MODULE-2

Oscillators – Barkhausen criterion, sinusoidal and non-sinusoidal oscillators, Ladder network oscillator, Wein
bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled oscillators (Only Concepts, working,
and waveforms. No mathematical derivations)
Operational amplifiers -Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier characteristics, Operational amplifier
configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.

1 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 MODULE-2
Operational amplifiers
The integrated-circuit operational-amplifier is the fundamental building block for many electronic
circuits. An op-amp is a multi-stage, direct coupled, high gain negative feedback amplifier used to amplify
AC and DC input signals.
 The main applications of op-amp: Active filters, oscillators, peak detector, comparators, voltage
regulators, precision rectifiers, instrumentation and control systems, pulse generators, square wave
generators etc.

PIN DIAGRAM OF µA 741

Pin 2: Inverting (- ve) terminal

Pin 3: Non-Inverting (+ve)
terminal
Pin 4: - ve power supply (- VEE)
Pin 5: +ve power supply (+VCC)
Pin 6: Output terminal (Vout)
Pins 1& 5: Offset null and
pin 8: not connected (NC)
Fig. 3.1 (a) Basic pin-out of Op-amp (b) circuit symbol (c) pin description

The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the ‘-’ sign indicates 180° phase shift. Since 180° phase shift
produces an inverted waveform, the ‘-’ input is often referred to as the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’
input is known as the non-inverting input.

2.1 Operational amplifier parameters

Open-loop voltage gain, (Aol):

It is the internal voltage gain of the device and represents the ratio of output voltage to input voltage when
there are no external components.
Ideal value: ∞ Practical Value: 2 x 105
The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio.

Most operational amplifiers have open-loop voltage gains of 90 dB or more.

Closed-loop voltage gain(Acl):
The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage to input
voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with feedback applied). The
effect of providing negative feedback is to reduce the loop voltage gain. Value of Acl is very much less than
value of Aol.

Input resistance
The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input current
expressed in ohms.
Ideal value: ∞ Practical value: 2 MΩ for bipolar operational amplifiers and 1012 Ω for CMOS operational
amplifiers.

2 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

Output resistance
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-
circuit output current expressed in ohms.
Ideal value: 0, Practical values range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω.

Input offset voltage

Practically, a small DC voltage will appear at the output of amplifier when no input voltage (or 0V) is applied.
Thus, differential (very small) voltage is required between the inputs to make the output to 0V.
Input offset voltage may be minimized by applying relatively large amounts of negative feedback or by using
the offset null facility provided by a number of operational amplifier devices.
Ideal value: 0 Typical values range from 1 mV to 15 mV.

Full-power bandwidth
It is the range of frequencies at which the maximum undistorted Vpeak swing falls to 0.707 of its low-
frequency (DC) value.
Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz

Slew Rate (SR)

The slew rate of an operational amplifier is the rate of change of output voltage with time in response to a
perfect step-function input. Slew rate describes how fast the output voltage responds to an immediate change
in input voltage. Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/µs to over 20
V/µs.

Operational amplifier characteristics

Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:
(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

3 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 Comparison of operational amplifier parameters for ‘ideal’ and ‘real’ devices

Some common examples of integrated circuit operational amplifiers

Operational amplifier configurations

1) Inverting operational Amplifier
Input signal Vin is applied to the inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is inverted version
(180o phase shift) of input Vin.

Vout = - Vin

2) Non-inverting operational Amplifier

Input signal Vin is applied to the non-inverting terminal of the amplifier and output Vout is non-inverted
version (0o phase shift) of input Vin.

Vout = - Vin

4 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 3) Differential amplifiers
Differential amplifiers amplify the difference between two input voltage signals of V1 and V2.

Vout = V2 – V1

Effect of input and feedback capacitors

By selecting appropriate values of capacitor, the frequency response of an inverting operational voltage
amplifier may be very easily modified to suit a particular set of requirements. The lower cut-off frequency is
determined by the value of the input capacitance, CIN, and input resistance, RIN.

The upper cut-off frequency will be determined by the feedback capacitance, CF, and feedback resistance, RF,

Fig.19 Effect of adding capacitors, CIN and CF, to modify the frequency response of an operational amplifier

Operational amplifier circuits

Voltage follower OPAMP

Output voltage Vout follows the input voltage Vin so the circuit is named as op-amp voltage follower. The
output is connected directly back to the (-) inverting input so that the feedback is 100% and Vin is exactly
equal to Vout . It is shown in the fig. If voltage Vin increases, voltage Vout increases. On the other hand, if
voltage Vin decreases, voltage Vout also decreases. It provides an effective isolation of the output from the
signal source that eliminating the loading effect of the second circuit from the first circuit.

5 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

Properties of Voltage follower
 Voltage gain = 1 Vout = VIN
 Input impedance Rin = ∞
 Output impedance Rout = 0
 Effective isolation of the output from the signal source.

Differentiator amplifier

Differentiator produces output voltage (Vout) is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage Vin. An op-amp
differentiator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a capacitor C in series with the input voltage V in and a
feedback resistor R is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input.

If input is a square wave to a differentiator, output is pulses.

Integrator Amplifier

Integrator produces output voltage Vout, is proportional to the integral of the input voltage Vin. An op-amp
integrator is an inverting amplifier, which uses a resistor R in series with the input voltage Vin and a capacitor
C is connected between Vout and inverting (-) input as feedback.

If input is a square wave, output of an integrator is a triangular (inverted) wave.

6 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

Comparator
OPAMP voltage comparator compares the magnitudes of two voltage inputs and determines which is the
larger of the two.

 Referring the fig.3.11, assume ( VIN < VREF ).

 As the non-inverting (positive) input of the comparator is less than the inverting (negative) input, the
output will be the negative supply voltage, -Vcc resulting in a negative saturation of the output.
 When (VIN > VREF) , the output voltage rapidly switches HIGH towards the positive supply
voltage, +Vcc resulting in a positive saturation of the output.

Voltage comparator using OPAMP

 Suppose the input voltage VIN, is decreased slightly less than VREF, the op-amp’s output switches back to
its negative saturation voltage acting as a threshold detector.
Then it is seen that the op-amp voltage comparator is a device whose output is dependent on the value of the input
voltages.
Summing Opamp

The inverting summing or adder op-amp circuit for

three inputs is shown in the fig. 3.7.
The output voltage, Vout is proportional to the
algebraic sum of the input voltages, V1, V2. Input
signals V1 and V2 are applied to the inverting input
of the op-amp through input resistors.
Inverting summing op-amp circuit
Vout = - (V1 + V2)

7 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 Oscillators
Negative feedback can be applied to an amplifier to form the basis of a stage which has a precisely controlled
gain. Similarly, positive feedback can be applied to an oscillator, where the output is fed back in such a way
as to reinforce the input.

Positive feedback
Fig. 20, shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied. Note that the amplifier
provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a further 180°. Thus the overall phase shift
is 0°.
A= Vo/Vin
Vo=A Vin, where Vin=VS +Vf
and Vf = βVo
Vo = A(Vs +βVo)
Vo =AVs + A βVo
Vo - A βVo =AVs  AVs =Vo (1- Aβ)
So, the equation of overall gain with
negative feedback is given by

Fig.20 Amplifier with positive feedback applied

The overall voltage gain, G, is given by:

Now consider what will happen when the loop gain, βAv, approaches just less than 1 (say, 0.99). The
denominator (1 - βAv) will become close to zero. This will have the effect of increasing the overall gain, i.e.
the overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without feedback.

Illustration of effect of negative and positive feedback upon overall voltage gain

Overall voltage gain with negative feedback Overall voltage gain with positive feedback
Amplifier gain
Av = 9
feedback, β = 0.1
Amplifier gain
Av = 10
feedback, β = 0.1

Conditions for oscillation (Barkhausen's criteria for oscillation)

Oscillator is a device that generates continuous and periodic waveforms without taking input signal.
The conditions for oscillation are:
(a) the feedback must be positive
(i.e. the phase shift must be 0o or 360o.);
(b) the overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1
(i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective
feedback network). Hence, to create an oscillator we simply need an amplifier with sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the network that provide positive feedback.

8 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

RC Ladder oscillator

RC Phase shift oscillator shown in fig.21, consists of a BJT amplifier (TR1) and three RC sections of phase
shift network. At some particular frequency f0, the phase shift in each RC section is 60º so that the total phase-
shift produced by the RC network is 180º. Amplifier produces another 180º phase shift. As a result, the phase
shift around the entire loop is 360º.

Fig.21 Sine wave oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network

That means, the loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at
least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate.

Wien bridge oscillator

The output of the OPAMP is fed back to Wien bridge feedback circuit with respect to points A and Bas shown
in fig.22. Points C and D provide – ve and + ve inputs to the OPAMP. A phase shift of 180º is produced by
inverting OPAMP. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC feedback bridge circuit. As a result,
the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.

9 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 Fig.22 Sine wave oscillator based on a Wien bridge Oscillator
Particular frequency at which the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance will become equal,
producing maximum output voltage.

The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by

In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.

Example: 1

Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three stage ladder network oscillator in which C = 10 nF and R=
10 kΩ.

Solution:

Example: 2

The circuit of a Wien bridge oscillator based on an operational amplifier. If C1 = C 2 = 100 nF, determine the
output frequencies produced by this arrangement (a) when R1 = R2 = 1 kΩ and (b) when R1 = R2 = 6 kΩ.

Solution:

10 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

Multivibrators

Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms consisting of one or more
rectangular pulses. The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform is rich
in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present within the oscillator circuit
being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and driven into saturation.
The main types of multivibrator are:

(a) Astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes also referred to as
free-running multivibrators);

(b) Monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable state and are thus
sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);

(c) Bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control signal to change
from one state (T1) to another (T2).

Single-stage astable oscillator

An astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using one operational amplifier, as
shown in Fig. 23. The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the non-inverting input
via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.

11 Introduction to Electronics and Communication BESCK204C KNSIT-ECE

 When VO = +VCC , capacitor charges towards VUT When VO = -VCC , capacitor charges towards VLT
Fig. 23 Single-stage astable oscillator using an operational amplifier

When power is turned ON, output VO normally swings either to +Vcc or to -Vcc.
Assume: i) C is initially uncharged
ii) VO = +VCC
The upper threshold voltage (the maximum +ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

The lower threshold voltage (the maximum -ve value at the inverting input) will be given by:

Capacitor C charges through R and the voltage VC rise exponentially. As voltage across the capacitor is just
greater than VUT, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC.
Capacitor C will then start to discharge through R and the voltage VC, fall exponentially. As voltage across the
capacitor is slightly lesser than VLT, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC.
This cycle will continue indefinitely.

Finally, the time for one complete cycle of the output waveform produced by the astable oscillator is given by:

25 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE

Crystal controlled oscillators

To obtain a very high level of oscillator stability a Quartz Crystal is generally used as the frequency
determining device to produce high frequency stability in oscillators. Such oscillators are called as crystal
oscillators.
The quartz crystal (a thin slice of quartz in a hermetically sealed
enclosure, see Fig.) vibrates whenever a potential difference is
applied across its faces (this phenomenon is known as the
piezoelectric effect). The frequency of oscillation is determined
by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental
mode over a frequency range extending from 100 kHz to around
20 MHz.

OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER PROBLEMS

Example: 1

An operational amplifier operating with negative feedback produces an output voltage of 2 V when supplied
with an input of 400 μV. Determine the value of closed-loop voltage gain.

Solution:

Example: 2

An operational amplifier has an input resistance of 2 MΩ. Determine the input current when an input voltage of
5 mV is present.

Solution:

26 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE

 Example: 3

A perfect rectangular pulse is applied to the input of an operational amplifier. If it takes 4 μs for the output
voltage to change from –5 V to +5 V, determine the slew rate of the device.

Solution:

Example: 4

A wideband operational amplifier has a slew rate of 15 V/μs. If the amplifier is used in a circuit with a voltage
gain of 20 and a perfect step input of 100 mV is applied to its input, determine the time taken for the output to
change level.

Solution:

Example: 5

An inverting operational amplifier is to operate according to the following specification: Voltage gain = 100
Input resistance (at mid-band) = 10 kΩ Lower cut-off frequency = 250 Hz Upper cut-off frequency = 15 kHz
Devise a circuit to satisfy the above specification using an operational amplifier.

Solution:

27 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE

28 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE
 REVIEW QUESTIONS
PART-1: POWER SUPPLIES

1. What is a regulated power supply? With neat block diagram explain the working of DC power supply.
Also mention the principal components used in each block.
2. With neat circuit diagram and waveforms explain half wave rectifier and full wave bridge rectifiers.
3. Define rectifier. Explain a biphase full wave rectifier. Show the appropriate waveforms.
4. Discuss the need of filter circuit. With circuit diagram and waveforms explain the operation of
smoothing C – filter for half wave rectifier.
5. What is voltage regulator? With neat circuit diagram, explain the operation of a voltage regulator
using zener diode.
6. A mains transformer having a turns ratio of 22:1 is connected to a 220 V r.m.s. mains supply. If the
secondary output is applied to a half-wave rectifier, determine i) secondary r.m.s voltage ii) peak
voltage and iii) regulated DC voltage across load.
7. A half wave rectifier uses a silicon diode is fed from a supply of 240 V, 50 Hz with step down
transformer of ratio 3:1. Resistive load connected is 10 KΩ. The diode forward resistance is 75Ω and
transformer secondary is 10 Ω. Calculate i) secondary r.m.s voltage ii) peak voltage and iii) regulated
DC voltage across load.
8. The RC smoothing filter in a 50 Hz mains operated a half-wave rectifier circuit consists of R1 = 150Ω
and C2 = 1,000F. If 1 V of ripple appears at the input of the circuit, determine the amount of ripple
appearing at the output.
9. A 5V zener diode has a maximum rated power dissipation of 500 mW. If the diode is to be used in a
simple regulator circuit to supply a regulated 5V to a load having a resistance of 500 Ω, determine a
suitable value of series resistor for operation in conjunction with a supply of 9V.
10. What is voltage multiplier? With circuit diagram explain the operation of voltage doubler.
PART-2: AMPLFIERS

11. What is an amplifier? Explain the types of amplifiers.

12. Explain the parameters (characteristics) of amplifier.
13. What is the need of coupling? Explain the types of coupling in multi-stage amplifiers.
14. Mention advantages of negative feedback in amplifiers circuits. With relevant equations and diagram
explain the concept of negative feedback.

29 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE

15. Write a note on frequency response characteristics of an amplifier circuit, clearly mentioning the half
power frequencies
PART-3: OPERATIONAL AMPLFIERS (OPAMPS)

16. Explain characteristics of OPAMP with practical (real) values.

17. Draw neat circuit diagram, input output waveforms and output voltage expressions of the following
OPAMPs i) inverting amplifier, ii) non-inverting amplifier, iii) differentiator iv) integrator and v)
summing amplifier.
18. Sketch the circuit of each of the following based on the use of operational amplifiers
(a) comparator (b) a differentiator (c) an integrator (d) Inverting Amplifier.
19. With circuit diagram explain OPAMP voltage follower.
20. With circuit diagram and waveform show how operational amplifier can work as a comparator

PART-4: OSCILLATORS
21. What is feedback system? With neat diagrams explain the types of feedback systems
22. Explain the criteria for oscillations.
23. Explain the operation of a three-stage ladder RC network oscillator and Wein bridge oscillator.
24. Determine the frequency of oscillation of a three-stage ladder RC network oscillator in which C =10 ηF
and R = 10 kΩ.
25. The frequency sensitivity arms of the Wein bridge oscillator uses C1 = C2 = 0.01μF and R1=10KΩ
while R2 is kept variable. The frequency is to be varied from 10 KHz to 50 KHz by varying R2. Find
the minimum and maximum values of R2.
26. With suitable diagrams explain single stage astable multi-vibrator using operational amplifier.

30 Introduction to Electronics and Communication (BESCK204C) KNSIT-ECE