ORBITAL MECHANICS

ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
ORBITAL MECHANICS
SEMI MAJOR AND SEMI MINOR AXES
1. Azimuth Angle (Az)
angle (Az) is the angle at which the Earth station's disk is pointine .
The azimuth
the horizon.
measured eastward (clockwise) from North
The azimuth angle is an angle
direction in the local horizontal plane.
Local vertical
2. Elevation Angle (E)
Note : This is
Elevation angle (EI) is the true north
angle measured (not magnetic,
perpendicular (upward) to from compass)
the horizontal plane (in Path to
satellite
the vertical plane) to the
E
line-of-sight to the satellite. North
The antenna bore-sight
Az
must be rotated to
elevation angle to the Projection of path onto
satellite.Visibility requires East
local horizontal plane
positive El, otherwise it is
below the horizon. Fig. 2.2.1 Look angles: AZ and EI

Fig. 2.2.1 shows the geometry and definitions of the look angles with respect to
the earth station reference.

Calculating the Look Angles

Steps in calculating look angles are as under.
1. Need six orbital elements
2. Calculate the orbit from these orbital elements.
3. Define the orbital plane.
4. Locate satellite at time t with respect to the first point of Aries.
5. Find location of the Greenwich Meridian relative to the
first point of Aries.
6. Use spherical trigonometry to find the position of the satellite relative to a
point on the earth's surface.

2.2.1 Geometry for Elevation Calculation

Latitude : It is an angular distance, measured in degrees,
North or South of ht
equator. L from - 90 to + 90 (or from 90S to 90N)
Longitude : It is an angular distance, measured in degrees, from a given
longitudinal line (Greenwich, London). reference
Ifrom 0 to 360E (or 180W to 180E)
Satellite Coordinates
1. SUB-SATELLITE POINT

Latitude L
" Longitude 1,
2. EARTH STATION LOCATION
Latitude L,
- Longitude 1
3. Angle at earth center y
Between the line that connects the Earth-center to the satellite and the line from the
earth-center to the earth station.
" Fig. 2.2.2 shows look angle geometry.
Y= Central angle
I, = Radius to the satellite
d
Le = Radius of the earth
ES
E
" In the figure r is the vector from the -- ES-Horiz
center of Earth to satellite; d is the SSP
vector from Earth station to satellite.
These vectors are in the same plane
and form a triangle. The central angle y
measured between r, and Is is angle Earth
between the Earth station and the center

satellite, and y is measured from r, to

d.

The Central Angle y Fig. 2.2.2 Look angle geometry

" y is defined so that it is non-negative and by the law of cosines.
cos () = cos(Le) cos(Ls) cos(ls- le) + sin(Le) sin(Ls)
The elevation above Earth station vertical is,
El = y- 90°
The magnitude of the vectors joining the center of the Earth, the satellite and the
Earth station are related by the law of cosine :
1/2

" It is the communications path length, d, along which path losses will be
calculated.
Elevation Calculation
the coordinates of the Subsatellite
from
The elevation angle can then be calculated station, the satellite orbital radius, and
earth
Point (SSP), the coordinates of the
carth radius, as follows :
By the sines law d
sin (W) sin ()
Which yields cos (El)
sin()
qi/2

Note : El must be positive for visibility.

Azimuth Calculation

lo find the azimuth angle, an intermediate angle, a, must first be found. The
intermediate angle allows the correct quadrant to be found since the azimuthal
direction can lie anywhere between 0 (true North) and clockwise through 360°
(back to true North again).
" The intermediate angie is found from
= tan tan (!, -l, )
sin (L)
Case 1 : Earth station in the Northern hemisphere with
a) Satellite to the SE of the Earth station : Az = 180° a
b) Satellite to the SW of the Earth station : Az = 180o + a
Case 2 : Earth station in the Southern Hemisphere with
c) Satellite to the NE of the Earth station : Az = O
d) Satelite to the NW of the Earth
station : Az = 360°- .
olved Examples

Find the elevation and azimuth

look angles for the
for foBlowing case : geostationary INTELSAT
Eurth stution latit ude 52° N
Earth station longitude 0"
Satellite latitude 0
Satellite longitude 66°E
Solution:

Step 1- Central angle y :

cos (7) = cos(L) cos (, -)
cos(52) cos(66)
= 0.2504
Y = 75.4981°

Step 2Elevation angle EI:

Cos y - 'e
r
El = tan -1
sin y

El = tan(0.2504 - (6378.14 / 42164)) / sin(75.4981)]

= 5.85°

Step 3 - Intermediate angle a :

a = tan
tan(1, -e)
sin (Le)
= tan [(tan (66 0))/sin (52)]
= 70.6668
The Earth station is in the Northern hemisphere and the satellite is to the South East
of the Earth station. This gives
Az = 180° - a

= 180 - 70.6668 = 109.333° (clockwise from true North)

Answer : The look-angles to the satellite are

Elevation angle=5.85
Azimuth angle = 109.33°
Visibility Test
A simple test, called the visibility test will quickly tell you whether you can
operate a satellite into a given location.
Apositive (or zero) elevation angle requires
 cos (Y)
This gives
Y Scos

Operational Limitations
1. For geostationary satellites yS 81.3°
2. This would give an elevation angle = 0°
3. Not normal to operate down to zero
4. Usual limits are C-band 5°
Ku-band 10°
Ka- and V-band 20°

2.3 Orbital Perturbation

The movement of the satellite in its orbit is determined by the forces acting on the
centre of mass. The orbital parameters can be obtained from the position and
velocity vectors of the satellite by a geometric transformation. In the case of a
perturbed orbit, the orbital parameters are no longer constant but are a function of
the date for which the transformation is applied.
A satellite must remain in geostationary orbit once it is injected, but in practice
there are many secondary influences that dhanges the orbit slowly over a long
period of time.
Perturbations of the orbit are the result of various forces which are exerted on the
satellite other than the forces of attraction of the central, spherical and
homogeneous body. These forces mainly consists of -
a) Non-spherical components of terrestrial attraction.
b) The attraction of the Sun and the Moon.
c) Solar radiation pressure.
d) Aerodynamic drag
e) Atmospheric drag.
The first two contributions are
gravitational forces, other forces do not depend on
the mass of the satellite.
2.3.1 Effects of Nonspherical Earth
The Earth is not a perfect spherical homogeneous body. The Earth is flattened at
the poles and there is non uniform mass distribution, this is known as Earth's
oblateness. The orbital period considering Earth's oblateness is called as
anomalistic period.
The anomalistic period is given by
2n
Pananomalistic 11
Sec

where n is in radians per sec.

" The mean motion of satellite is given by Kepler's third law by relation -
n=
Va3
where a is semi-major axis.
This semi major axis a, is affected by earth's oblateness.
2.3.2 Attraction of the Moon and Sun
The Moon and the Sun each create a gravitational potential. The gravitation pulls
Sun and Moon have negligible effect on low orbiting satellites but they affect
satellites in geostationary orbit.
The satellite is perturbated mainly because of variation in the inclination of the
Moon and Sun. The net effect of these two forces is to change in inclination of
geostationary satellite between 075° to 094° per year. The inclination must be
corrected regularly by firing thrusters on satellite in the orbit.
2.3.3 Solar Radiation Pressure

" The solar panels constitute practically the whole of the apparent surface of the
satellite with communication satellites of low power (1 kW), the solar panel are
not extensive and the ratio Sa is of the order of 2x10- m² / kg where
m

S, = Satellite surface in the direction of sun

m = Mass of satellite
" For satellites of high electrical power on which very extensive Solar panels are
mounted, the ratio Sa is of the order of 10-, the acceleration due to radiation

pressure must then be taken into account, in calculating perturbations. The main
 orbit which
errect ot solar radiation pressure is to modify the eccentricity of the
evolves with a period of 1l year.
radiation
ror satellites in low orbit, it is also necessary to take account of the
effect can
Pressure of the solar flux reradiated from the surface of the Earth whose
be significant with respect to that of the direct Solar flux.
2,3:4| Aerodynamic and Atmospheric Drag
The aerodynamic drag are very significant at low altitude (200 - 400 km). It is due
to the very high velocity, the aerodynamic force is exerted on the satellite in the
oPposite direction to its velocity. Mostly the satellites in lower Earth orbit suffers
the largest atmospheric drag. At this level the friction is too high causing excessive
heat on asatellite's surface and the satellite may burn out. The atmospheric drag
is directly related to the surface area and mass of satellite. The orbital life time of
a satellite is a complex function of orbit plane mass of satellite and ionospheric
conditions.
The aerodynamic force in the opposite direction to the velocity is given by -
FAD = 0.5 PA Cp A, v
where, PA is density of the atmosphere
Cp is coefficient of atmospheric drag
A, is equivalent surface area of the satellite perpendicular to velocity
v is velocity of satellite with respect to atmosphere
The actual movement of the satellite is obtained fromn the fact that the satellite is
in equilibrium between inertial force and various forces which are exerted on it.
 LAUNCHING SYSTEMS
• Satellites stay in space for most of their life time. We know
that the environment of weightlessness is present in the space.
That’s why satellites don’t require additional strong frames in
space.
• But, those are required during launching process. Because in
that process satellite shakes violently, till the satellite has been
placed in a proper orbit.

• The design of satellites should be compatible with one or more

launch vehicles in order to place the satellite in an orbit.
 LAUNCHING SYSTEMS
• The process of placing the satellite in a proper orbit is known as launching
process. During this process, from earth stations we can control the operation of
satellite. Mainly, there are four stages in launching a satellite.
 LAUNCHING SYSTEMS
• When the satellite reached to the desired height of the orbit,
its subsystems like solar panels and communication antennas
gets unfurled.
• Then the satellite takes its position in the orbit with other
satellites. Now, the satellite is ready to provide services to the
public.
• Satellite launch vehicles launch the satellites into a particular
orbit based on the requirement. Satellite launch vehicles are
nothing but multi stage rockets. Following are the two types of
satellite launch vehicles.
• Expendable Launch Vehicles (ELV)
• Reusable Launch Vehicles (RLV)
Expendable Launch Vehicles
• Expendable launch vehicles (ELV)
get destroyed after leaving the
satellites in space.
The ELV contains three stages.
• First and second stages of ELV
raise the satellite to an about 50
miles and 100 miles.
• Third stage of ELV places the
satellite in transfer orbit. The task
of ELV will be completed and its
spare parts will be fallen to earth,
when the satellite reached to
transfer orbit.
Reusable Launch Vehicles
(RLV) can be used multiple times for launching
satellites. Generally, this type of launch
vehicles will return back to earth after leaving
the satellite in space.
The functions of space shuttle are similar to
the functions of first and second stages of ELV.
Satellite along with the third stage of space
shuttle are mounted in the cargo bay. It is
ejected from the cargo bay when the space
shuttle reaches to an elevation of 150 to 200
miles.
Then, the third stage of space shuttle gets
fired and places the satellite into a transfer
orbit. After this, the space shuttle will return
back to earth for reuse.
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS
• Multistage rockets are spacecraft/satellite launch vehicles that consist of
two or more rocket stages with each stage containing its engines and
propellants which are detached post-launch one after the other till the
payload reaches its intended orbit or destination.
• Multistage rockets are predominantly used as they are much more cost-
effective when compared to single-stage rockets.
• They will help the payload to reach its maximum speed by getting rid of
any additional weight.
• The Saturn V rocket that was used for the Apollo Mission was a three-
stage rocket with the payload located at the top.
MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS
The structure of the launch vehicle consists of two or more rocket
stages, with each stage containing its engines and propellants.
The fuel required for a launch vehicle is large, hence, the fuel is stored
in multiple stages. The payload (satellite or spacecraft) is kept at the
top of the launch vehicle.
Post-launch, if the fuel of any stage is exhausted, the empty fuel tank
(stage) is detached from the launch vehicle body & the fuel in the next
stage is ignited.
Above process is repeated till the payload is deployed or separated.
By using the separation process which takes place from bottom to top,
the overall weight of the launch vehicle reduces which helps the
satellite or the spacecraft to gather more speed and overall fuel
consumption is also reduced.
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS
Multistage rockets are separated using explosive bolts.
The point of contact that holds the two stages of a multistage rocket
consists of holes (refer to figure below) when observed from a cross-
sectional perspective. These holes are filled with explosive bolts.
There are close to 300 points that can be filled with explosive bolts for
each stage. A fire is ignited from the upper stage of a rocket that acts
as a catalyst for the explosive bolt which goes off all around the stage
and separates the lower stage that has exhausted its fuel and is of no
use from the upper stage which separates and keeps burning.
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS-Staging concept
• Multistage rockets can be developed in different configurations. The
method of deciding the configuration of a multistage rocket is known as
staging.
• The combination of several rocket sections, or stages, that fire in a
specific order and then detach, so a payload can penetrate Earth’s
atmosphere and reach space.

• There are three different types of staging that are used for a multistage
rocket.
1. Serial staging
2. Parallel staging
3. Serial & parallel staging
Serial staging
 In a serial stage configuration, the
stages are attached one on top of
the other or stacked.
 The first stage ignites at launch and
burns through the fuel until it's
completely exhausting.
 Now the first stage acts as an empty
fuel tank and is dead weight, the first
stage is detached, and immediately
the second stage is ignited.
 Depending on the rocket & its
mission, the second stage may get
the payload into orbit or may require
a third or fourth stage to deliver the
payload into space or its intended
destination.
Parallel staging
 serial staging configuration
involves stacked stages.
 parallel staging features multiple
boosters staged that are strapped
to a central sustainer.
 The boosters that are attached to
the sustainer are also ignited at
launch which helps the rocket
attain the required thrust that is
needed to break free from the
Earth’s gravity.
 When the fuel of the boosters
runs out, they are detached from
the central sustainer.
 The central sustainer engine
keeps burning and takes the
payload to a high altitude near
Serial & Parallel staging
 It includes a sustainer stage attached to
boosters, that is detached once they are
exhausted.
 The sustainer takes the payload to a
considerable height after which it
detaches itself and other stages that are
serially stacked are ignited one after the
other till the payload reaches its intended
orbit.
 The Titan III rocket uses both serial &
parallel staging. It used a two-stage
sustainer in a parallel configuration and
added two rocket stages in a serial
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS
Multistage rockets once discarded from each stage after it has
served their purpose are made to crash towards the earth’s
surface where they will burn up on re-entry.
However, only the lower stages can be made to crash towards the
earth. Upper rocket stages will still pose a risk to contribute
towards space debris.
To tackle this problem, the upper rocket stages after detaching
conserve some fuel so that they can be redirected towards the
graveyard orbit. However, this solution is not optimal, as the fuel
conserved might not be enough to take the upper rocket stage to
the graveyard orbit.
Various space organizations are working on a novel solution to
discard the upper rocket stages efficiently to negate the problem
of space debris.
 MULTI-STAGE ROCKET LAUNCHERS-Advantages
• A multistage rocket or step rocket is a launch vehicle that uses two or more rocket
stages, each of which contains its own engines and propellant.
• A tandem or a single stage is mounted on the top of another stage or a single stage
is mounted parallel along the other stage.
• The result is effectively two or more rocket stacked on top of each other or attached
next to each other. These are known as multistage rockets.
Their advantages are as follows:
1) Each stage can use different type of motor
2) The total weight of the rocket is reduce as the rocket rises.
3) Multistage rocket has a bunch of thrust. Fuel causes thrust and so when it drops to
another stage there re more thrust since the fuel just keeps burning
4) The main advantage is that it drops useless weight and goes faster.
24.6 Indian Launch Vehicle at a Glance
Vehicle Launch dates Result

SLV 3EI August 10, 1979 Partially successfu. Ajammed valve in the second
stage control system resulted in the leak of oxidizer.
SLV-3 E2 July 18, 1980 Successful

SLV-3 DI May 31, 1981 Successful

SLV-3 D2 April 17, 1983 Successful

ASLV DI March 24,'1987 Unsuccessful due to non-ignition of first stage

ASLV D2 July 13, 1988 Unsuccessful. The flight was normal only up to
46 seccnds after lift off

ASLV D3 May 20, 1992 Successful

ASLVD4 May 4, 1994 Successful

PSLV - D1 September 20, 1993 Unsuccessful due to software error in on board

guidance and control processor
PSLV - D2 October 15, 1994 Successful

PSLV - D3 March 21, 1996 Successful

PSLV C1 September 29, 1997 Successful

PSLV - C2 May 26, 1999 Successful

2.5 Orbital Effects in Communication System Performance

2.5.1 Doppler Shift

The Doppler effect in satellite communications is the change in frequency of an
electromagnetic signal that results from the relative speed of the satellite and the
Earth terminal.
When the satellite moves with respect to the Earth, the relative distance R from
the satellite to a point on the surface of the Earth varies.
When the orbital parameters of a satellite are known, Doppler shift can be used to
determine the position of the Earth terminal. When an Earth terminal's position is
known, Doppler shift can be used to estimate the orbital parameters of a satellite.
 When the satellite (or the Earth station) is moving quickly, the Doppler ettect is an
important consideration in satellite communications.
Doppler shift can be expressed mathematically as :
(fR -f) / = Af/fr = V /vp
Af =
Vf/c= V/A
Where, f = Transmitter frequency
fg = Received frequency
VT = Component of transmitter frequency directed towards the receiver

Vp = c phase velocity of light (3 x 10 m/s)

And 2 = Wavelength of transmitted signal
The received frequency, fg is higher than transmitted frequenuy fr. when
transmitter is moving towards the receiver. If the transmitter is moving away from
the receiver then V is negative. This change in frequency is called as doppler
shift.

2.5.2 Range Variation

The position of a satellite with respect to the earth shows cyclic variation. This
variation in position causes variation in range between satellite and user terminals.
The range variations are more significant in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites.

2.5.3 Solar Eclipse

A satellite is in eclipse when the earth prevents sunlight from reaching it and it
happens near equinoxes.
During .the equinoxes, the satellite passes through the earth's shadow and
experiences an eclipse.
If the Earth's equatorial plane coincided with the plane of the Earth's orbit around
the sun (the ecliptic plane), geostationary satellites would be eclipsed by the Earth
once each day. As it is, the equatorial planè is tilted at an angle of 23.4° to the
ecliptic plane, and this keeps the satellite in full view of the sun for most days of
the year, as illustrated by position A in Fig. 2.5.1.
 N
Spring Satellite
equinox in eclipse

Satellite
in transit

Sun
N
PositionA
N

Satellite
in transit
Autumn Satellite in
equinox clear view
of Sun

Satellite
in eclipse

Fig. 2.5.1 Satelite eclipse

2.5.4 Sun Transit Outage
During the equinoxes ,the transit of the satellite between Earth and Sun such that
the Surn comes within the beam-width of the earth-station antenna. When it
happens, the Sun appears as an extremely noisy source which completely blanks
out the signal from the satellite. This effect is termed Sun transit outage, and it lasts
for short periods-each day for about 6 days around the equinoxes.
The occurrence and duration of the Sun transit,outage depends on the latitude of
the Earth station, a maximum outage time of 10 min is typical.