic particles on Al2O3 coatings on Al and
Al2O3/fumed nano- polymer coatings. Nozzle PP substrates
Al2O3/-SiO2 optimization.
PE-CNT Low-pressure cold spray (air) Spraying on PP and porous Successful deposition, PE Ref 60 (2017)
structured aluminum melted in CS process and
CNTs adhered on those.
Electrical conductivity.
HDPE Custom-made cold spray (air) HDPE coatings on polymer Effect of process Ref 61 (2017)
substrates and on Al and parameters. DE increased
quartz glass. with increased particle
temperature, impact
velocity and substrate
temperature.
UHMWPE-FNA Low-pressure cold spray (air) Production of polymer- DE increased with Ref 18 (2018)
(fumed nano- Al2O3) ceramic composite coatings increasing amount of FNA
HDPE, PU, PA, PS, Laboratory-scale cold spray Particle impact velocities of Low porosity coatings with Ref 22 (2020)
UHMWPE (nitrogen, air) polymers, decreased critical optimized spray
velocities with increasing parameters. Possibilities for
temperatures 3D additive manufacturing
of polymer parts
UHMWPE Cold spray, modeling Particle inflight properties Simulation of impacts Ref 62 (2020)
such as temperature and during cold spraying
velocity
FEP, Low-pressure cold spray (air) Wetting performance of Superhydrophobic cold Ref 13 (2020)
FEP ? nanoceramic coatings spray coatings, low roll-off
contact angles
HDPE, PU, PA, PS, Laboratory-scale cold spray Effect of glass peening Increased DE by using glass Ref 15 (2020)
UHMWPE (air) particles on polymer beads mixed with polymer
coatings powders
PEEK Cold spray Modeling of PEEK Numerical investigations of Ref 63 (2021)
particles in cold spraying CS PEEK on PEEK.
Narrow particle velocity
range for successful
deposition

(Ref 9). Wu et al. (Ref 55) evaluated plasma-sprayed were achieved by coupling the magnetic and dielectric
PEEK splats and concluded that the surface chemistry of losses of hexaferrite with the dielectric losses of polyester
the aluminum substrate was more important in determining (Ref 8). Examples of plasma-sprayed composite coatings
particle bonding than the roughness of the surface. Plasma are presented in Fig. 6. Plasma-sprayed PMMA coatings
spraying has been used to manufacture electromagnetically showed increased decomposition with increasing process
absorbing coatings from hexaferrite and polyester (Ref 8). temperatures. Additionally, other process parameters
Good electromagnetic properties of the composite coatings affected the plasma-sprayed PMMA coatings. For example,

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Fig. 6 Structures of plasma-sprayed hexaferrite/polyester (HF/PES) (Al2O3-TiO2/PFA) (Ref 53) coatings. Modified from (Ref 8),
(Ref 8), alumina/polytetrafluoroethylene (Al2O3-TiO2/PTFE) (Ref 53) reprinted by permission from Springer Nature. Modified from (Ref
and alumina/tetrafluoroethylene-co-perfluoropropylvinylether 53), reprinted with permission from Elsevier

a coating sprayed with a faster gun speed resulted in a have been modeled, and these showed that the thermal
lower wear rate compared to a coating produced with a gradient for the powder depended on the particle size (Ref
slower gun speed. Degradation was lower with faster 62). For example, single PS and PA particles were suc-
application speeds, which, in turn, led to better wear cessfully sprayed on LDPE substrates (Fig. 8) by using
resistance (Ref 52). single particle microballistic experiments as models for
cold spraying (Ref 64). Another study was focused on cold
spraying of PEEK onto a PEEK substrate. It was observed
Cold Spraying of Polymer Coatings that small particles had higher critical velocities (360 m/s
for 10 lm), whereas medium-sized particles had critical
Research on cold spraying of polymers has been active, and velocities 257 m/s (40 lm) and large particles again had
several polymeric materials have been successfully pro- higher critical velocities (277 m/s) (Ref 63). The velocities
duced by using the cold spraying process. Table 4 sum- of polymer particles used for successful coating were much
marizes cold-sprayed polymer and polymer-based lower than those of metal particles (Ref 6).
composite coatings and their purposes. Figure 7 shows Chitosan polymer has been studied with cold spraying,
some of the powders used, and the powder morphologies and it was blended with Cu/Al. Chitosan is a natural
varied from spherical to very irregular. One challenge for polymer that is both biocompatible and nontoxic. Interest
polymer application by cold spraying, as well as for other in this material has increased due to its biodegradability
thermal spray processes, is the availability of suit- (Ref 57). There are also other studies on cold-sprayed
able powders. Therefore, processing must be done with the composite coatings in which polymers were one of the
powders available, but these are not optimized for the composite contents. For example, HA-Ag/PEEK coatings
thermal and cold spray processes. Successful coatings have have been applied with cold spraying, and antibacterial
been produced, but even more improved coating properties properties have been the driving force for use of these
could be achieved with optimized powders and optimized coatings. The process gas was air, and it was preheated to
processes. 150-160 °C. Coatings were produced successfully and
Some studies have been focused on spraying single showed high biofunctionality similar to that of the starting
particles and analyses of single particle interactions with material (Ref 56).
the substrate. Additionally, the thermal history of the Ravi et al. (Ref 18, 59) studied cold spraying of
powder and its influence on cold-sprayed polymer coatings UHMWPE and UHMWPE with alumina nanoparticle
powders. A low-pressure cold spray (LPCS) system was
used with a pressure of 2-8 bar and temperatures of RT–
500 °C (air). In this study, it was determined that the
polymer needed thermal softening to enable successful
bonding, and therefore, the process was optimized by using
a longer nozzle to achieve sufficient thermal softening.
Figure 9 shows SEM cross sections of LPCS UHMWPE
coatings on Al and PP substrates. Even behavior-level thick
UHMWPE ? alumina nanoparticle coatings were produced
with LPCS methodology (Ref 59). Additionally,
UHMWPE mixed with nanoalumina, fumed nanoalumina
and fumed nanosilica has been applied with cold spraying
Fig. 7 Polymer powder morphologies used in cold spraying. (Ref 65). The coating thicknesses varied for the different
Modified from (Ref 22), reprinted with permission from Elsevier

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Fig. 8 SEM images of single

PS and PA particles deposited
on a LDPE substrate. The
impact velocity for PS was
290 m/s, and that for PA was
355 m/s. Modified from (Ref
64), reprinted with permission
from Elsevier

Fig. 9 LPCS UHMWPE

coatings on Al and PP
substrates. Modified from (Ref
59), reprinted by permission
from Springer Nature

powders. The thicknesses of the coatings were 1-4 mm for structured aluminum substrates. In this study, PE particles
UHMWPE, 70-100 lm for HMWPE-nanoalumina and were melted during the CS process and CNTs were bonded
70-150 lm for UHMWPE-nanosilica. Nanoceramic parti- to the melted PE. These CS PE-CNT coatings were shown
cles strengthened the structures of the composite coatings to be electrically conductive (Ref 60).
by reinforcing bonding between polymer particles. This has Bush et al. (Ref 61) studied the effects of several process
been explained by noting that nanoparticles were located parameters on the cold spraying of HDPE powder. The
near the polymer particles and activated bonding during parameters considered were particle temperature, size and
impact because of their surface chemistry (hydroxyl impact velocity, as well as nozzle design, spray distance
groups) (Ref 65). and substrate composition and temperature. The deposition
LPCS PFA and PFA with fumed nanoalumina (FNA) as efficiencies of polymer powders can be improved by
a core-shell coating are hydrophobic, and furthermore, selecting optimal spray parameters. The critical velocities
LPCS PFA-FNA coatings on laser-textured steel substrates for polymers have been reported to be lower than those for
have shown superhydrophobic wetting behavior (Ref 26). metals because of the lower particle temperatures and
These findings showed that cold spraying is a fast and one- different thermal diffusivities of polymer particles
step coating process for producing superhydrophobic
polymer-based composites (Ref 26). The hydrophobicities
of cold-sprayed coatings have been of interest, and for that
purpose, cold spraying of fluoroethylene propylene (FEP)
powders and those with added fumed nanoceramic (FNC)
hydrophobized silica and alumina have been studied by
Lock Sulen et al. (Ref 13). They used LPCS equipment to
fabricate hydrophobic CS FEP coatings on an aluminum
substrate. Hydrophobicity was further improved with the
addition of hydrophobized FNC to the FEP powder.
The use of optimized nozzles for successful deposition
of cold-sprayed PE on an Al-alloy substrate is confirmed
by modeling and experimental work (Ref 58). In addition,
the cold spray process was used to successfully produce Fig. 10 Cold-sprayed PU, PA, PS, and UHMWPE coatings. The
PE-carbon nanotube (CNT) coatings on PP and nanoporous arrows show the interfaces. Modified from (Ref 22), reprinted with
permission from Elsevier

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J Therm Spray Tech

compared to metal particles. Furthermore, the efficiencies

for deposition of CS HDPE powders were much lower than
those for metal powders (Ref 61). Cold-sprayed HDPE,
PU, PS, PA, and UHMWPE coatings were produced suc-
cessfully, and the structures are shown in Fig. 10 (Ref 22).
Furthermore, polymeric materials have been sprayed
together with glass beads to improve the properties of cold-
sprayed polymer coatings. The deposition efficiency
increased with the use of peening particles, which also
made the coating smoother and the structures more uniform
(Ref 15). Fig. 11 continued

Selected Application Fields for Thermally Sprayed

Polymer Coatings

Anti-icing

FS PE (Ref 21, 28) and PE?FEB coatings have shown low

or medium-low ice adhesion with high durability. Fur-
thermore, the ice adhesion of FS PE and PE?FEB can be
decreased by polishing the surfaces. Figure 11 shows the
low ice adhesion seen for a FS PE coating compared to
Fig. 12 Advanced flame spraying with injection of a hybrid
stainless steel, aluminum and polyurethane paint, indicat- feedstock to produce a lubricated icephobic coating (LIC). Modified
ing that ice removal from the surface was improved. In from (Ref 45)
addition, these coatings exhibited hydrophobic wetting
performance, which was beneficial for icephobicity. Low (TS-SLIPS) have shown very low ice adhesion and can be
ice adhesion is needed for anti-icing purposes (Ref 28). called novel icephobic solutions (Ref 29). Donadei et al.
Thermally sprayed slippery liquid infused porous surfaces (Ref 21) showed that process parameters influenced ther-
mal degradation, which in turn, affected ice adhesion.
Lower thermal degradation led to lower ice adhesion. This
was achieved by increasing the traverse speed of the spray
gun (Ref 21).
In another study, Donadei et al. (Ref 45) modified flame
spraying by adding hybrid feedstock injection to produce
lubricated icephobic coatings (LICs). A heat-sensitive
additive material was fed with an additional feeder outside
the flame, while PE powder was fed traditionally through
the spray gun Fig. 12. Lubricating additives were dis-
tributed in the PE matrix coating and increased the slip-
periness of the coating. LICs were hydrophobic and
icephobic and provided high water repellence and anti-ic-
ing performance, respectively Ref 45.

Anti-fouling

Liquid flame spraying (LFS) has been used to produce PI-

Fig. 11 Ice adhesion values (a) for flame-sprayed PE coating (FS Cu coatings exhibiting anti-fouling behavior. Interestingly,
PE), stainless steel (SS) and aluminum (Al) bulk materials and the coating thicknesses varied between tens of microns and
polyurethane paint (PU paint), modified from (Ref 28), reprinted by tens of millimeters. LFS PI coatings exhibited corrosion
permission from Springer Nature and (b) for stainless steel, PU paint,
protection, and LFS PI ? Cu showed improved antibacte-
SLIPS and thermally sprayed dense coating (TS dense), and rough
and smooth TS-SLIPS, modified from (Ref 29). All results were rial properties and provided sterilization against E-coli
measured with the same centrifugal ice adhesion testing device bacteria, which indicated high anti-fouling capacity.

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 J Therm Spray Tech

Fig. 13 Polarization curves for

electrochemical corrosion
testing in seawater and
antibacterial testing for E-coli
with a stainless steel 316 L
plate, LFS PI and PI ? Cu
coatings. Modified from (Ref
32), reprinted with permission
from Elsevier.

Figure 13 presents the corrosion behavior and the results coatings. This was explained by higher coating adhesion
for antibacterial testing with LFS PI and PI?Cu coatings as and crystallinity seen with composite coatings. Modified
well as reference materials (Ref 32). Additionally, flame (methacrylic acid, MA) PE coatings were produced by
spraying of HDPE and HDPE?Cu powders was used to flame spraying to protect steel surfaces from corrosion.
produce anti-fouling and corrosion-resistant coatings. In Delamination of the polymer coatings must be taken into
this study, Jia et al. (Ref 34) used particles that comprised a account during studies of barrier layers, because if it
HDPE core with a Cu shell and flame sprayed them to occurs, corrosion protection fails (Ref 2).
produce HDPE ? Cu composite coatings. The main goal of The corrosion resistance of polymer coatings has been
this enwrapped coating structure was to achieve control- improved by blending polymers and nanoclays with flame-
lable release of Cu for long-term anti-fouling performance sprayed MAH-g-LDPE/UHMWPE coatings, as shown by
(Ref 34). Jeeva Jothi et al. (Ref 37). The corrosion rate in 3.5% NaCl
A novel approach to improve anti-fouling performance was improved from 0.170 mm/year for bare mild steel to
was presented by Liu et al. (Ref 27) who mixed HDPE with 0.028 mm/year for steel with FS MAH-g-LDPE/
capsaicin and produced composite coatings by flame UHMWPE coatings (Ref 37). On the other hand, Tailor
spraying. Dense coatings were manufactured, and they et al. (Ref 10) studied flame-sprayed PEEK coatings for
showed excellent anti-fouling properties due to the biocidal corrosion protection with a mild steel substrate. They
nature of naturally occurring capsaicin (Ref 27). produced a dense coating, which showed an * 82% lower
corrosion rate in 5% NaCl than the steel substrate. They
Corrosion Protection also enhanced the wear resistance of the PEEK coating
with annealing, which improved the mechanical properties
Thermally sprayed fluoropolymer coatings have shown of the coating. The semicrystalline PEEK coatings result-
good corrosion resistance (Ref 12), and David et al. (Ref ing after annealing had lower friction than coatings with
40) studied FS MAH-g-LDPE coatings and observed amorphous structures (Ref 10). Furthermore, Lima et al.
improved corrosion resistance compared to FS LPDE Ref 7 evaluated the corrosion and wear properties of FS

Fig. 14 Capsule-containing coating surfaces and coefficients of friction (CoF) for the FS capsule layer, Nylon coating and three capsule-
containing coatings. Modified from (Ref 43), reprinted by permission from Springer Nature

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PEEK, PEI and PA coatings and found that FS PA coatings article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless
had better resistance to abrasive wear. It was speculated indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not
included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended
that the better wear resistance was due to the higher crys- use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted
tallinity, better adhesion and lower residual stress. On the use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright
other hand, corrosion resistance was better for PA and holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.
PEEK coatings than for PEI coatings, which experienced org/licenses/by/4.0/.
color change and cracked during 2000-hour exposure in a
H2SO4 solution (Ref 7). In summary, thermally sprayed
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