THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

• Sigmund Freud is the father of

psychoanalysis.
SIGMUND FREUD
• The psychoanalytic theory believes
all humans have unconscious
desires, feelings, and memories. By
studying human development,
Freud believed childhood trauma
and experience form the basis of
unwanted behavior and repressed
emotions in adulthood, including
the development of a person.
• His theory sparked the ideas in the
brilliant minds of other theorists
and thus became the starting point
of many other theories, notable of
which is Erikson’s Psychosocial
theory
• Freud is the most famous psychologist who
studied the development of personality.
• Founder of Psychosexual development theory.
• Develops 5 distinct stages of Psychosexual
Development.
• According to Freud, a person goes through the sequence of
these five stages, and along the way, there are needs to be
met. Whether the person will develop a healthy personality
or not.
• Freud identified specific Erogenous zones for each stage of
development.
• The erogenous zone or “ pleasure area” becomes a focal
point for the particular stage.
• Fixation occurs when needs are not met along the area.
• As an adult, the person will now manifest behaviors related
to this erogenous zone.
EROGENOUS ZONE
• Especially sensitive to sexual stimulation, as certain areas
of the body: erogenous zones.
• Arousing or tending to arouse sexual desire; sexually
stimulating.
• Pleasure Area

FIXATION
• Is a concept in human psychology that was originated by
Sigmund Freud (1905) to denote the persistence of
anachronistic sexual traits. The term subsequently came to
denote object relationships with and attachments to people
or things, in general, persisting from childhood into adult
life.
FIVE PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF
DEVELOPMENT
ORAL STAGE (First year)
Related to later mistrust and rejection issues

ANAL STAGE (Ages 2-4)

Related to later personal power issues

PHALLIC STAGE (Ages 4-6)

Related to later sexual attitudes

LATENCY STAGE (Ages 5-11)

A time of socialization

GENITAL STAGE (Ages 12-60)

Sexual energies are invested in life
ORAL STAGE (Birth to 18 months)
• The erogenous zone is the mouth. During this stage,
the child is focused on oral pleasures (sucking) such
as thumb sucking, breastfeeding, etc. Too much or
too little satisfaction can lead to an Oral Receptive
which has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink
alcohol, overeat, or Oral Aggressive, a strong
tendency to bite his/her nails or use curse words or
even gossip.
ANAL STAGE (18 months to 3 years old)
• The child’s focus of pleasure is the anus. The child
finds satisfaction in eliminating and retaining feces.
Through society’s expectations, particularly the
parents, the child needs to work on toilet training. 1
year and a half of three years child’s favorite word
might be “No”. Therefore a struggle might exist in
the toilet training process when the child retains
feces when asked to eliminate it or may choose to
defecate when asked to hold feces for some reason.
In terms of personality fixation during this stage
Anal retentive is an obsession with cleanliness,
perfection, and control, and Anal Expulsive where
the person may become messy and disorganized.
PHALLIC STAGE (Age 3-6)
• The pleasure or erogenous zone is the genitals.
During preschool will sometimes become interested
in what makes boys and girls different. Preschoolers
will sometimes be seen fondling their genitals. Castration Anxiety Fear of
Freud’s studies led him to believe that at this stage, punishment for affectionate
unconscious sexual feelings for
boys develop an unconscious sexual desire for their parents with opposite sex.
mothers. And see their father as a rival for her - Oedipus Complex
- Electra Complex
mother’s affection.
 Oedipus Complex
According to Freud, in the Phallic Stage the
desire or libido of children is centered upon the
genitalia. While in this stage, children become
aware of their genitals and gender differences as
well as the difference between males and
females. Freud also alters the parent-child
relationship. During the phallic stage, the male
child begins to desire his mother sexually and
treats the father as a rival. (Mama’s Boy)

Electra Complex
Female child develops unconscious sexual
attraction towards their father. And treat their
mother as a rival. (Papa’s Girl)
 According to Freud, boys
eventually identify with their
father develop masculine
characteristics, and repress
their sexual feelings towards
their mother. A fixation at
this stage could result in
sexual deviancies and a
weak or confused sexual
identity.
LATENCY STAGE (Age 6 to Puberty)
• This stage remains sexually repressed. The child’s
focus is the acquisition (developing of skills, habit,
or quality) of physical and academic skills. Boys
usually relate more with boys and girls with girls
during this stage.
GENITAL STAGE (Puberty onwards)
• The fifth stage of psychosexual development begins
at the start of puberty when sexual urges towards the
opposite sex peers, with the pleasure centered on the
genitals
FREUD’S PERSONALITY
COMPONENTS
• Freud says that a child is born
with the id. The id plays a vital
role in one’s personality because
as a baby, it works so that the
baby’s essential needs are met.
The id operates on the pleasure
needs. It focuses on immediate
gratification or satisfaction of its
needs.
• A baby turns into a toddler and then
into a preschooler he/she relates
more with the environment the ego
slowly begins to emerge.
• It refers to help id meet its needs.
• The ego operates using the reality.
• It is practical because it knows that
being impulsive or selfish can result
in negative consequences.
SUPEREGO
• Near the end of the preschool
years, or the end of the phallic
stage, the superego develops.
The superego embodies a
person’s moral aspect. This
develops from what the
parents, teachers, and other
persons who exert influence
impart to be good or moral.
• The superego is likened to
conscience because it exerts
influence on what one
considers right or wrong.
 contains all of the thoughts, memories,
feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at
any given moment. This is the aspect of our
mental processing that we can think and talk
about rationally.

consists of anything that could

potentially be brought into the
conscious mind.

is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and

memories that are outside of our conscious
awareness. The unconscious contains contents
that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
ERIK ERIKSON
• Erik Erikson was an ego
psychologist who
developed one of the
most popular and
influential development
theories.
• Erikson's theory
centered on psychosocial
development
 Erikson’s forces:
• Erikson's theory described the impact of
social experience across the whole
lifespan. Erikson was interested in how
social interaction and relationships played
a role in the development and growth of
human beings.
• In each stage, Erikson believed people
experience a conflict that serves as a
turning point in development.
 Erikson’s forces:
• If people successfully deal with the
conflict, they emerge from the stage with
psychological strengths that will serve
them well for the rest of their lives. If
they fail to deal effectively with these
conflicts, they may not develop the
essential skills needed for a strong sense
of self.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.
 Psychosocial Conflict: Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt

Children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to perform basic
actions on their own and make simple decisions about what they prefer. By allowing kids
to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a
sense of autonomy
Children begin to assert their power and control over the world through directing
play and other social interactions.
- Successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and a lack of initiative
Children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a
sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority
This stage plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads
to strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers
the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or
creating a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of
usefulness and accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and
determine if they are happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they
did or didn't do.
- Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair.
 IVAN PAVLOV’S
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• Ivan Pavlov, Russian
physiologist
• Classical conditioning
is a type of unconscious
or automatic learning.
• This learning process
creates a conditioned
response through
associations between an
unconditioned stimulus
and a neutral stimulus.
 Classical Conditioning Definitions

Also sometimes referred to as Pavlovian

conditioning—uses a few different terms to help
explain the learning process. Knowing these basics
will help you understand classical conditioning.

Unconditioned Stimulus: a stimulus or trigger that

leads to an automatic response. If a cold breeze makes
you shiver, for instance, the cold breeze is an
unconditioned stimulus; it produces an involuntary
response (the shivering).
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that doesn't initially
trigger a response on its own. If you hear the sound of a
fan but don't feel the breeze, for example, it wouldn't
necessarily trigger a response. That would make it a
neutral stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that was once

neutral (didn't trigger a response) but now leads to a
response. If you previously didn't pay attention to dogs,
but then got bit by one, and now you feel fear every
time you see a dog, the dog has become a conditioned
stimulus.
Unconditioned Response: An automatic response or a
response that occurs without thought when an unconditioned
stimulus is present. If you smell your favorite food and your
mouth starts watering, the watering is an unconditioned
response.

Conditioned Response: A learned response or a response

that is created where no response existed before. Going back
to the example of being bit by a dog, the fear you experience
after the bite is a conditioned response.
 B. F. SKINNER’S
OPERANT CONDITIONING

• Skinner is regarded as the

father of Operant
Conditioning.
• According to this
principle, behavior that is
followed by pleasant
consequences is likely to
be repeated, and behavior
followed by unpleasant
consequences is less likely
to be repeated.
 3 Types of Responses/Operant
Neutral Operant: responses from the environment that
neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior
being repeated.

Reinforcement: Responses from the environment that

increase the probability of a behavior being repeated.
Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

Punishment: Responses from the environment that decrease

the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment
weakens behavior.
 ALBERT BANDURA
SOCIAL COGNITIVE LEARNING
THEORY
• Social Cognitive Theory is
based upon the work of Albert
Bandura. It is also referred to
as Social learning theory.
• This theory attempts to
understand the process that is
involved in explaining how we
learn from each other
• It focuses on learning that occurs by direct
experience by observing, imitating, and modeling

• It provides a framework for understanding,

predicting, and potentially changing human
behavior.
Aspects of Bandura’s theory are that:
• children learn by observing others,
• the same set of stimuli may provoke different responses
from different people, or from the same people at
different times
• the environment and a person’s behavior are interlinked;
• personality is an interaction between three factors: the
environment, behavior, and a person’s psychological
processes.
All 3 play an important role in the learning process. They are constantly influencing each
other

Environmental factors would include Social aspects - peers, family, and teachers
and Physical factors - the layout or size of the classroom or the temperature of the
room
 JEAN PIAGET’S
COGNITIVE THEORY

• Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive

development suggests that children
move through four different stages of
learning. His theory focuses not only on
understanding how children acquire
knowledge but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence

• Piaget's interest in the cognitive

development of children was inspired
by his observations.
SCHEMA
Piaget uses the term “Schema” to refer to the
cognitive structures by which individuals
intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment. It is an individual’s way of
understanding or creating meaning about a
thing or experience.
Example:

If a child sees a dog for the first time he creates

his own schema of what a dog is. It has four legs
and a tail. It barks. It is furry. The child then “puts
this description of a dog “on file” in his mind.
When he sees another similar dog, he “pulls” out
the file (his schema of a dog) in his mind, looks at
the animal, and says, “four legs, tail, barks,
fury…..That is a dog!”
ASSIMILATION
This is the process of fitting a new experience
into an existing or previously created
cognitive structure or schema.
Example:

If the child sees another dog, this time a

little smaller one, he would make sense
of what he is seeing by adding this new
information (a different-looking dog)
into his schema of a dog.
ACCOMMODATION
This is the process of creating a new
schema.

This happens when the existing schema

(knowledge) does not work and needs to be
changed to deal with a new object or
situation. Accommodation, the schema is
altered; a new schema may be developed.
Example:
If the same child now sees another
animal that looks a little bit like a dog
but is somehow different. He might try
to fit into his schema of a dog and say,
“Look, Mommy, what a funny-looking
dog. Its bark is funny too!” Then
Mommy explains, “That’s not a funny-
looking dog. That is a goat!” With
mommy’s further descriptions, the child
will now create a new schema, that of a
goat. He now adds a new file in his
filing cabinet
EQUILIBRATION
Equilibrium occurs when a child’s schemas
can deal with most new information through
assimilation. As a child progresses through
the stage of cognitive development, it is
important to maintain or achieve a proper
balance between applying previous
knowledge (assimilation) and changing
behavior to account for new knowledge
(accommodation).

Equilibrium helps explain how children are

able to move from one stage through to the
next.
 Babies start to build an
understanding of the world
through their senses by
touching, grasping,
watching, and listening.

They also begin to develop a sense

of object permanence, which means
they understand that objects exist
even when they cannot see them.
Children develop language
and abstract thought. This
means they can think about
concepts and ideas that are
not physical.

They also begin symbolic

play (“playing pretend”),
drawing pictures, and talking
about things that happened
in the past.
Children learn logical,
concrete (physical) rules
about objects, such as
height, weight, and volume.
They also learn that an
object’s properties stay the
same, even if the
appearance changes (e.g.,
modeling clay).
Adolescents learn logical
rules to understand abstract
concepts and solve
problems. For example, they
may understand the concept
of justice.
 LEV VYGOTSKY'S
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT
• Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of
human learning describes
learning as a social process and
the origination of human
intelligence in society or culture.

• Vygotsky's theoretical framework

is that social interaction plays a
fundamental role in the
development of cognition
 Sociocultural Theory
• All learning is social
- Knowledge is always socially constructed
• Culture shapes our learning & cognitive
development
- Culture ensures each new generation learns from
the previous
• Challenge is important to learning
- Learning happens best within our ZPD
-A more knowledgeable other knows what will
challenge us
Vygotsky defined the “More Knowledgeable Other” (MKO) as anyone who has a better understanding
or a higher ability level than the learner, particularly in regard to a specific task, concept, or
process. Traditionally the MKO is thought of as a teacher or an older adult
 Vygotsky's scaffolding is a theory that focuses on a student's
ability to learn information through the help of a more
informed individual. When used effectively, scaffolding can help
a student learn content they wouldn't have been able to process
on their own.