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DHARMANAGAR, NORTH TRIPURA

-:Guided By:- I -:Presented By:- I
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Co-Guide : Joynarayan Nath Name : Anik Sinha
Guide : Sri Tarun Deb Kanungo Tu Roll : 2015000188
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Department of Mathematics, I Reg No. : 017001 of 2020

I
Govt. Degree College Semester : 6th
Dharmanagar, North Tripura Subject : MTMH6
Project Topic:
Group Theory and Its Application
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Examination : TDPH❖

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A Sem (B.Sc.), 2023
6th   A
 INTRODUCTION
I am presenting a project on the topic “Group Theory and Its Application”. In this project I have tried to give all
the important thing and information about this project.
A project is an activity that help us to improve our planning and initial thinking ability.

This project which is on the topic “Group Theory and Its Application” contains-
Groups, Abelian Groups, Modulo m, Permutations, Homomorphism, Isomorphism, Automorphism, Order of
Group and element, Cyclic Group, Subgroup, Cayley’s Theorem, Coset Decomposition, Lagrange’s Theorem,
Euler’s Function & Theorem, Fermat’s Theorem, Normal Subgroup, Conjugate Class & elements, Normalizer,
Class Equation, Centre of a Group, Quotient Groups, Kernal of Homomorphism, Maximal Normal Subgroups
, Sylow’s Theorem and many more.

I have tried to cover up as many information as possible in this project by consulting books and through Internet.
 Historical overview
The study of groups originated in the mid-19th century and has since become a fundamental area of mathematics with applications in
various fields, including physics, chemistry, computer science, and cryptography.
Here's a historical overview of the development of group theory:
1. Early Concepts and Permutations:
In the 18th century, mathematicians like Leonhard Euler and Joseph-Louis Lagrange worked on permutation groups. They studied the
properties of rearrangements of objects and introduced the concept of a group of permutations.
2.Galois Theory:
In the early 19th century, Evariste Galois made significant contributions to group theory while investigating the solutions of polynomial
equations. Galois introduced the concept of a normal subgroup and developed Galois theory, which established a deep connection between
groups and fields.
3. Sophus Lie and Continuous Groups:
In the mid-19th century, Sophus Lie developed the theory of continuous transformation groups. He studied the symmetries of geometric
objects and formulated the concept of a Lie group, which is a group with smooth manifolds as its elements.
4. Abstract Group Theory:
In the late 19th century, Arthur Cayley and Camille Jordan independently formulated the abstract definition of a group. They
abstracted the essential properties of permutations and other mathematical structures and provided axioms that define a group.
5. Sylow Theorems and Classification of Finite Simple Groups:
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mathematicians such as Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, Camille Jordan, and Ludwig Sylow
worked on the classification of finite simple groups. Sylow's theorems provided a powerful tool for analyzing the structure of finite groups.
6. Representation Theory and Group Actions:
In the early 20th century, representation theory emerged as an important branch of group theory. Mathematicians like Emmy Noether
and Hermann Weyl developed the theory of group representations, which involves studying how groups act on vector spaces.
7. Modern Developments:
In the mid-20th century, significant advancements were made in group theory. Claude Chevalley and others worked on algebraic groups,
which are groups defined by polynomial equations. John Thompson and others made progress in the classification of finite simple groups.
8. Computational Group Theory:
In the latter half of the 20th century, computational methods were developed for studying groups. Algorithms and computer programs
were created to analyze group properties, compute with groups, and solve group-related problems.

These are just some of the key milestones in the historical development of group theory. Since then, group theory has continued to grow
and evolve, with new concepts and applications being discovered and explored by mathematicians and researchers around the world.
 objective

The objective of group theory is to study the algebraic structures called groups.

The main objective of group theory is to understand the structure and properties of groups and to investigate the
relationships between different groups. This includes studying group operations, group elements, subgroup structures,
isomorphisms between groups, and various algebraic properties associated with groups.

In summary, the objective of group theory is to explore the abstract structures known as groups, understand their
properties, and apply this knowledge to solve problems in different mathematical and scientific domains.
 overview
I am going to highlight on some important topic of Group Theory which are listed below:

➢ Groups, Abelian Group and their properties ➢ Homomorphism and its properties
➢ Order of elements and groups ➢ Isomorphism and its Theorems
➢ Cyclic Groups and their properties ➢ Conjugate Elements and Centre of Groups
➢ Subgroups and their properties ➢ Normalizer of an element
➢ Coset Decomposition & Lagrange’s Theorem ➢ Class Equation
➢ Normal Subgroups and its Theorems ➢ Sylow’s Theorem
➢ Quotient Groups and its Theorems ➢ Some applications of Group Theory
➢ Permutation Groups
➢ Some important Groups
 GROUP THEORY
1. INTRODUCTION
Group theory is a branch of mathematics that deals with the study of symmetries, structures, and transformations within various
mathematical objects called groups. Theory of groups is one of the most important fundamental concepts of Modern Algebra. This theory
has wide practical application in the study of crystal structure, configuration molecules and of human genes. It has been applied by
Albert Einstein in his study of special theory of relativity.
At its core, group theory explores the properties and relationships of groups, which are sets equipped with an operation that
combines any two elements and satisfies certain axioms. These axioms typically include closure (the result of the operation on two
elements is also in the group), associativity (the order of operations does not matter), the existence of an identity element (a special
element that leaves other elements unchanged when combined), and the existence of inverses (every element has a unique element
that, when combined, yields the identity).Groups can be finite or infinite, and they can exhibit various structures and properties, such as
commutativity (when the order of the elements in the operation does not affect the result), subgroups (smaller groups contained within
a larger group), cosets (partitioning a group into disjoint subsets), and many more.
The study of group theory involves exploring the properties and structures of groups, understanding the relationship between
different groups, and developing mathematical techniques to analyze and solve problems using group-theoretic concepts. It provides a
powerful language and framework to describe and understand symmetry and structure in various mathematical and scientific contexts,
making it a valuable tool in many areas of research and application.
2. BINARY OPERATION
Let G be a non empty set. A function denoted by ‘○(or *)’, from G×G→G is called a binary operation on G if a*b ∈ G ∀ a, b ∈ G.
Example- Let,
G =ℤ (set of all integers), then
a*b=a×b a*b=𝒂𝒃
a*b=a+b a*b ∈ ℤ ∀ a, b ∈ ℤ a*b ∈ ℤ ∀ a, b ∈ ℤ
a*b=𝒂𝒃
a*b=a−b
2.1 SOME FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON BINARY OPERATION
a) Closure Property : A non empty set G is closed w.r.t binary c) Identity Element : Let G be a non empty set & ‘*’ be the binary
operation ‘*’ or G is said to satisfy closure property w.r.t ‘*’, if ∀ operation on G. Then ‘e’ is called the identity of set G for the
a, b ∈ G ⇒ a*b ∈ G operation ‘*’, if a*e = a = e*a ∀ a ∈ G.
Example- Let, Example- Let,
G = ℕ (set of all natural numbers), then ∀ a, b ∈ ℕ G = ℤ (set of all integers), then ∀ a, b ∈ ℤ
a*b=a×b a*b=a−b a*b=a+b a*b=a×b
∈ℕ ∉ℕ
a*b=a+b a*b=𝒂𝒃 Now, Now,
a+0= a =0+a ; 0 ∈ ℤ a × 1= a =1 ×a ; 1 ∈ ℤ
b) Associative Property : A non empty set G is said to satisfy Here, 0 is the identity element Here, 1 is the identity element
associative property w.r.t binary operation ‘*’, if ∀ a, b, c ∈ G w.r.t a*b = a+b w.r.t a*b = a×b
a*(b*c) = (a*b)*c {0 is a additive identity} {1 is a multiplicative identity}
 d) Inverse Element : Let ‘*’ be the binary operation defined on G e) Commutative Property : A non empty set G is said to satisfy
& let ‘e’ be the identity of set G w.r.t operation ‘*’ such that a*b = e commutative property w.r.t binary operation ‘*’ if ∀ a, b ∈ G, we
= b*a. Then ‘b’ is called the inverse of ‘a’ for the operation ‘*’. have a*b = b*a.
Example- Example- G = ℤ s.t, G = ℕ s.t,
a*b = a×b = 1 , where 1 is the identity element then b = 1/a. a*b = a-b then, a*b = a+b then,
b*a = b-a b*a = b+a
But, a*b≠b*a (Not Commutative) And, a*b=b*a (Commutative)
3. ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURE
A non empty set G equipped with one or more binary operations (compositions) defined on it is called an algebraic structure.
If ‘*’ is a binary operation on G, then (G,*) is an algebraic structure. Similarly (ℕ,+), (ℝ(set of real numbers) ,+,×) etc., are
algebraic structure. However, (ℕ, -1) is not an algebraic structure.
Some more examples are (ℤ, +), (ℚ(𝑠𝑒𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠), +), (ℚ0,×), (ℝ0,×), etc..
4. GROUP AND ABELIAN GROUP
a) Group- An algebraic structure of set G and a binary operation * defined in G i.e. ( G ,* ) is called a group if * satisfies the following
postulate:
[G1] Closure: a, b ∈ G ⇒ a*b ∈ G, ∀ a, b ∈ G [G4] Existence of Inverse: Each element of G is invertible,
[G2] Associativity: The composition * is associative in G i.e. i.e., for every a ∈ G , ∃ a-1 ∈ G such that
( a * b) * c = a * (b * c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ G a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e (Identity)
[G3] Existence of Identity: There exist an identity element ‘e’ in G such that
e*a=a*e=a, ∀a∈G
 b) Abelian/Commutative Group- A group ( G ,* ) is said to # Here is a table for different sets of numbers with different operations
be abelian group (after the name of Norweigan and their properties:
Mathematician N. Able) if ‘*’ is commutative, i.e. Set
+ − × ÷
Of
[G5] Commutativity: a*b=b*a, ∀a, b ∈ G Numbers
ℕ × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]

[G1] Closure Groupoid

ℤ [G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]
Semigroup
[G2] Associativity
ℚ [G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]
Monoid
[G3] Existence of Identity
ℝ [G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]

[G4] Existence of Inverse Group

ℚ − {𝟎}/ℚ𝟎 × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] [G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]

[G5] Commutativity Abelian Group

ℝ − {𝟎}/ℝ𝟎 × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] [G1][G2][G3][G4][G5] × × × ×
[G1][G2][G3][G4][G5]

4.1 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF GROUPS

For convenience, we shall now generally use the symbol ‘o’ for the group composition and we shall write ‘a o b’ simply as ‘ab’ unless
there is any ambiguity.
Theorem 1: Cancellation Laws Theorem 2: Uniqueness of Inverse
In a group ( G , o ), ∀a, b, c ∈ G, The inverse of an element in a group is unique. i.e.,
i) a o b=a o c ⇒ b=c (Left cancellation law); if a1-1 and a2-1 be two inverse of an element a of G then a1-1=a2-1.
ii) b o a=c o a ⇒ b=c (Right cancellation law); Remarks : The inverse of the identity of a group is Itself.
Theorem 3: Uniqueness of Identity Theorem 4:
The identity element in a group is unique. i.e., If a, b are elements of a group G, then the equations ax = b and ya = b have
if e1 and e2 be two identity element of G then e1=e2. unique solutions in G for the unknowns x and y; the solutions are x = a-1 o b and
y = b o a-1
Theorem 5:
If ( G , o ) is a group then ∀a, b ∈ G
i)(a-1)-1=a (The inverse of the inverse of an element is equal to the element);
ii)(ab)-1=b-1a-1[Reversal Law] (The inverse of the product of two elements is the product of the inverse in the reverse order).
# Generalised reversal law :
By principle of induction, the above theorem can be generalised as:
(abc.....p) -1 = p-1.... c-1 b-1 a-1
Remarks :
1. If the composition is addition (+) then this can be written as:
-(a + b) = (-b) + (-a)
2. If g is a commutative group, then for a, b ∈ G
(ab) -1 = a-1 b-1
4.2 Examples
Q. Show that if G={f1,f2,f3,f4} be a set of four functions defined by f1(x)=x, f2(x)=-x, f3(x)=1/x, f4(x)=-1/x ∀x ∈ ℝ − 𝟎 under composition
operation forms an abelian group.
Solution : The composition table for the set G is :
○ f1 f2 f3 f4 i)Closure: It appears from the table as the set G is closed under composition.
i.e. ∀ a, b ∈ G ⇒ a ○ b ∈ G iv)Inverse: From the table we can see that,
f1 f1 f2 f3 f4
ii)Associative: Composition is associative on G since, (f1)-1 = f1 , (f2)-1 = f2 , (f3)-1 = f3 , (f4)-1 = f4
f2 f2 f1 f4 f3 (fi ○ fj) ○ fk = fi ○ (fj○ fk); i, j, k = 1,2,3,4 ∴Inverse is satisfied
f3 f3 f4 f1 f2 iii)Identity: f1 in the top row indicates the identity. v)Commutative: The table is symmetric about the principle
f4 f4 f3 f2 f1 ∴Identity exists . diagonal .
∴Composition is commutative on G.
Hence, (G,○) is an abelian group under composition.
Note : Functions are not generally commutative but in some cases they may satisfy the property of commutative as we have seen in the
above example. But functions are always associative.
Q. Show that the set of cube root of unity is a finite abelian group with respect to multiplication.
Solution : The set of cube root of unity is G={1,𝜔, 𝜔2}, where 𝜔𝜔2= 𝜔3=1 and 1+𝜔 + 𝜔2 = 0. The composition table for the set G is :
× 1 𝜔 𝜔2 i)Closure: It appears from the table the set G is iii)Identity: 1 in the top row indicates the identity.
1 1 𝜔 𝜔2 closed under multiplication. ∴Identity exists .
2
i.e. ∀ a, b ∈ G ⇒ a×b ∈ G iv)Inverse: From the table we can see that,
𝜔 𝜔 𝜔 1
ii)Associative: Multiplication is associative on G since, (1)-1 = 1 , (𝜔)-1 = 𝜔2 , (𝜔2)-1 = 𝜔
𝜔2 𝜔2 1 𝜔 (1 𝜔) 𝜔2=1(𝜔 𝜔2) etc.. ∴Inverse is satisfied .
v)Commutative: The table is symmetric about the principle diagonal .
∴Multiplication is commutative on G. As G is finite. Hence, (G, ×) is a finite abelian group.
5. ORDER OF GROUP AND ELEMENT
a) Order of a Group: The number of elements of a group (finite or infinite) is called its order. Order of group G is denoted by
𝐺 𝒐𝒓 𝒐 𝑮 .
Example- The group ℤ of integers under addition has infinite order, whereas G={1,-1,i,-i} under multiplication has order 4.
b) Order of an Element: The order of an element ‘a’ in a group G is the smallest positive integer ‘n’ such that an=e.(In additive notation,
this would be na=0). If no such integer exists, we say that ‘a’ has infinite order(In some book it is written as zero order).
The order of an element ‘a’ is denoted by 𝑎 𝒐𝒓 𝒐 𝑎 . 𝜔2 × 𝜔2× 𝜔2 = (𝜔2)3 = 1 i.e. 𝜔2 = 3
In infinite group order of some elements may be finite but in finite group
order of every element is finite. Remarks :
Example- Consider the set G={1,𝜔, 𝜔2} under multiplication operation where i) Order of Identity element is always 1.
ii) If (G,○) is a commutative group then (a ○ b) n = an ○ bn.
1 is the identity element. Then, −1 i.e. if an=e then (a-1)n = e.
3
𝜔 × 𝜔 × 𝜔 = 𝜔 = 1 i.e. 𝜔 = 3 iii) 𝑎 = a

6. SUBGROUP
A nom empty subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if, Example- i) (ℤ, +) (ℚ, +)

𝛾
i) H is closed for the composition defined in G i.e., ii) (ℚ, +) (ℝ,+)

𝛾
∀ a, b ∈ H ⇒ a ○ b ∈ H iii) {1,-1}, {1,𝜔, 𝜔2}, {1,-1,i,-i} are subgroup of (ℂ0,×),
ii) H itself is a group for the composition induced by that of G. the group of non-zero complex number.
Symbolically the subgroup is represented by (H, ○) (G, ○) . iv) ({1,-1}, ×) ({1,-1,i,-i}, ×)

𝛾
𝛾
Remarks : If (H, ○) (G, ○), then

𝛾
i) Identity element (e) is same for both H and G
ii) If a∈ H ⇒ a ∈ G, then the inverse element i.e. ‘a-1’ is identical in both H and G i.e. a-1 ∈ H ⇒ a-1 ∈ G.
6.1 PRPOER AND IMPROPER (OR TRIVIAL) SUBGROUP
Every group G of order greater than one has at least two subgroups which are:
i) G (itself) ; ii) {e} i.e. the group of the identity alone. Example- The set ‘ E ’ of even integers is a proper subgroup of
The above two subgroups are known as improper or trivial subgroups. additive group (ℤ, +) , whereas the set ‘ O ’ of odd integers is
A sub group other than these two is known as a proper subgroup. not a subgroup of the additive groups (ℚ, +), (ℤ, +).
6.2 THEOREMS ON SUBGROUP
Theorem 1: A non void subset H of a group G is a subgroup iff Theorem 4: The intersection of any two subgroups of a group G is
a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒ab-1 ∈ H again a subgroup of G i.e. H1∩H2 G.

𝛾
Remarks : If the operator of the group is addition(+), then the above # Generalisation:
condition will be: a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒a-b ∈ H If H1 ,H2, …….. Hn be a finite family of subgroups of G, then H1∩H2
Theorem 2: A nonvoid finite subset H of a group G is a subgroup iff ∩…… ∩Hn is also a subgroup of G.
a ∈ H, b ∈ H ⇒ab ∈ H Remarks : The Union of two subgroups is not necessarily a
Theorem 3: If H and K are two subgroups of a group G, then HK is a subgroup.
subgroup of G, iff HK=KH. Note : If H and K are two subgroups of any group G, then their
product HK or KH need not be subgroup.
7. CYCLIC GROUP
A group (G, ○) is said to be a cyclic group if there exits an Example- Let G = ({1,-1,i,-i}, ×) be a group then
element ‘a’ in G such that G={an : n ∈ 𝑍} i.e. G= 𝑎 . ‘a’ is said to be i = i , i2 = -1 , i3 = -i , i4 = 1
∴ G = {i , i2 , i3 , i4}, where ‘ i ’ is the generator.
the generator of the cyclic group.
In additive notation G={na : n ∈ 𝑍}= 𝑎 . Remarks : If group is finite, then the order of the group is equal to
the order of the generator.
7.1 SOME IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF CYCLIC 7.2 EXAMPLES
GROUP Q. Find all the generators of the cyclic group (G={1,2,3,4}, ×5).
Solution : Here we have o(G)=4
Theorem 1: Every cyclic group is abelian.
So, its element is that element of G whose order is 4.
Remarks : An abelian group need not be cyclic We have,
Example- (ℝ,+) is an abelian but not cyclic. 12 = 1 ⇒𝑜 1 =1
Theorem 2: If ‘a’ is a generator of a cyclic group G, then ‘a-1’ is also its 21 = 2, 22 = 4, 23 = 3, 24 = 1 ⇒ 𝑜 2 = 4
generator. 31 = 3, 32 = 4, 33 = 2, 34 = 1 ⇒ 𝑜 3 = 4
41 = 4, 42 = 1 ⇒𝑜 4 =2
Theorem 3: Every infinite cyclic group has two and only two generators.
Clearly, 2,3 ∈ G such that
Theorem 4: Every subgroup of a cyclic group is also cyclic. o(2) = o(3) = 4 = o(G)
Corollary : Every proper subgroup of an infinite cycle group is infinite. ∴ G = 2 = 3 i.e. 2 & 3 are two generators of G.
8. COSETS
Let H be a subgroup of a group G and a ∈ G, then the set aH={ah : H + 0 = {0, ±2, ±4, ……}, 0 ∈ ℤ
h ∈ H} is called a left coset of H in G and Ha={ha : h ∈ H} is called a H + 1 = {±1, ±3, ±5, ……}, 1 ∈ ℤ
right cosets of H in G. H + 2 = {0, ±2, ±4, …….} = H , 2 ∈ ℤ etc . .
By this definition, it is clear that corresponding to every element It can be easily observed that any right coset and its
of G , we have a left coset and right coset of H in G. It is obvious that corresponding left coset are equal i.e. ,
aH ⊂ G , Ha ⊂ G ∀ a ∈ G H + 1 = 1 + H, H + 2 = 2 + H, . . . . . . etc.. Similarly,
Further we may note that eH = H = He i.e. the left and right Again, H + 3 = {±1, ±3, ±5, ……} = H + 1 H + 5 = H + 1, H + 6 = H
cosets of H, corresponding to the identity e , coincide with H . H + 4 = {0, ±2, ±4, ……} = H etc… etc..
Hence H itself is a left as well as a right coset of H in G . Thus H has only two distinct cosets H and H + 1 in ℤ
Example- Let G = (ℤ, +) and H = 2ℤ = {0, ±2, ±4,……} then the right Clearly G = H ∪ (H + 1)
cosets of H in G are : Remarks : There are n cosets in nℤ in (ℤ, +).
8.1 THEOREMS ON COSETS
Theorem 1: If H is a subgroup of a group G and a ∈ G then a ∈ aH and a ∈ Ha. Remarks : The converse of Lagrange’s theorem is not
always true i.e. if m is a divisor of n=o(G), then it is
Theorem 2: Any two left (right) cosets of subgroup are either identical or disjoint.
not necessary that G has a subgroup of order m.
Theorem 3: (Lagrange’s Theorem)
Theorem 4: If G is a group and H be a subgroups of G
The order of every subgroup of a finite group is a divisor of the order of the
and a,b ∈ G. Then aH=bH iff ab-1 ∈ H.
group. i.e. if o(G)=n, o(H)=m then m | n .
9. NORMAL SUBGROUP
A subgroup H of a group G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if, Further, since every cyclic group is abelian, we observe that every
for every x ∈ G, and for every h ∈ H, xhx-1 ∈ H . subgroup of a cyclic group is normal.
The definition is equivalent to saying that H is a normal The standard notation for “H is a normal subgroup of G” is HΔG.
subgroup of the group G, iff xHx-1 ⊂ H ∀ x ∈ G . Example- (H={1,-1},×) is a normal subgroup of (G= {1,-1,i,-i}, ×)
If xHx-1= H ∀ x ∈ G, then truly xHx-1 ⊂ H and so, by definition, because for every x ∈ G and h ∈ H
H is a normal subgroup of G. xhx-1= xx-1h=eh=h ∈ H [ ∵ G is commutative].
In this case, we have Note : i) The improper subgroup G of a group G is a normal subgroup of G.
(xHx-1) x= Hx or xH = Hx ∀ x ∈ G . ii) The condition aH = Ha doesn’t demand that for every h ∈ H ;ah=ha.
Again, let G be an abelian group and H be a subgroup of G. G
being abelian, we have xH = Hx ∀ x ∈ G . Thus H is a normal
subgroup in G.
9.1 THEOREMS ON NORMAL SUBGROUP
Theorem 1: Every subgroup of an abelian group is a normal subgroup. Theorem 4: If H be a subgroup of a group G and o(G)/o(H) = 2 i.e.
[G:H]=2, then H is normal in G.
Theorem 2: A subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup iff :
HΔG ⇔ xHx-1= H , ∀ x ∈ G Theorem 5: Intersection of two normal subgroup is also a normal
subgroup i.e.
Theorem 3: A subgroup H of a group G is a normal subgroup iff :
if H1 Δ G & H2 Δ G then H1∩H2 Δ G.
HΔG ⇔ xH = Hx ∀ x ∈ G .
10. QUOTIENT GROUP
Let G be a group and HΔG, then the set G/H (collection of all cosets of H) in G together with the binary composition defined by (Ha)o(Hb)
= Hab, where Ha, Hb ∈ G/H is a group, and is called the quotient group of G by H.
Remarks : i) If the composition in the group is addition (+), then the composition G/H is defined as (H + a) + (H + b) = H + (a + b)
ii) For the existence of the quotient group G/H, it is necessary that H is a normal subgroup of G.
10.1 EXAMPLES
Q. Find the quotient group G/H and also prepare its operations table when G =(ℤ,+), H=( 4ℤ ,+).
Solution : Since (ℤ, +) is a commutative group,
∴ ( 4ℤ ,+) Δ ℤ . Hence, G/H exists. The composition table of G/H is as shown below:
The cosets of H in G are as follows:
0 + H = H + 0 ={ ....,-8,-4,0,4,8,...} =H 2 + H = H + 2 ={ ......,-6,-2,2,6,10,...} + H H+1 H+2 H+3
1 + H = H + 1 ={......,-7,-3,1,5,9,...} 3 + H = H + 3 ={ ......,-5,-1,3,7,11,....}
We further observe that, H H H+1 H+2 H+3
H = H + 4 = H + 8 = H + 12 =....=H+(-4)=H+(-8)=....
H + 1 = H + 5 = H + 9 = H + 13 =....=H+(-3)=H+(-7)= .....
H+1 H+1 H+2 H+3 H
H + 2 = H + 6 = H + 10 = ….....=H+(-2) = H+(-6)= ..... H+2 H+2 H+3 H H+1
H + 3 = H + 7 = H + 11 = H + 15 =....=H+(-1)=H+(-5)= .....
Thus H has four distinct cosets and so H+3 H+3 H H+1 H+2
G/H = {H, H+1, H+2, H+3}
10.2 THEOREMS ON QUOTIENT GROUPS
Theorem 1: Every quotient group of an abelian group is abelian but not Theorem 2: Every quotient group of a cyclic group is cyclic but
conversely. not conversely.
Example- S3/A3 is an abelian group, while S3 is a non abelian group. The Example- S3/A3 ;being a group of order 2, necessarily cyclic
Order of group S3/A3 is 2 and every group of order 2 is abelian. but S3 is not cyclic group.
11. PERMUTATION
A permutation of a finite set S is a bijection from S to itself. Let, S={1,2,3,4} and f : S→S where f(1)=2, f(2)=3, f(3)=4,
f:S 1-1 onto S ⇒ if a∈S then f(a) ∈ S f(4)=1 then,
Notation : Let S be a finite set of N elements S = { a1, a2,……,an}, then permutation f = 𝑓1 1 𝑓2 2 𝑓 33 𝑓(4)4
=
1 2 3 4
f= 𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3 ..….. 𝑎𝑛 2 3 4 1
𝑓 𝑎1 𝑓 𝑎2 𝑓 𝑎3 …... 𝑓(𝑎𝑛)

11.1 IDENTITY PERMUTATION (f.g)(x)=fog(x)=g[f(x)]

1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Let S be a finite set of an elements then a permutation is called identity Example- Let, f = and g =
2 3 4 1 3 4 2 1
permutation iff, f(a)=a ∀ a∈S. 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Then fog = fg = =
2 3 4 1 3 4 2 1 4 2 1 3
11.2 PRODUCT OR COMPOSITION OF And, gf =
1 2 3 4
Here, f.g≠g.f
4 1 3 2
PERMUTATION Note : i) Permutation is associative, but not necessarily commutative.
Let f and g be permutation of a set S then product of two permutation ii) In composition of function(fog), we’ll first take the element of g,
is also a composition of permutation. but in composition of permutation, we will first take the element of f.
11.3 CYCLIC PERMUTATION
A permutation 𝜎 of a set S is a cycle if there exists a finite 1 2 3 4
Example- Let f = be a permutation then we can write
subset (a1, a2,……,an) of S such that 4 1 3 2
𝜎(a1)= a2 , 𝜎(a2)= a3 ,…………, 𝜎(an)= a1 a cycle.
If 𝜎(x)= x and x ∈ S, then x∉ (a1, a2,……,an) Here f(1) = 4, f(2) = 1, f(3) = 3, f(4) = 2 , then 𝜎 = (1 4 2) and 3 ∉ 𝜎
We can write the cyclic permutation of 𝜎 as 𝜎 = (a1 a2 a3 ……an) [∵ f(3) = 3]
11.4 LENGTH AND ORDER OF CYCLE 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Example- 𝜎 = = (1 4 5) (2 3 6) (7 8)
Number of elements in a cycle is called length of 4 6 2 5 1 3 8 7
cycle and length of cycle is also the order of cycle. = (1 4) (1 5) (2 3) (2 6) (7 8)
Example- 𝜎 = (1 4 2) then length is 3 and o(𝜎)=3
11.6 EVEN AND ODD PERMUTATION
Note : Length of identity permutation is 1. A permutation S is called an even (odd) if the total number of
11.5 TRANSPOSITION transpositions are even (odd).
A cycle of length 2 is called transposition. Note : i) A cycle of length ‘n’ is called even (odd) if ‘n’ is odd (even).
Example- 𝜎 = (1 2) , (a b) both are transposition. ii) Identity permutation is an even permutation.
Note : i) Order of every transposition is 2. iii) Every transposition is an odd permutation.
⇒ Every transposition is self inverse. 11.7 PERMUTATION GROUP
ii) Every permutation is a product of transposition.
The set SA of all permutation of a non void set A is a group for the product of
Let a cycle (a1 a2 a3 …… an-1 an) =
permutation and it is denoted by G = (SA,o) .
(a1 a2) (a1 a3)………(a1 an-1) (a1 an)
12. SOME IMPORTANT GROUPS
a) Symmetric Group (Sn) - The group of permutation of set {1, 2, 3 ,...,n} is called the symmetric group of degree ‘n’ and is denoted by Sn.
The order of this group is n! ⇒ O(Sn) = n! The composition table is given below:
Note : Sn is a non commutative group for n≥3 . ○ 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3
The group of permutation of set {1, 2, 3} is called symmetric group of 3-symbol 𝜌0 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3 It appears from the
and is denoted by S3 . The elements of the set are: table that (S3,○)
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 𝜌1 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜇3 𝜇2 𝜇1
𝜌0 = = 𝐼, 𝜌1 = = (1 2 3), 𝜌2 = = (1 3 2), 𝜌2 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜇1 𝜇3 𝜇2
forms a group.
1 2 3 2 3 1 3 1 2
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 𝜇1 𝜇1 𝜇3 𝜇2 𝜌0 𝜌1 𝜌2
𝜇1= = (2 3), 𝜇2= = (1 3), 𝜇3= = (1 2)
1 3 2 3 2 1 2 1 3
⇒S3={𝜌0, 𝜌1, 𝜌2, 𝜇1, 𝜇2, 𝜇3} where 𝜌0 is identity element . 𝜇2 𝜇2 𝜇3 𝜇1 𝜌2 𝜌0 𝜌1
𝜇3 𝜇3 𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜌1 𝜌2 𝜌0
b) Alternating Group (An) – The set of all even permutations on the set
{1,2,….,n} forms a group w.r.t, composition of permutations. c) Zn Group – The set Zn consists of the elements {0, 1,
The group is called the alternating group of degree ‘n’ and is denoted by 2,….,n-1} with addition mod n as the operation forms a
An . An contains n!/2 elements . An is a non-commutative group for n ≥ 4 . group i.e. ( Zn , +n ) is a group. We can also multiply
elements of Zn, but you do not obtain a group. The element
Note : Let Bn be the set of all permutations then we know that product of
0 doesn’t have a multiplicative inverse for instance.
two odd permutation is even. So closer doesn’t hold.
Hence, it is not a group under the product of permutation.
 d) Zn’ Group – The set Zn’ consists of the elements {1, f) Quaternion Group (Q8) – Let Q8={±1, ±i, ±j, ±k} and let ‘’ be the
2,….,n-1} with multiplication mod n as the operation binary operation defined on Q8 by
forms a group i.e. (Zn’ , × n ) is a group. We can also add ii=jj=kk=-1, ij=-ji=k, jk=-kj=i, ki=-ik=j.
elements of Zn’, but you do not obtain a group. As 0 is The composition table is given below:
not an element of Zn’ due to which it doesn’t satisfy the
 1 -1 i -i j -j k -k
property of group. (Q8,) is a group where 1 is the
1 1 -1 i -i j -j k -k
e) Un Group – Un is a finite set of ∅(n) elements identity element.
-1 -1 1 -i i -j j -k k
where ’∅(n)’ is Euler’s-phi function, and the set forms a As, ij=k, ji=-k ⇒ ij≠jI
group under multiplication mod n (× n). i i -i -1 1 k -k -j j ∴ Q is not abelian also non-cyclic.
8
In particular, if n be a prime, then every integer -i -i i 1 -1 -k k j -j Here, o(1)=1, (-1)2 =1 ⇒o(-1)=2,
less than n is prime to n and in this case Un = {1, 2, . . . . j j -j -k k -1 1 i -i i4 =1 ⇒ o(i)=4=o(-i),
j 4 =1 ⇒ o(j)=4=o(-j),
,n-1}, a group of order ‘n-1’. -j -j j k -k 1 -1 -i i
Example- U14 = {1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 13}, which forms a group k4 =1 ⇒ o(k)=4=o(-k),
k k -k j -j -i i -1 1
under ‘× 14’ i.e. (U14, × 14) is a group, where one is Subgroup of Q8 are,
the identity element and as it satisfy commutative -k -k k -j j i -i 1 -1 H1={1}, H2= −1 = {−1, −1 2},
axiom. H3= 𝑖 ={i, i2=-1, i3=-i, i4=1}= −𝑖 ,
So, (U14, × 14) is an abelian group . H4= 𝑗 ={j, j2=-1, j3=-j, j4=1}= −𝑗 ,
Note : Un ⊂ Zn but Un is not a subgroup of Zn as the H5= 𝑘 ={k, k2=-1, k3=-k, k4=1}= −𝑖 , H6=Q8
operation among them are not same. Here, H2 , H3 , H4 , H5 are cyclic group.
 g) Klein’s 4-Group (V) – Consider the finite set S={e, a, b, c}, on which the binary operation * is defined as in the composition table given
below : 13.1 PROPERTIES OF HOMOMORPHISM
* e a b c It is clear that (S,*) is an Theorem 1: If f is a homomorphism from a group G to G’ and if e and e’ be
e e a b c abelian group of ordered 4, each their respective identities, then:
element of the group being its own (i) f(e)=e’ ; (ii) f(a-1)=[f(a)]-1 , ∀a∈G
a a e c b
inverse and e being the identity of
b b c e a the binary operation. Theorem 2: If f is a homomorphism from a group G to G’, then
c c b a e This is known as Klein’s 4-group. (a) H is a subgroup of G ⇒ f(H) is a subgroup of G’.
(b) H’ is a subgroup of G’ ⇒ f-1(H’)={x∈G | f(x)=H’) is a subgroup of G.
13. HOMOMORPHISM Corollary : i) If a∈G & f(a)∈G’ then f(an)={f(a)}n , n
A mapping ‘ f ’ from a group (G,*) to a group (G’,o) is called a group being an integer ;
homomorphism (or group morphism) from G to G’ if ii) If f is homomorphism from a group G to G’,
f(a*b) = f(a) o f(b) ∀ a, b ∈ G. then f(G) is a subgroup of G’ ;
Thus, If f is a morphism from G to G’, then it preserves the composition in both the iii) If a∈G & f(a)∈G’ and o(a) is finite then o(f(a))
groups, G and G’ i.e., is a divisor of o(a).
Image of the composite = Composite of images.
Example- Let (ℤ, +) be the additive group of integers and (G = {1,-1,i,-i}, ×) be
the multiplicative group of fourth root of unity. The mapping f: (ℤ, +) → (G, ×);
where f(x)=ix,∀ x∈ ℤ is a homomorphism of ℤ into G because for any x1,x2∈ ℤ,
f(x1+x2)=i x1+x2 = i x.1 i x2 = f(x1)×f(x2)
13.2 KERNEL OF HOMOMORPHISM 14. ISOMORPHISM
Let (G,*) and (G’,o) be two groups and f :G→G’ be a homomorphism. Then the A morphism f of a group (G,*) to a group (G’,o) is
kernel of ‘f’, denoted by ker(f) is a subset of G defined by an isomorphism if
ker(f) = {x ∈ G : f(x) = e’ ∈G’} i) f is one-one i.e. f(a)=f(b)⇒a=b ∀ a, b ∈ G,
ker(f) is the set of those elements of G that are mapped to the identity ii) f is onto i.e. f(G)=G’, and,
element in G’. iii) f is morphism i.e. f(a*b)=f(a)of(b).
Example- f:C0→C0; f(z)=z4, z ∈ C0 is a homomorphism on C0 because for any z1 , z2 From the above definition, it is clear that a group
∈ C0, f(z1 z2) = (z1  z2)4 = z14z24 and morphism is an isomorphism. If f is bijection.
ker(f) = {z ∈ C0 | f(z)=1} = {z ∈ C0 | z4=1} = {1, -1, i, -i} 14.1 ISOMORPHIC GROUPS
13.3 THEOREMS ON HOMOMORPHISM A group G is said to be isomorphic to a group G’,
Theorem 1: If f is a homomorphism from a group G to G’ with kernel K, then KΔG. if there exist an isomorphism of G onto G’.
Symbolically, we write it as G≅G’.
Theorem 2: Every homomorphic image of a cyclic group is cyclic, but not
Example- For every group G the identity mapping
conversely. i.e. if f is a homomorphism of a cyclic group from G= 𝑎 to a group
IG defined by
G’ and f(G) is a subgroup of G’ then f(G) is cyclic. IG : G →G, IG(x)=x ∀ x∈G
Theorem 3: Every group is homomorphic to its quotient group. Is an isomorphism of G onto itself, because IG
Corollary : If P be a homomorphism of G onto G/N, defined as above then ker(P)=N. is clearly one-one onto and
a, b ∈ G . And,
Theorem 4: Every homomorphic image of a group G is isomorphic to some quotient IG(ab)=ab=IG(a).IG(b).
group of G i.e. G/K ≅ G.
14.2 EXAMPLES
Q. Prove that the following groups are isomorphic groups :
a) (ℝ(+ve),×) and (ℝ,+), f: ℝ(+ve)→ ℝ, where f(x)=log x. ; b) (G={1, -1}, ×) and (S2,o), f : G →S2.
Solution : a) Here, f : ℝ(+ve) → ℝ, where f(x)=log x, ∀ x∈ ℝ b) Here, G={1, -1} & G’=S2={I, (a b)} where, Define a map f from G to G’ as,
We know that for any x1, x2 ∈ ℝ(+ve) ; I→Identity permutation = 𝒂𝒂 𝒃𝒃 f(1)=I , f(-1) = (a, b)
f(x1)=f(x2) ⇒ log x1 = log x2 ⇒ x1= x2
(a b) → Cyclic permutation = 𝒂𝒃 𝒂𝒃 Clearly, f is bijection, and,
∴ f is one-one. f(x1 × x2)=f(x1) o f(x2)
And for every x ∈ ℝ , ∃ ex ∈ ℝ(+ve) such that Case I: When x1=1 & x2=-1
f(ex) = log ex = x f(1 ×(-1)) = f(-1) = (a b) Case III: When x1=-1 & x2=-1
∴f is onto. = Io(a b) = f(1) o f(-1) f((-1) ×(-1)) = f(1) = I
Again, f(x1 × x2)=log(x1 × x2) = log(x1)+log(x2) = f(x1)+f(x2) Case II: When x1=1 & x2=1 = (a b)o(a b)
∴ f is homomorphism . f(1 ×1) = f(1) = I = Io I = f(1) o f(1) = f(-1) o f(-1)
Hence, f is an isomorphism. Hence, G ≅ S2 .

14.3 THEOREMS ON ISOMORPHISM

Theorem 1: A homomorphism f defined from a group G onto G’, is an isomorphism iff ker(f)={e}
Theorem 2: The relation of isomorphism ‘≅’ in the set of all groups is an equivalence relation.
Theorem 3: Cayley Theorem
Every group is isomorphic to some permutation group i.e. G ≅ Pn .
15. CONJUGATE ELEMENTS 15.2 SELF CONJUGATE ELEMENTS
Let a, b be two elements of a group G then ‘b’ is said to be Let ‘a’ be an element of a group G and if conjugate class of ‘a’ contains
conjugate of ‘a’ if ∃ an element x ∈ G such that “b=x-1ax”. only one member a ∈ G then ‘a’ is said to be self conjugate element.
We write it as b~a. We know that C(a)={x-1ax|x ∈ G}.
Example- Let G=S4 , For a ∈ ( 3 4 2 1 ), ∃ x=( 3 4 ) If ‘a’ is self conjugate element, then
Then x-1ax=( 3 4 ) ( 3 4 2 1 ) ( 3 4 ) = ( 3 2 1 4 ) = b C(a)={a = x-1ax|∀x ∈ G} or, C(a)={ax = xa|∀x ∈ G} .
So, a and b are conjugate in S4. Example- G = Q8={±1, ±i, ±j, ±k},
But a and b are not conjugate in A4 because ( 3 4 ) ∉ A4. Then 1 and -1 are self conjugate.
Note : i) Order of all conjugate elements are same. 15.3 CENTRE OF A GROUP
ii) Relation of conjugacy is an equivalence relation. The set Z(G) of all self conjugate element of group G is called centre
15.1 CONJUGATE CLASS of group.
Let a be an element of a group G, then the set of all Z(G)={a ∈ G | ax = xa|∀x ∈ G}
conjugate elements of a in G is said to be conjugate class of a Example- Let, G = Q8={±1, ±i, ±j, ±k}, then Z(Q8)={ 1, -1 }
in G. We denote it by C(a). Note : The centre Z(G) of a group G is a normal subgroup of G.
C(a)={x ∈ G | x ~ a} or C(a)={x-1ax|x ∈ G}.
Example- Let G = S3 , then C( 1 2 ) = { ( 1 2 ), ( 1 3 ), ( 2 3 ) } &,
C( 1 2 3 ) = { ( 1 2 3 ), ( 1 3 2 ) }.
16. NORMALIZER OF AN ELEMENT
Let G be a group and if a ∈ G, then the normalizer of a in G is defined as, N(a)={x∈G | ax=xa} i.e. N(a) consists of those elements in G
which commute with a.
Now, N(i)={ ±1, ±i }, since ±j and ±k are not commute with i.
Note : i) Let G be an abelian group and a∈G, then N(a)=G. Similarly, N(-i)={ ±1, ±i }, N(±j)={ ±1, ±j }, N(±k)={ ±1, ±k }.
ii) If a∈Z(G), then N(a)=G.
Example- G = Q8={±1, ±i, ±j, ±k}. Remarks : Normalizer N(a) of an element ‘a’ of a group G is a subgroup of G.
We know that Z(Q8)={ 1, -1 } Note : N(a) is not necessarily a Normal subgroup of G.
So, N(1)= Q8 and N(-1)= Q8 Example- Let G=S3, then N{( 1 2 )}={I, (1 2)} which is not normal in S3.
16.1 NORMALIZER OF SUBGROUP 17. CLASS EQUATION
Let G be a group and H be its subgroup then normalizer #Class equation for a finite group: Let G be a finite group and C(a ), C(a ),. .
1 2
of subgroup is, N(H)={x∈G | xH=Hx} . .C(ak) are distinct class in G, then G is union of all classes i.e.
Example- Let G = S3 = {I, (1 2), (1 3), (2 3), (1 2 3), (1 3 2)} G=‫)𝑎(𝐶 𝐺∈𝑎ڂ‬
and H=A3 = {I, (1 2 3), (1 3 2)} 𝑜(𝐺)
i.e. o(G) = o [Z(G)] + σ𝑎∉𝑍(𝐺)
Now we have to find a right and left coset of H in G. 𝑜[𝑁 𝑎 ]
I A3 = A3 I This equation is called class equation of G.
Similarly, (1 2)H = H(1 2), (1 3)H = H(1 3), (2 3)H = H(2 3), Example- In G=S3
(1 2 3)H = H(1 2 3), (1 2 3)H = H(1 2 3). We know that,
So, N(A3)=S3 Z(G)={I}, C( 1 2 ) = { ( 1 2 ), ( 1 3 ), ( 2 3 ) }, C( 1 2 3 ) = { ( 1 2 3 ), ( 1 3 2 ) }
Note : Normalizer of Subgroup is also subgroup of group. Then class equation will be 6=1+3+2.
18. SYLOW’S THEOREM ⇒ There is 2-SSG of order 4 which is group itself.
# Cauchy’s Theorem- Let G be a finite group and p is a prime So, 2-SSG is conjugate subgroup of itself.
number and if p | o(G), then G has an element of order p . iii) Sylow’s Third Theorem:
i) Sylow’s First Theorem: The number of Sylow-p subgroup of a finite group G is of the
Let G be a group and p be a prime numbers. If pm | o(G) but form 1+kp, for some integer k≥ 0 such that 1+kp | o(G) .
pm+1 | o(G), m>0 then G has a subgroup of order pm . Example- Let o(G) = 30=2 × 3 × 5
This type of subgroup is called Sylow-p subgroup or p-SSG and ∴ Order of 2-SSG = 2.
order of p-SSG is pm. Number of 2-SSG(n2)= 1+2k
Example- Let O(G) = 1225 = 72 × 52. k=0, 1, 2, 7
Then G has a subgroup of order 49 which is called 7-SSG n2=1, 3, 5, 15 (So here 15 is the last value as no number
and, G has a subgroup of order 25 which is called 5-SSG. greater than 15 divides 30)
Order of 3-SSG = 3
ii) Sylow’s Second Theorem: Number of 3-SSG(n3) = 1+3k
Any two Sylow p-subgroup of a finite group G are conjugate k=0, 3
in G i.e. if P & Q n3=1, 10
are two p-SSG of G then either P=y-1Qy for some y ∈ G or Q=x- Order of 5-SSG = 5
1Px for some
Number of 5-SSG(n5) = 1+5k
x ∈ G. k=0
Example- Let G be Klein’s four group. n5=1
Then o(G)=4=22
19. SOME APPLICATIONS OF GROUP THEORY
Certainly! Here are several applications of group theory in different fields:
1. Physics: Group theory plays a fundamental role in understanding symmetries and conservation laws in physics. It provides a
mathematical framework to describe and analyze the behavior of physical systems. For example, the study of symmetry groups helps
in understanding the properties of crystals (crystallography) and the behavior of particles (particle physics). Group theory is also
essential in quantum mechanics, where it is used to describe symmetries of wave functions and determine selection rules for
transitions between energy levels.
2. Chemistry: Group theory finds applications in chemistry, particularly in the field of molecular symmetry. By analyzing the symmetry
properties of molecules, group theory helps determine their molecular orbitals, vibrational modes, and spectroscopic properties. It
aids in understanding the behavior of chemical reactions, predicting reaction rates, and analyzing the electronic structure of
molecules. Group theory is also used in crystallography to classify and analyze the symmetries of crystals.
3. Coding Theory: Group theory has applications in coding theory, which deals with error detection and correction in data transmission.
Error-correcting codes can be constructed using groups and their algebraic properties. Group-based codes allow for efficient error
detection and correction algorithms and find applications in various communication systems, including wireless communication and
data storage.
4. Cryptography: Group theory plays a crucial role in modern cryptography, ensuring the security of communication and data
transmission. Techniques such as the Diffie-Hellman key exchange and the RSA algorithm rely on the properties of groups,
particularly the difficulty of certain mathematical problems related to groups. Group theory helps design secure cryptographic
protocols and analyze their strength against attacks.
5. Music Theory: Group theory has surprising applications in music theory, particularly in the study of harmony and chord progressions.
By analyzing the symmetries and transformations of musical structures, group theory can provide insights into chord progressions,
tonalities, and musical relationships. It offers a mathematical framework to understand the structure and patterns in music
compositions.
6. Combinatorics and Graph Theory: Group theory finds applications in combinatorics and graph theory, which deal with counting,
arranging, and analyzing discrete structures. Groups can be used to study permutations and symmetries of combinatorial objects,
such as arrangements, permutations, or graphs. Group-based techniques are employed to solve problems related to symmetries,
isomorphisms, and automorphisms in combinatorial structures.
7. Computer Science: Group theory has applications in various areas of computer science, including algorithms, cryptography, coding
theory, and network analysis. Group-based techniques are used in algorithm design, particularly for problems involving symmetry
and permutation groups. Group theory also plays a role in analyzing the connectivity and properties of networks and graphs in
computer networks and social networks.

These are just a few examples of the wide-ranging applications of group theory. Its versatility and abstraction make it a powerful tool
for understanding symmetries, structures, and transformations in diverse areas of mathematics, physics, chemistry, cryptography, and
computer science.
 Future scope
Group theory, as a branch of abstract algebra, has been extensively studied and applied in various fields of mathematics
and beyond. While the foundations of group theory have been well-established, there are still several avenues for future
exploration and advancements. Here are some potential areas of future scope in group theory:
1. Representation Theory: The study of group representations and their applications has vast potential for further
investigation. Exploring new types of representations, developing techniques for analyzing and classifying representations,
and investigating connections between different areas of mathematics (such as number theory and geometry) could lead
to significant breakthroughs.
2. Computational Group Theory: Advancements in computational methods and algorithms have opened up exciting
possibilities in computational group theory. Developing efficient algorithms for computing with groups, solving computational
problems related to groups, and exploring applications in cryptography and coding theory are areas of ongoing research.
3. Infinite Group Theory: While much of group theory has focused on finite groups, there is still much to explore in the
realm of infinite groups. Investigating properties and classifications of infinite groups, studying their subgroup structures,
and understanding their interactions with other areas of mathematics can contribute to a deeper understanding of
infinite group theory.
4. Geometric Group Theory: The interplay between group theory and geometry offers intriguing prospects for future
research. Studying groups from a geometric perspective, investigating their actions on spaces, and exploring geometric
properties of group presentations provide fertile ground for further exploration and applications.
5. Applications in Physics and Chemistry: Group theory plays a fundamental role in quantum mechanics,
crystallography, and molecular symmetry. Continuing to explore and develop group-theoretic techniques for analyzing the
symmetries and structures in physical and chemical systems can lead to advancements in these fields.
6. Algebraic Topology and Homotopy Theory: Exploring the connections between group theory and algebraic
topology/homotopy theory offers exciting prospects. Investigating group actions on topological spaces, studying higher
homotopy groups of spaces, and applying algebraic topology techniques to problems in group theory can lead to new
insights and developments.

These are just a few potential areas of future scope in group theory. As with any vibrant field of mathematics, ongoing
research and exploration will likely lead to new discoveries, connections, and applications, further enriching our
understanding of groups and their role in various disciplines.
 conclusion
Here, I have come to the end of this project on the topic “Group Theory and Its Application”.
I would like to share my experience while doing this project. I learnt new things about the topic and it was wonderful
learning experience for me while working on this project.

“Group Theory is a fascinating and essential branch of abstract algebra that studies symmetry, transformations, and
the inherent structure of mathematical objects known as group. Its concepts are elegant and provide a foundation for
understanding the world of abstract algebra and its applications in real-world problem-solving. Whether in mathematics,
physics, or computer science, Group Theory continues to be an indispensable and captivating field of study.”

This project increased my research, thinking skill and interest in this Topic.
A very special thanks to our honorable Principal Sir “Sri Gautam Das” and our respected HOD mam “Smt.
Mitu Das” for setting such target for us. I enjoyed every bit for making this project.
 bibliography
For successfully completing my project file I have taken help from the following books and website links :-

Books:
• Higher Algebra (SK Mapa) ; Levant Book ; 2019
• Advanced Higher Algebra (J.G. Gosh and P.R. Chakravorty) ; U.N. Dhur & Sons Pvt. Ltd ; 2018
• Abstract Algebra (Joseph A Gallian) ; CRC Press ; 2021

Websites:
• www.google.com
• www.wikepedia.com
• www.youtube.com