Carl Gustav Jung

Carl Gustav Jung (German: [ karl staf j ], KAHR- l GUU-stahf YUNG) (18751961) was a Swiss psychiatrist and the founder of analytical psychology. Jung is considered the first modern psychiatrist to view the human psyche as "by nature religious" and make it the focus of exploration.[1] Jung is one of the best known researchers in the field ofdream analysis and symbolization. While he was a fully involved and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring tangential areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy, alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung considered individuation, a psychological process of integrating the opposites including the conscious with the unconscious while still maintaining their relative autonomy, necessary for a person to become whole.[2] Individuation is the central concept of analytical psychology.[3] Many psychological concepts were first proposed by Jung, including the archetype, thecollective unconscious, the complex, and synchronicity. A popular psychometric instrument, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), has been principally developed from Jung's theories. His interest in philosophy and the occult led many to view him as a mystic although Jung's ambition was to be seen as a man of science.[4] hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh Analytical psychology (or Jungian psychology) is the school of psychology originating from the ideas of Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung. His theoretical orientation has been advanced by his students and other thinkers who followed in his tradition. Though they share similarities, analytical psychology is distinct from Freudian psychoanalysis. Its aim is wholeness through the integration of unconscious forces and motivations underlying human behavior. Depth psychology, including archetypal psychology, employs the model of the unconscious mind as the source of healing and development in an individual. Jung saw the psyche as mind, but also admits the mystery of soul, and used as empirical evidence, the practice of an accumulativephenomenology around the significance of dreams, archetypes and mythology. Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh

Overview
Jung developed his own distinctive approach to the study of the human mind. In his early years when working in a Swiss hospital with schizophrenic patients and working with Sigmund Freud and the burgeoning psychoanalytic community, he took a closer look at the mysterious depths of the human unconscious. Fascinated by what he saw (and spurred on with even more passion by the experiences and questions of his personal life) he devoted his life to the exploration of the unconscious. Unlike many modern psychologists, Jung did not feel that experimenting using natural science was the only means to understand the human psyche. For him, he saw as empirical evidence the world of dream, myth, and folklore, as the promising road to its deeper understanding and meaning. That method's choice is related with his choice of the object of his science. As Jung said, "The beauty about the unconscious is that it is really unconscious".[1] Hence, the unconscious is 'untouchable' by experimental researches, or [citation indeed any possible kind of scientific or philosophical reach, precisely because it is unconscious. needed] Although the unconscious can't be studied by using direct approaches it is according to Jung, at least, a useful hypothesis. His postulated unconscious was quite different of the model that was proposed

by Freud, despite the great influence that the founder of psychoanalysis had on Jung. The most known difference is the assumption of the collective unconscious (see also Jungian archetypes), although Jung's proposal of collective unconscious and archetypes was based on the assumption of the existence of psychic (mental) patterns. These patterns include conscious contentsthoughts, memories, etc.which came from life experience. They are common to each human being and, actually, they're precisely what makes every human being have something in common. His proof of the vast collective unconscious was his concept of synchronicity, that inexplicable, uncanny connectedness that we all share. The overarching goal of Jungian psychology is the attainment of self through individuation. Jung defines "self" as the "archetype of wholeness and the regulating center of the psyche." Central to this process is the individual's encounter with its psyche, and bringing its elements into the conscious, as an awakening. Humans experience the unconscious through symbols encountered in all aspects of life: in dreams, art, religion, and the symbolic dramas we enact in our relationships and life pursuits. Essential to this numinous encounter is the merging of the individual's consciousness with this broader collective through its symbolic language. By bringing conscious awareness to that which is not, when unconscious elements surface, they can be integrated into consciousness. "Neurosis" results from a disharmony between the individual's (un)consciousness and his higher Self. The psyche is a self-regulating adaptive system. Humans are energetic systems, and if the energy gets blocked, the psyche gets stuck, or sick. If adaption is thwarted, the psychic energy will stop flowing, and regress. This process manifests in neurosis and psychosis. Human psychic contents are complex, and deep. They can schism, and split, and form complexes that take over one's person. Jung proposed that this occurs through maladaptation to ones external or internal reality. The principles of adaptation, projection, and compensation are central processes in Jungs view of psyches ability to adapt. The aim of psychotherapy is to assist the individual in reestablishing a healthy relationship to the unconscious: neither flooded by itcharacteristic of psychosis, such as Schizophreniaor out of balance in relationship to itas with neurosis, a state that results in depression, anxiety, and personality disorders, a life devoid of deeper meaning. In order to undergo the individuation process, the individual must be open to the parts of oneself beyond one's own ego. The modern individual grows continually in psychic awareness, which is attention to dreams, explores the world of religion and spirituality, and questions the assumptions of the operant societal worldview (rather than just blindly living life in accordance with dominant norms and assumptions). [edit]Fundamentals [edit]Unconscious Main articles: Unconscious mind, Collective unconscious, and Archetypes The basic assumption is that the personal unconscious is a potent part probably the more active part of the normal human psyche. Reliable communication between the conscious and unconscious parts of the psyche is necessary for wholeness. Also crucial is the belief that dreams show ideas, beliefs, and feelings of which individuals are not readily aware, but need to be, and that such material is expressed in a personalized vocabulary of

visual metaphors. Things "known but unknown" are contained in the unconscious, and dreams are one of the main vehicles for the unconscious to express them. Analytical psychology distinguishes between a personal and a collective unconscious. (see below) The collective unconscious contains archetypes common to all human beings. That is, individuation may bring to surface symbols that do not relate to the life experiences of a single person. This content is more easily viewed as answers to the more fundamental questions of humanity: life, death, meaning, happiness, fear. Among these more spiritual concepts may arise and be integrated into the personality. [edit]Collective

unconscious

Jung's concept of the collective unconscious has often been misunderstood. In order to understand this concept, it is essential to understandJungian archetypes. The archetypes of the collective unconscious could be thought of as the DNA of the human psyche. needed] Just as all humans share a common physical heritage and predisposition towards specific gross physical forms (like having two legs, a heart, etc.), so do all humans have innate psychological predispositions in the form of archetypes, which compose the collective unconscious. [edit]Archetypes Main article: Jungian archetypes The use of psychological archetypes was advanced by Jung in 1919. In Jung's psychological framework, archetypes are innate, universal prototypes for ideas and may be used to interpret observations. A group of memories and interpretations associated with an archetype is a complex, e.g. a mother complex associated with the mother archetype. Jung treated the archetypes as psychological organs, analogous to physical ones in that both are morphological givens that arose through evolution. The archetypes are collective as well as individual. One can create their own archetypes, based on an ideal one wants to emulate (e.g. respect or fear). Archetypes can grow on their own and present themselves in a variety of creative ways. Jung in his book Memories, Dreams, Reflections tells us that he began to see and talk to a manifestation of anima and that she taught him how to interpret dreams. As soon as he could interpret on his own, Jung said that she ceased talking to him because she was no longer needed. [edit]Self-realization
[citation

and neuroticism

Main articles: Self-realization and Neuroticism An innate need for self-realization leads people to explore and integrate these disowned parts of themselves. This natural process is calledindividuation, or the process of becoming an individual. According to Jung, self-realization is attained through individuation. His is an adult psychology, divided into two distinct tiers. In the first half of our lives, we separate from humanity. We attempt to create our own identities (I, myself). This is why there is such a need for young men to be destructive, and can be expressed as animosity from teens directed at their parents. Jung also said we have a sort of second puberty that occurs between 35-40- outlook shifts from emphasis on materialism, sexuality, and having children to concerns about community and spirituality.

In the second half of our lives, humans reunite with the human race. They become part of the collective once again. This is when adults start to contribute to humanity (volunteer time, build, garden, create art, etc.) rather than destroy. They are also more likely to pay attention to their unconscious and conscious feelings. Young men rarely say "I feel angry." or "I feel sad. This is because they have not yet rejoined the human collective experience, commonly reestablished in their older, wiser years, according to Jung. A common theme is for young rebels to "search" for their true selves and realize that a contribution to humanity is essentially a necessity for a whole self. Jung proposes that the ultimate goal of the collective unconscious and self-realization is to pull us to the highest experience. This, of course, is spiritual. If a person does not proceed toward self-knowledge, neurotic symptoms may arise. Symptoms are widely defined, including, for instance,phobias, psychosis, and depression. [edit]Shadow The shadow is an unconscious complex defined as the repressed, suppressed or disowned qualities of the conscious self. According to Jung, the human being deals with the reality of the shadow in four ways: denial, projection, integration and/or transmutation.[citation needed]According to Analytical psychology, a person's shadow may have both constructive and destructive aspects. In its more destructive aspects, the shadow can represent those things which people do not accept about themselves. For instance, the shadow of someone who identifies as being kind may be harsh or unkind. Conversely, the shadow of a person who is brutal may be gentle. In its more constructive aspects, a person's shadow may represent hidden positive qualities. This has been referred to as the "gold in the shadow". Jung emphasized the importance of being aware of shadow material and incorporating it into conscious awareness in order to avoid projecting shadow qualities on others. The shadow in dreams is often represented by dark figures of the same gender as the dreamer.[2] [edit]Anima

and animus

Main article: Anima and animus Jung identified the anima as being the unconscious feminine component of men and the animus as the unconscious masculine component in women. However, this is rarely taken as a literal definition: many modern day Jungian practitioners believe that every person has both an anima and an animus. Jung stated that the anima and animus act as guides to the unconscious unified Self, and that forming an awareness and a connection with the anima or animus is one of the most difficult and rewarding steps in psychological growth. Jung reported that he identified his anima as she spoke to him, as an inner voice, unexpectedly one day. Often, when people ignore the anima or animus complexes, the anima or animus vies for attention by projecting itself on others. This explains, according to Jung, why we are sometimes immediately attracted to certain strangers: we see our anima or animus in them. Love at first sight is an example of anima and animus projection. Moreover, people who strongly identify with their gender role (e.g. a man who acts aggressively and never cries) have not actively recognized or engaged their anima or animus. Jung attributes human rational thought to be the male nature, while the irrational aspect is considered to be natural female. Consequently, irrational moods are the progenies of the male anima shadow and irrational opinions of the female animus shadow.

[edit]Wise

old man / woman

"After the confrontation with the soul-image the appearance of the old wise man, the personification of [3] the spiritual principle, can be distinguished as the next milestone of inner development." As archetypes of the collective unconscious, such figures can be seen as, "in psychological terms, a symbolic personification of the Self".[4] [edit]Psychoanalysis Analysis is a way to experience and integrate the unknown material. It is a search for the meaning of behaviours, symptoms and events. Many are the channels to reach this greater self-knowledge. The analysis of dreams is the most common. Others may include expressing feelings in art pieces, poetry or other expressions of creativity. Giving a complete description of the process of dream interpretation and individuation is complex. The nature of the complexity lies on the fact that the process is highly specific to the person who does it. While Freudian psychoanalysis assumes that the repressed material hidden in the unconscious is given by repressed sexual instincts, Analytical psychology has a more general approach. There is no preconceived assumption about the unconscious material. The unconscious, for Jungian analysts, may contain repressed sexual drives, but also aspirations, fears, etc. [edit]Psychological

types

Analytical psychology distinguishes several psychological types or temperaments.   Extravert (Jung's spelling is "extravert", which most dictionaries also use; the variant "extrovert" is not preferred) Introvert

According to Jung, the psyche is an apparatus for adaptation and orientation, and consists of a number of different psychic functions. Among these he distinguishes four basic functions:[5]     sensation - perception by means of the sense organs; intuition - perceiving in unconscious way or perception of unconscious contents. thinking - function of intellectual cognition; the forming of logical conclusions; feeling - function of subjective estimation;

Thinking and feeling functions are rational, while sensation and intuition are nonrational. See also: Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Socionics [edit]Complexes Main article: Complex (psychology) Early in Jung's career he coined the term and described the concept of the "complex". Jung claims to have discovered the concept during hisfree association and galvanic skin response experiments. Freud obviously took up this concept in his Oedipus complex amongst others. Jung seemed to see complexes as quite autonomous parts of psychological life. It is almost as if Jung were describing separate

personalities within what is considered a single individual, but to equate Jung's use of complexes with something along the lines of multiple personality disorder would be a step out of bounds. Jung saw an archetype as always being the central organizing structure of a complex. For instance, in a "negative mother complex," the archetype of the "negative mother" would be seen to be central to the identity of that complex. This is to say, our psychological lives are patterned on common human experiences. Interestingly, Jung saw the Ego (which Freud wrote about in German literally as the "I", one's conscious experience of oneself) as a complex. If the "I" is a complex, what might be the archetype that structures it? Jung, and many Jungians, might say "the hero," one who separates from the community to ultimately carry the community further. [edit]Clinical

theories

Main article: Psychoanalysis Jung's writings have been studied by people of many backgrounds and interests, including theologians, people from the humanities, and mythologists. Jung often seemed to seek to make contributions to various fields, but he was mostly a practicing psychiatrist, involved during his whole career in treating patients. A description of Jung's clinical relevance is to address the core of his work. Jung started his career working with hospitalized patients with major mental illnesses, most notably schizophrenia. He was interested in the possibilities of an unknown "brain toxin" that could be the cause of schizophrenia. But the majority and the heart of Jung's clinical career was taken up with what we might call today individual psychodynamic psychotherapy, in gross structure very much in the strain of psychoanalytic practice first formed by Freud. It is important to state that Jung seemed to often see his work as not a complete psychology in itself but as his unique contribution to the field of psychology. Jung claimed late in his career that only for about a third of his patients did he use "Jungian analysis." For another third,Freudian psychology seemed to best suit the patient's needs and for the final third Adlerian analysis was most appropriate. In fact, it seems that most contemporary Jungian clinicians merge a developmentally grounded theory, such as Self psychology or Donald Winnicott's work, with the Jungian theories in order to have a "whole" theoretical repertoire to do actual clinical work. The "I" or Ego is tremendously important to Jung's clinical work. Jung's theory of etiology of psychopathology could almost be simplified to be stated as a too rigid conscious attitude towards the whole of the psyche. That is, a psychotic episode can be seen from a Jungian perspective as the "rest" of the psyche overwhelming the conscious psyche because the conscious psyche effectively was locking out andrepressing the psyche as a whole. [edit]Post-Jungian

approaches

Andrew Samuels (1985) has distinguished three distinct traditions or approaches of "post-Jungian" psychology - classical, developmental and archetypal. Today there are more developments. [edit]Classical The classical approach is that which tries to remain faithful to what Jung himself proposed and taught in person and in his 20-plus volumes of work. Prominent advocates of this approach, according to Samuels

(1985), include Emma Jung (C.G. Jung's wife, who was an analyst in her own right), Marie-Louise von Franz, Joseph Henderson, Aniela Jaffe, Erich Neumann, Gerhard Adler and Jolande Jacobi. [edit]Developmental The developmental approach is primarily associated with Michael Fordham and his wife, Frieda Fordham. It can be considered a bridge between traditional Jungian analysis and Melanie Klein's object relations theory. Laings and Goodheart are also often mentioned. Samuels (1985) considers J. Redfearn, Richard Carvalho and himself (Andrew Samuels) as representatives of the developmental approach. Samuels notes how this approach differs from the classical by giving less emphasis to the Self and more emphasis to the development of personality; he also notes how, in terms of practice in therapy, it gives more attention to transference and counter-transference than either the classical or the archetypal approaches. [edit]Archetypal Main articles: Archetypal psychology, Archetypal, and Mythopoetic men's movement , Independent Theorists of Archetypal Psychologies One archetypal approach, sometimes called "the imaginal school" by James Hillman, was written about by him in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Its adherents, according to Samuels (1985), include Murray Stein, Rafael Lopez-Pedraza and Wolfgang Giegerich. Thomas Moorealso was influenced by some of Hillman's work. Developed independently, other psychoanalysts have created strong approaches to archetypal psychology. Mythopoeticists and psychoanalysts such as Clarissa Pinkola Ests who believes that ethnic and aboriginal people are the originators of archetypal psychology and have long carried the maps for the journey of the soul in their songs, tales, dream-telling, art and rituals; Marion Woodman who proposes a feminist viewpoint regarding archetypal psychology. Some of the mythopoetic/archetypal psychology creators either imagine the Self not to be the main archetype of the collective unconscious as Jung thought, but rather assign each archetype equal value.[citation needed] Others, who are modern progenitors of archetypal psychology (such as Ests), think of the Self as that which contains and yet is suffused by all the other archetypes, each giving life to the other. Robert L. Moore has explored the archetypal level of the human psyche in a series of five books coauthored with Douglas Gillette, which have played an important role in the men's movement in the United States. Moore studies computerese so he likens the archetypal level of the human psyche to a computer's hard wiring (its fixed physical components). Our personal experiences influence our accessing the archetypal level of the human psyche, but personalized ego consciousness can be likened to computer software. [edit]Process-Oriented

Psychology

Main article: Process Oriented Psychology Process-Oriented Psychology (also called Process Work) is associated with the Zurich trained Jungian analyst Arnold Mindell. Process Work developed in the late 1970s and early 1980s and was originally identified as a "daughter of Jungian psychology".[citation needed] Process Work stresses awareness of the "unconscious" as an ongoing flow of experience. This approach expands Jung's work beyond verbal individual therapy to include body experience, altered and comatose states as well as multicultural group work

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Theory of Symbols Jung believed that symbol creation was a key in understanding human nature. Symbol, as defined by Jung, is the best possible expression for something essentially unknown. He wanted to investigate the similarity of symbols that are located in different religious, mythological, and magical systems which occur in many cultures and time periods. To account for these similar symbols occurring across different cultures and time periods he suggested the existence of two layers of the unconscious psyche. The first of the two layers was the personal unconscious. It contains what the individual has acquired in his or her life, but has been forgotten or repressed. The second layer is the collective unconscious which contains the memory traces common to all humankind. These experiences form archetypes. These are innate predispositions to experience and symbolize certain situations in a distinct way. There are many archetypes such as having parents, finding a mate, having children, and confronting death. Very complex archetypes are found in all mythological and religious systems. Near the end of his life Jung added that the deepest layers of the unconscious function independently of the laws of space, time and causality. This is what gives rise to paranormal phenomena. The introvert and the extrovert are the main components of personality according to Jung. The introvert is quiet, withdrawn and interested in ideas rather than people. While the extrovert is outgoing and socially oriented. For Jung a person that had a healthy personality can realize these opposite tendencies within himself/herself and can express each. Dreams serve to compensate for any neglected parts of the personality.

Sigmand frued
sigmund Freud was an Austrian neurologist who founded the discipline of psychoanalysis. Freud's family and ancestry were Jewish, and Freud always considered himself a Jew, although he rejected Judaism and had a critical view of religion. Interested in philosophy as a student, Freud later turned away from it and became a neurological researcher into cerebral palsy, aphasia and microscopic neuroanatomy. Freud went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and the mechanism of repression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapy by creating psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient (referred to as an "analysand") and a psychoanalyst. Though psychoanalysis has declined as a therapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms of psychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach. Freud postulated the existence of libido (an energy with which mental process and structures are invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use of free association (in which patients report

their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so), discovered the transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings based on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on psychoanalysis to contribute to the history, interpretation and critique of culture. Freud's theories have been criticized as pseudo-scientific and sexist, and they have been marginalized within psychology departments, although they remain influential within the humanities. Freud has been called one of the three masters of the "school of suspicion", alongside Karl Marx and Friedrich Nietzsche, while his ideas have been compared to those of Plato and Thomas Aquinas.

Hhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhh Early work:

Freud began his study of medicine at the University of Vienna in 1873.[66] He took almost nine years to complete his studies, due to his interest in neurophysiological research, specifically investigation of the sexual anatomy of eels and the physiology of the fish nervous system. He entered private practice in neurology for financial reasons, receiving his M.D. degree in 1881 at the age of 25.[67] He was also an early researcher in the field of cerebral palsy, which was then known as "cerebral paralysis." He published several medical papers on the topic, and showed that the disease existed long before other researchers of the period began to notice and study it. He also suggested that William Little, the man who first identified cerebral palsy, was wrong about lack of oxygen during birth being a cause. Instead, he suggested that complications in birth were only a symptom. Freud hoped that his research would provide a solid scientific basis for his therapeutic technique. The goal of Freudian therapy, or psychoanalysis, was to bring repressed thoughts and feelings into consciousness in order to free the patient from suffering repetitive distorted emotions. Classically, the bringing of unconscious thoughts and feelings to consciousness is brought about by encouraging a patient to talk about dreams and engage in free association, in which patients report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so.[68] Another important element of psychoanalysis is the transference, the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelings and ideas which derive from previous figures in their lives. Transference was first seen as a regrettable phenomenon that interfered with the recovery of repressed memories and disturbed patients' objectivity, but by 1912 Freud had come to see it as an essential part of the therapeutic process.[69] The origin of Freud's early work with psychoanalysis can be linked to Josef Breuer. Freud credited Breuer with opening the way to the discovery of the psychoanalytical method by his treatment of the case of Anna O. In November 1880 Breuer was called in to treat a highly intelligent 21-year-old woman (Bertha Pappenheim) for a persistent cough that he diagnosed as hysterical. He found that while nursing her dying father, she had developed a number of transitory symptoms, including visual disorders and paralysis and contractures of limbs, which he also diagnosed as hysterical. Breuer began to see his patient almost every day as the symptoms increased and became more persistent, and observed that she entered states of absence. He found that when, with his encouragement, she told fantasy stories in her evening states ofabsence her condition improved, and most of her symptoms had disappeared by April 1881. However, following the death of her father in that month her condition deteriorated again. Breuer

recorded that some of the symptoms eventually remitted spontaneously, and that full recovery was achieved by inducing her to recall events that had precipitated the occurrence of a specific symptom.[70][71] In the years immediately following Breuer's treatment, Anna O. spent three short periods in sanatoria with the diagnosis "hysteria" with "somatic symptoms,"[72] and some authors have challenged [73][74][75] Breuer's published account of a cure. Richard Skues rejects this interpretation, which he sees as stemming from both Freudian and anti-psychoanalytical revisionism, that regards both Breuer's narrative of the case as unreliable and his treatment of Anna O. as a failure.[76] In the early 1890s Freud used a form of treatment based on the one that Breuer had described to him, modified by what he called his "pressure technique" and his newly developed analytic technique of interpretation and reconstruction. According to Freud's later accounts of this period, as a result of his use of this procedure most of his patients in the mid-1890s reported early childhood sexual abuse. He believed these stories, but then came to believe that they were fantasies. He explained these at first as having the function of "fending off" memories of infantile masturbation, but in later years he wrote that [77] they represented Oedipal fantasies. Another version of events focuses on Freud's proposing that unconscious memories of infantile sexual abuse were at the root of the psychoneuroses in letters to Fliess in October 1895, before he reported that he had actually discovered such abuse among his patients.[78] In the first half of 1896 Freud published three papers stating that he had uncovered, in all of his current patients, deeply repressed memories of sexual abuse in early childhood.[79] In these papers Freud recorded that his patients were not consciously aware of these memories, and must therefore be present as unconscious memories if they were to result in hysterical symptoms or obsessional neurosis. The patients were subjected to considerable pressure to "reproduce" infantile sexual abuse "scenes" that Freud was convinced had been repressed into the unconscious.[80] Patients were generally unconvinced that their experiences of Freud's clinical procedure indicated actual sexual abuse. He reported that even after a supposed "reproduction" of sexual scenes the patients assured him emphatically of their disbelief.[81] As well as his pressure technique, Freud's clinical procedures involved analytic inference and the symbolic interpretation of symptoms to trace back to memories of infantile sexual abuse.[82] His claim of one hundred percent confirmation of his theory only served to reinforce previously expressed reservations from his colleagues about the validity of findings obtained through his suggestive techniques.[83] [edit]Cocaine Main article: Cocaine As a medical researcher, Freud was an early user and proponent of cocaine as a stimulant as well as analgesic. He believed that cocaine was a cure for many mental and physical problems, and in his 1884 paper "On Coca" he extolled its virtues. Between 1883 and 1887 he wrote several articles recommending medical applications, including its use as an antidepressant. He narrowly missed out on obtainingscientific priority for discovering its anesthetic properties of which he was aware but had mentioned only in passing.[84] (Karl Koller, a colleague of Freud's in Vienna, received that distinction in 1884 after reporting to a medical society the ways cocaine could be used in delicate eye surgery.) Freud also recommended cocaine as a cure for morphine addiction.[85] He had introduced cocaine to his friend Ernst von Fleischl-Marxow who had become addicted to morphine taken to relieve years of excruciating nerve pain resulting from an infection acquired while performing an autopsy. However, his claim that Fleischl-Marxow was cured of his addiction was premature, though he never acknowledged he

had been at fault. Fleischl-Marxow developed an acute case of "cocaine psychosis", and soon returned to using morphine, dying a few years later after more suffering from intolerable pain.[86] The application as an anesthetic turned out to be one of the few safe uses of cocaine, and as reports of addiction and overdose began to filter in from many places in the world, Freud's medical reputation [87] became somewhat tarnished. After the "Cocaine Episode" Freud ceased to publicly recommend use of the drug, but continued to take it himself occasionally for depression, migraine and nasal inflammation during the early 1890s, before giving it up in 1896.[89] In this period he came under the influence of his friend and confidant Fliess, who recommended cocaine for the treatment of the so-called nasal reflex neurosis. Fliess, who operated on the noses of several of his own patients, also performed operations on Freud and on one of Freud's patients whom he believed to be suffering from the disorder, Emma Eckstein. However, the surgery proved disastrous.[90] Some critics have suggested that much of Freud's early psychoanalytical theory was a by-product of his cocaine use.[91]edit
[who?] [88]

The Unconscious
Freud argued for the importance of the unconscious mind in understanding conscious thought and behavior. However, as psychologist Jacques Van Rillaer pointed out, "the unconscious was not discovered by Freud. In 1890, when psychoanalysis was still unheard of, William James, in his monumental treatise on psychology, examined the way Schopenhauer, von Hartmann, Janet, Binet and others had used the term 'unconscious' and 'subconscious'".[92] Moreover, as historian of psychology Mark Altschule observed, "It is difficultor perhaps impossibleto find a nineteenth-century psychologist or psychiatrist who did not recognize unconscious cerebration as not only real but of the highest importance."[93] Freud developed his first topology of the psyche in The Interpretation of Dreams (1899) in which he proposed that the unconscious exists and described a method for gaining access to it. The preconscious was described as a layer between conscious and unconscious thought; its contents could be accessed with a little effort. One key factor in the operation of the unconscious is "repression". Freud believed that many people "repress" painful memories deep into their unconscious mind. Although Freud later attempted to find patterns of repression among his patients in order to derive a general model of the mind, he also observed that repression varies among individual patients. Later, Freud distinguished between three concepts of the unconscious: the descriptive unconscious, the dynamic unconscious, and the system unconscious. The descriptive unconscious referred to all those features of mental life of which people are not subjectively aware. The dynamic unconscious, a more specific construct, referred to mental processes and contents that are defensively removed from consciousness as a result of conflicting attitudes. The system unconscious denoted the idea that when mental processes are repressed, they become organized by principles different from those of the conscious mind, such as condensation and displacement.

Eventually, Freud abandoned the idea of the system unconscious, replacing it with the concept of the id, ego, and super-ego. Throughout his career, however, he retained the descriptive and dynamic conceptions of the unconscious. [edit]Dreams Freud believed that the function of dreams is to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled wishes that would otherwise awaken the dreamer.[94] [edit]Psychosexual

development

Main article: Psychosexual development Freud hoped to prove that his model was universally valid and thus turned to ancient mythology and contemporary ethnography for comparative material. Freud named his new theory the Oedipus complex after the famous Greek tragedy Oedipus Rex by Sophocles. "I found in myself a constant love for my mother, and jealousy of my father. I now consider this to be a universal event in childhood," Freud said. Freud sought to anchor this pattern of development in the dynamics of the mind. Each stage is a progression into adult sexual maturity, characterized by a strong ego and the ability to delay gratification (cf. Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality). He used the Oedipus conflict to point out how much he believed that people desire incest and must repress that desire. The Oedipus conflict was described as a state of psychosexual development and awareness. He also turned to anthropological studies of totemism and argued that totemism reflected a ritualized enactment of a tribal Oedipal conflict.[95] Freud also believed that the Oedipus complex was bisexual, involving an attraction to both parents[96] Traditional accounts have held that, as a result of frequent reports from his patients, in the mid-1890s Freud posited that psychoneuroses were a consequence of early childhood sexual abuse.[97] More specifically, in three papers published in 1896 he contended that unconscious memories of sexual abuse in infancy are a necessary precondition for the development of adult psychoneuroses. However, examination of Freud's original papers has revealed that his clinical claims were not based on patients' reports but were findings deriving from his analytical clinical methodology, which at that time included coercive procedures.[98][99][100][101][102] He privately expressed his loss of faith in the theory to his friend Fliess in September 1897, giving several reasons, including that he had not been able to bring a single case to a successful conclusion.[103] In 1906, while still maintaining that his earlier claims to have uncovered early childhood sexual abuse events remained valid, he postulated a new theory of the occurrence of unconscious infantile fantasies.[104] He had incorporated his notions of unconscious fantasies in The Interpretation of Dreams (1900), but did not explicitly relate his seduction theory claims to the Oedipus theory until 1925.[105] Notwithstanding his abandonment of the seduction theory, Freud always recognized that some neurotics had experienced childhood sexual abuse. Freud also believed that the libido developed in individuals by changing its object, a process codified by the concept of sublimation. He argued that humans are born "polymorphously perverse", meaning that any number of objects could be a source of pleasure. He further argued that, as humans develop, they become fixated on different and specific objects through their stages of developmentfirst in the oral stage (exemplified by an infant's pleasure in nursing), then in the anal stage (exemplified by a toddler's pleasure in evacuating his or her bowels), then in the phallic stage. In the latter stage, Freud contended, male infants become fixated on the mother as a sexual object (known as the Oedipus Complex), a phase brought to an end by threats of castration, resulting in the castration complex, the severest trauma in his

young life.[106] (In his later writings Freud postulated an equivalent Oedipus situation for infant girls, the sexual fixation being on the father. Though not advocated by Freud himself, the term 'Electra complex' is sometimes used in this context.)[107] The repressive or dormant latency stage of psychosexual development preceded the sexually mature genital stage of psychosexual development. The child needs to receive the proper amount of satisfaction at any given stage in order to move on easily to the next stage of development; under or over gratification can lead to a fixation at that stage, which could cause a regression back to that stage later in life.[108] [edit]Id,

ego, and super-ego

Main article: Id, ego, and super-ego In his later work, Freud proposed that the human psyche could be divided into three parts: Id, ego, and super-ego. Freud discussed this model in the 1920 in which he developed it as an alternative to his previous topographic schema (i.e., conscious, unconscious, and preconscious). The id is the completely unconscious, impulsive, child-like portion of the psyche that operates on the "pleasure principle" and is the source of basic impulses and drives; it seeks immediate pleasure and gratification.[108] The super-ego is the moral component of the psyche, which takes into account no special circumstances in which the morally right thing may not be right for a given situation. The rational ego attempts to exact a balance between the impractical hedonism of the id and the equally impractical moralism of the superego; it is the part of the psyche that is usually reflected most directly in a person's actions. When overburdened or threatened by its tasks, it may employ defense mechanisms including denial, repression, and displacement. This concept is usually represented by the "Iceberg Model".[110] This model represents the roles the Id, Ego, and Super Ego play in relation to conscious and unconscious thought. Freud compared the relationship between the ego and the id to that between a charioteer and his horses: the horses provide the energy and drive, while the charioteer provides direction.[108] [edit]Life

and death drives

Main articles: Libido and Death drive Freud believed that people are driven by two conflicting central desires: the life drive (libido or Eros) (survival, propagation, hunger, thirst, and sex) and the death drive. The death drive was also termed "Thanatos", although Freud did not use that term; "Thanatos" was introduced in this context by Paul [111] Federn. Freud hypothesized that libido is a form of mental energy with which processes, structures and object-representations are invested.[112] In Beyond the Pleasure Principle, Freud inferred the existence of the death instinct. Its premise was a regulatory principle that has been described as "the principle of psychic inertia", "the Nirvana principle", and "the conservatism of instinct". Its background was Freud's earlierProject for a Scientific Psychology, where he had defined the principle governing the mental apparatus as its tendency to divest itself of quantity or to reduce tension to zero. Freud had been obliged to abandon that definition, since it proved adequate only to the most rudimentary kinds of mental functioning, and replaced the idea that the apparatus tends toward a level of zero tension with the idea that it tends toward a minimum level of tension.[113] Freud in effect readopted the original definition in Beyond the Pleasure Principle, this time applying it to a different principle. He asserted that on certain occasions the mind acts as though it could eliminate

tension entirely, or in effect to reduce itself to a state of extinction; his key evidence for this was the existence of the compulsion to repeat. Examples of such repetition included the dream life of traumatic neurotics and children's play. In the phenomenon of repetition, Freud saw a psychic trend to work over earlier impressions, to master them and derive pleasure from them, a trend was prior to the pleasure principle but not opposed to it. In addition to that trend, however, there was also a principle at work that was opposed to, and thus "beyond" the pleasure principle. If repetition is a necessary element in the binding of energy or adaptation, when carried to inordinate lengths it becomes a means of abandoning adaptations and reinstating earlier or less evolved psychic positions. By combining this idea with the hypothesis that all repetition is a form of discharge, Freud reached the conclusion that the compulsion to repeat is an effort to restore a state that is both historically primitive and marked by the total draining of energy: death.

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The Life, Work and Theories of Sigmund Freud: Psychology's most famous figure is also one of the most influential and controversial thinkers of the twentieth century. Sigmund Freuds work and theories helped shape our views of childhood, personality, memory, sexuality and therapy. Other major thinkers have contributed work that grew out of Freud's legacy, while others developed new theories out of opposition to his ideas. In 2001, Time Magazine referred to Freud as one of the most important thinkers of the last century. A 2006 Newsweek article called him "history's most debunked doctor." While his theories have been the subject of considerable controversy and debate, his impact on psychology, therapy, and culture is undeniable. As W.H. Auden wrote in his 1973 poem, In Memory of Sigmund Freud, "if often he was wrong and, at times, absurd, to us he is no more a person now but a whole climate of opinion." Freuds Life: Our exploration of Freuds legacy begins with a look at his life and time. Learn more about his life in this brief biography and timeline of his life, discover some of his most famous quotations or take an in-depth photo tour of his life from birth to death. Sigmund Freud Biography Sigmund Freud Timeline Sigmund Freud Photobiography Sigmund Freud Quotations 10 Interesting Facts About Freud

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Freuds Major Theories: Freuds theories were enormously influential, but subject to considerable criticism both now and during his own life. However, his ideas have become interwoven into the fabric of our culture, with terms such as "Freudian slip," "repression" and "denial" appearing regularly in everyday language. The Conscious and Unconscious Mind

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The Id, Ego, and Superego Life and Death Instincts Psychosexual Development Defense Mechanisms What Is a Freudian Slip?

Freud and Psychoanalysis: Freuds ideas had such a strong impact on psychology that an entire school of thought emerged from his work. While it was eventually replaced by the rise of behaviorism, psychoanalysis had a lasting impact on both psychology and psychotherapy. What Is Psychoanalysis? A Brief History of Psychoanalysis What Is Psychoanalytic Therapy?

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Freuds Patients Anna O. (aka Bertha Pappenheim) Little Hans (Herbert Graf) Dora (Ida Bauer) Rat Man (Ernst Lanzer) Wolf Man (aka Sergei Pankejeff)

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Major Works by Freud: Freuds writings detail many of his major theories and ideas, including his personal favorite,The Interpretation of Dreams. [It] contains the most valuable of all the discoveries it has been my good fortune to make. Insight such as this falls to one's lot but once in a lifetime," he explained. Some of his major books include: The Interpretation of Dreams The Psychopathology of Everyday Life Totem and Taboo Civilization and Its Discontents The Future is an Illusion Learn more about some of his major works in this list of books by Sigmund Freud. Freud's Perspectives: Freud wrote and theorized about a broad range of subjects including sex, dreams, religion, women and culture. Learn more about some of Freuds perspectives and how these views influenced his own theories. Freud and Women Freud and Religion

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Psychologists Influenced by Freud: In addition to his grand and far-reaching theories of human psychology, Freud also left his mark on a number of individuals who went on to become some of psychology's greatest thinkers. Some of the eminent psychologists who were influenced by Sigmund Freud include:

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Anna Freud Alfred Adler Carl Jung Erik Erikson Melanie Klein Ernst Jones Otto Rank More About Freud

Freud Quotes Freud Timeline Freud Biography Freud's Theories y Stages of Psychosexual Development y The Id, Ego and Superego y Defense Mechanisms

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The Conscious and Unconscious Mind
The Structure of the Mind According to Freud
By Kendra Cherry, About.com Guide

See More About:

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unconscious mind conscious mind psychoanalysis sigmund freud

Psychoanalytic theory of the conscious and unconscious mind is often explained using an iceberg metaphor. Conscious awareness is the tip of the iceberg, while the unconscious is represented by the ice hidden below the surface of the water. Image by historicair Many of us have experienced what is commonly referred to as aFreudian slip. These misstatements are believed to reveal underlying, unconscious thoughts or feelings. Consider this example: James has just started a new relationship with a woman he met at school. While talking to her one afternoon, he accidentally calls her by his ex-girlfriend's name. If you were in this situation, how would you explain this mistake? Many of us might blame the slip on distraction or describe it as a simple accident. However, a psychoanalytic theorist might tell you that this is much more than a random accident. The psychoanalytic view holds that there are inner forces outside of your awareness that are directing your behavior. For example, a psychoanalyst might say that James misspoke due to unresolved feelings for his ex or perhaps because of misgivings about his new relationship.

The founder of psychoanalytic theory was Sigmund Freud. While his theories were considered shocking at the time and continue to create debate and controversy, his work had a profound influence on a number of disciplines, including psychology, sociology, anthropology, literature, and art. The term psychoanalysis is used to refer to many aspects of Freuds work and research, including Freudian therapy and the research methodology he used to develop his theories. Freud relied heavily upon his observations and case studies of his patients when he formed his theory of personality development.
Before we can understand Freud's theory of personality, we must first understand his view of how the mind is organized. According to Freud, the mind can be divided into two main parts: 1. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. A part of this includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this ordinary memory thepreconscious.

2.

The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

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What is Psychosexual Development?
According to Sigmund Freud, personality is mostly established by the age of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to influence behavior later in life. Freud's theory of psychosexual development is one of the best known, but also one of the most controversial. Freud believed that personality develops through a series of childhood stages during which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas. This psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind behavior. If these psychosexual stages are completed successfully, the result is a healthy personality. If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixation can occur. A fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. For example, a person who is fixated at the oral stage may be overdependent on others and may seek oral stimulation through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Sigmund Freud
Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and one of the best-known figures in psychology. Learn more about his life, career, and theories through biographies, timelines, image galleries, and overviews of his major psychology theories. 10 Facts About Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud is one of the most famous thinkers in psychology history. While many of his ideas and theories are not widely accepted by modern psychologists, he played a major role in the development of psychology. Learn more about him in these ten interesting and revealing facts about his life. What Is a Freudian Slip? You've probably heard the term Freudian slip, but what exactly does it mean? Learn more about the definition of a Freudian slip. Sigmund Freud The Life, Work, & Theories of Sigmund Freud Often described as the most famous figure in psychology, Sigmund Freud is also one of the most influential thinkers of the twentieth century. Take a journey through his life, work, and theories in this profile of Sigmund Freud.

Sigmund Freud Photobiography This photobiography of Sigmund Freud traces his life from early childhood to his final years. Sigmund Freud Biography Time Magazine featured Sigmund Freud as one of their 100 most important people of the 20th century. Learn more about the life, career, and contributions of Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud Timeline Learn more about the life of Sigmund Freud in this timeline of his life and career. Sigmund Freud Quotes Selected quotes by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. Psychoanalytic Theory - The Conscious and Unconscious Mind According to psychoanalysis, thoughts and motivations outside of our awareness influence our behavior. Learn more about Freud's theory of the conscious and unconscious mind. The Id, Ego, and Superego According to Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, there are three elements of personality--the id, the ego, and the superego. Learn more about how these elements work together to influence behavior. Life and Death Instincts Sigmund Freud believed that all instincts fit into one of two classes: the life instincts and the death intincts. Learn more about these life and death instincts. Cathexis and Anticathexis In Freud's theory of drives, he described a cathexis as a release of psychic energy. Learn more about drives, cathexis, and anticathexis. Freuds Stages of Psychosexual Development Freud's stages of psychosexual development is on of the best known personality theories, but also one of the most controversial. Learn more about the psychosexual stages of development. Defense Mechanisms - Types of Defense Mechanisms According to Sigmund Freud's theory of personality, defense mechanisms help the ego cope with anxiety. Learn more about the 10 defense mechanisms described by Anna Freud, and more. Defense Mechanisms Quiz Test your knowledge of these defense mechanisms in the following quiz The Interpretation of Dreams by Sigmund Freud The Interpretation of Dreams stands as one of the classic texts in the history of psychology and marked the very beginnings of psychoanalytic psychology. Learn more about Sigmund Freud's seminal work. Freud & Women While Sigmund Freud did not write extensively about the psychology of women, his body of work did address topics such as penis envy, hysteria, and femininity. Learn more about Freud's perspectives on women as well as rebuttals from his critics. Freud & Religion Sigmund Freud wrote extensively about religion and spirituality, describing religion as "an illusion and it derives its strength from the fact that it falls in with our instinctual desires." Learn more about some of Freud's views and read some of his thoughts on religion. Profile of Anna O. While Sigmund Freud never actually met Anna O., her case played a major role in the development of psychoanalysis and talk therapy. Learn more about Anna O. and her place in the history of psychology.

Who Was the Wolf Man? The Wolf Man, aka Sergei Pankejeff, was a patient of Sigmund Freud who gave him the case name "Wolf Man" to protect his identity. Learn more about the famous case study of the Wolf Man. What Is Psychoanalytic Therapy? Psychoanalytic therapy is one of the most well-known treatment modalities, but it is also one of the most misunderstood by mental health consumers. This type of therapy is based upon the theories and work of Sigmund Freud, who founded the school of psychology known as psychoanalysis. Books by Sigmund Freud Sigmund Freud was a prolific writing, publishing more that 320 books, articles and essays during his lifetime. This list describes some of his most famous and influential books. When Was Sigmund Freud Born? Sigmund Freud's birth marks an important date in psychology history. Learn more about Freud's birth, early life and family. When Did Sigmund Freud Die? The final years of Sigmund Freud's life were a time of painful illness and upheaval. Learn more about his final years and the events leading up to Freud's death.

A Definition
Psychoanalysis designates concomitantly three things: 1. A method of mind investigation. And especially of the unconscious mind; 2. A therapy of neurosis inspired from the above method; 3. A new stand alone discipline who is based on the knowledge acquired from applying the investigation method and clinical experiences. Consequently there is nothing vague in the definition of psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis is a specific mind investigation technique and a therapy inspired from this investigation. I would say first and foremost therapy in order to emphasize even more that psychoanalysis implies no speculation, that it is closer to psychotherapy and farther from philosophy, art or culture in general. The psychoanalytical science that we were mentioning at the third point comes to light from Freud's famous study called Totem and Taboo, in which he launches himself in social and anthropologic analysis relying on the knowledge extracted from applying psychoanalysis to neurosis therapy. Who wants to know more about the speculative aspect of psychoanalysis must absolutely read the mentioned book.

Main Facts
- Psychoanalysis is the Sigmund Freud' s creation.

- Freud lived most of his life in Vienna and died in London in 1939. He discovered psychoanalysis by systematizing ideas and information coming from different, theoretical and clinical directions. - The self-analysis, to which Freud was submitted himself, represented the biggest contribution to the birth of psychoanalysis. - Freud was a Jewish neuropathologist who tried to set up a psychoanalytical movement with the help of non Jewish specialist in order to make his orientation more reliable. In this context he collaborated with outstan