Introduction to Electronics & Communication (BESCK104C)

Module-2
Operational amplifiers
Operational amplifiers are analogue integrated circuits designed for linear amplification that offer
near-ideal characteristics

Figure-1 Symbol for an operational amplifier

 The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while t the ‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180°
phase shift produces an inverted waveform,
 The ‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known as the non-
inverting input.

Operational amplifier parameters

1. Open-loop voltage gain:

The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.

Where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain,

VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages respectively under open-loop conditions.
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this case:

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB, or more.

2. Closed-loop voltage gain:

The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output
voltage to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed back to the input.
Closed-loop voltage gain is once again the ratio of output voltage to input voltage but with
negative feedback is applied, hence:
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Where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages respectively
under closed-loop conditions.
The closed-loop voltage gain is normally very much less than the open-loop voltage gain.

Problem
1. An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V when
supplied with an input of 400 μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.
Solution:

3. Input resistance:
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms

Where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the input
current (in amps).

Problem
2. An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ Determine the input current when an
input voltage of 5 mV is present.

Solution:

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4. Output resistance:
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage
to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.
 Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 G to around 100 G depending upon
the configuration and amount of feedback employed.

Where ROUT is the output resistance (in ohms), VOUT(OC) is the open-circuit output voltage (in volts)
and IOUT(SC) is the short-circuit output current (in amps).

5. Input offset voltage:

The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to make
the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
 Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative
feedback

6. Full-power bandwidth:
The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which
the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low frequency (d.c.) value.
 Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed
devices.

7. Slew rate:
Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a rectangular step input voltage is
applied.

where ΔVOUT is the change in output voltage (in volts) and Δt is the corresponding interval of time (in s).

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Figure-2 Slew rate for an operational amplifier

Operational amplifier characteristics

The characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier. These are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

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Problem
1. A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for
the output voltage to change from -5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.

2. A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit
with a voltage gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the
time taken for the output to change level.

Operational amplifier configurations

The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers, are shown in Fig-3

Figure-3 The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers

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Figure-4 Adding capacitors to modify the frequency response of an inverting operational amplifier

The value of the input and feedback capacitors, CIN and CF respectively, are chosen so as to roll-
off the frequency response of the amplifier at the desired lower and upper cut-off frequencies,
respectively.
The effect of these two capacitors on an operational amplifier’s frequency response is
Shown in Fig-5.

Figure-5 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response of an operational
amplifier

The lower cut-off frequency is determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input
resistance, RIN. The lower cut-off frequency is given by:

Where f1 is the lower cut-off frequency in Hz, CIN is in Farads and RIN is in ohms.

The upper cut-off frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback
resistance, RF, such that:

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Where f2 is the upper cut-off frequency in Hz, CF is in Farads and RF is in ohms.

Operational amplifier circuits

1. Voltage followers:
A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig-6. This circuit is
essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back to the input.
 The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input resistance
and a very high output resistance.
 The input and output waveforms are both in phase (they rise and fall together) and that they are
identical in amplitude.

Figure-6 A voltage follower and Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower

2. Differentiators;
A differentiator produces an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of its
input.
 If the input voltage remains constant the output also remains constant. The faster the input voltage
changes the greater will the output be.
 The square wave input is converted to a train of short duration pulses at the output.
 The output waveform is inverted because the signal has been applied to the inverting input of the
Operational amplifier.

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Figure-7 A Differentiator and Typical input and output waveforms for a Differentiator

3. Integrators:
This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a differentiator.
 If the input voltage remains constant the output voltage will ramp up or down according to the
polarity of the input.

Figure-8 A integrator and Typical input and output waveforms for a integrator.

4. Comparators:
Since no negative feedback has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of the
operational amplifier.
 The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise to the maximum possible
value.
 A typical application for a comparator is that of comparing a signal voltage with a reference
voltage.
 The output will go high (or low) in order to signal the result of the comparison.

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Figure-9 A comparator and Typical input and output waveforms for a comparator.

5. Summing amplifier:
This circuit produces an output that is the sum of its two input voltages.
Since the Operational amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the output voltage is given by:

VOUT = ((V1 + V2)

Where V1 and V2 are the input voltages
 A typical application is that of ‘mixing’ two input signals to produce an output voltage that is the
sum of the two.

Figure-10 A summing amplifier and Typical input and output waveforms for a summing
amplifier
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Oscillators

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