YOGA: THE BRIDGE

YOGA: THE BRIDGE TO LINK TRADITIONAL CULTURE BETWEEN

INDIA AND CHINA
By LU Fang, HUANGGuangwei& LI Xiying
LU Fang
Professor of India-China Yoga College, Yunnan Minzu University.
HUANG Guangwei
Associate Professor, the teacher of School of Sports, Yunnan Minzu University
LI Xiying
Lecturerthe teacher of School of Sports, Yunnan Minzu University
Abstract
Yoga has become the most popular health trend in the world in recent years. In 2014, the United
Nations General Assembly approved a resolution establishing 21 June as “International Day of
Yoga” and even the logo was designed for the day. And then On December 1, 2016, yoga was listed
by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage of humanity.In China, more and more people began to
practice Yogaāsanaand Prāṇāyāmasince 1980s, and then most of them began to explore the culture
embodied by it. With the deeper understanding of the yoga, it is thought that yoga is a group of physical,
mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines which originated in ancient India.What’s more, in yoga
culture research, some of the similar wisdom can be found in Chinese wisdom. In this paper, a
comparison study was made to explore the wisdom in both India and China to help people in either
country to realize self-improvement, to control the desires and at last to make the self- realization.
Keywords: yoga; link, culture comparison
Yoga has become the most popular health trend in the world in recent years. In the
eyes of many people who pursue the quality of life, yoga is synonymous with elegance
and fashion. Many Chinese Yoga lovers even go to India, where the ancient Yoga is
from, for authentic yoga. Many people regard yoga as a form of exercise. Arriving at
India, however, they found that yoga is more than just a form of exercise. Indians
often say yoga is a union of mind and body. They also talk more about yoga and
consciousness. So, what is Yoga?And for all practical purposes, Sāṅkhya and Yoga may
be treated as the theoretical and the practical sides of the same system.’1It is said Yoga
was documented from the time of Ṛig-Veda.The Sanskrit word “Yoga” or Yog is
derived from the root “yuj”, which means to yoke, harness or join together. Hence,
Yoga is commonly translated to mean ‘union.’According to Tang(1959,2017), Yoga
mentioned in Upanishad highlights the illumination of the mind and pursuing the
wisdom of the true world . In the KaṭhakaUpaniṣhad and Bṛhadāraṇyaka implicitly
recognizes the value of meditation on ‘self.’2There are explicit references to Yoga in
late Upaniṣads such as Muṇḍaka, Maitrāyaṇa and the Śvetāśvatara. In
MaitrāyaṇaUpaniṣads, the 6 limbs of Yoga were mentioned. ‘Prāṇāyāma, Pratyāhāra,
Dhyāna, Dhāraṇā, Tarka,Samādhi. And then in Patañjal’sYogasūtras, the 8-limb Yoga
appeared, Yama and Niyama were included, āsana also took the place of Tarka. That
is why Tang(1959,2017) stated that the 6-limb Yoga in MaitrāyaṇaUpaniṣads is more
ancient than Yogasūtras. It is the forerunner.3From what are mentioned above, it is

1
ChandradharSharma(first edition 1960, 14th reprinted, 2016), A Critical Survey of Indian
Philosophy,MotitalBanarsidass Publishers Private Limited ·Delhi.p.169.
2
汤用彤著：《印度哲学史》，青山整理，新世界出版社，1959重印，2017年重新整理出版，第145-147页。
3
汤用彤著：《印度哲学史》，青山整理，新世界出版社，1959重印，2017年重新整理出版，第146页。
31
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
found that Yoga is a kind of ancient philosophy which can be dated back to the time
of Upaniṣadic doctrines and Vedic Age. It is also called Axial Period by Karl Jaspers.
Since then, mankind has a universal framework for historical self-understanding. Even
up until modern times, ‘it has been the case that mankind has been living on the
thinking and creation of the axial age, and every new leap has come back to this
period and rekindled the flame. The revival of the potential of the Axial Period and
the return to the axis, or renaissance, always provide spiritual impetus.4During these
periods, Confucius, Lao Tzu, and all philosophical schools in China, including
Zhuangzi, Liezi and all the schools of philosophy, have emerged. Since both the yoga
philosophy and Chinese traditional philosophies can date back to the Axial Period, can
we try to make comparative study between them? After all, according to
M.R.Yardi(1979), the practice of Tao is the Chinese equivalent of Yoga after the
attempt, which has been carried on over a decade, to understand Yoga as explained by
Patañjali in the Yogasūtras which is the most ancient and authoritative text on the
subject. 5So, in the paper, the comparative study between Yoga philosophy and some
of the wisdom of Chinese Philosophy will be made.
Definitions of Yoga
First of all, what is the definition of Yoga? It is found that different people have
different ideas towards Yoga for they have different educational and cultural
background. According to Swami SatyanandaSaraswati, ‘Yoga is the science of right
living and, as such, is intended to be incorporated in daily life. It works on all aspects
of the person: the physical, vital, mental, emotional, psychic and spiritual.6 Moreover,
Yoga is explained in many dimensions.
Yoga Definitions in Different Dimensions
In The Etymological Way: The word yogameans ‘unity’ or ‘oneness’ and is derived
from the Sanskrit wordyuj, which means ‘to join’. This unity or joining is described in
spiritual terms as the unionof the individual consciousness with the universal
consciousness.7 According to the Yoga Teacher’s Manual for School Teachers given by
Morarji Desai National Institute of Yoga, ‘Yoga means ‘union’. Etymologically it has
been derived from Sanskrit root ‘yuj’ meaning to bind, join, attach and yoke. It
signifies union with the Supreme Universal Spirit to obtain relief from pain and
suffering. According to Panini’s grammar, it has three meanings-union (yujiryoge),
Samadhi(yujSamadhau)and constraint, restraint(yujsamyamane).8 When ‘Jivatma’
(individual self) is added to ‘Paramatama’(supreme Self), the restless Jivatma finds
eternal rest and supreme satisfaction.9

4
雅斯贝斯：《历史的起源与目标》，华夏出版社1989年版，第14页。
5
Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an Introduction, Sanskrit Text the Yogasūtras, English Translation and
Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. p.104& Preface.
6
[印]斯瓦米·萨特亚南达·萨拉斯瓦提著：《体位法 调息法 契合法 收束法》，沙金
张张丹译，东北大学出版社，2015年版，《瑜伽导导》第1页。
7
[印]斯瓦米•萨特亚南达•萨拉斯瓦提著：《体位法调息法契合法收束法》，沙金张张丹译，东北大学出版社
，2015年版，《瑜伽导导》第1页。
8
Ishwar V. Bassavaraddi(2010, managing Editor), Yoga Teacher’s Manual of for School Teachers given by Morarji Desai
National Institute of Yoga, New Delhi.p.3
9
Swami Sivananda, Raja Yoga, The Devine Life Society, P.O. Shivanandanagar-249 192. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttarakhand,
Himalayas, India.p.29.
32
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
In the Meaning of Yoga
In Patañjali Yoga Sūtras , Yoga is defined as ‘yogashChittavrittinirodhah’，which
means complete control of mental modifications, in which ‘Chitta’ denotes the mind
in totality as being composed of manas(mind)，buddhi(intellect) and ahamkara ( ego
or I-maker)，‘Vritti’meansthought impulses，‘Nirodhah denotes ‘cessation’.10; Yoga
is also a kind of practice and a discipline. It is a connection with the eternal
consciousness, which is the part that is untouched by anything.11; Yoga means union
or yoke. Yoga is a method by which the individual soul becomes united with the
supreme soul, the Reality that underlies this universe. Yoga is also defined as an effort
to separate the Reality from the apparent.12; Yoga is an“……integration and harmony
between thought, feeling and deed, or integration between head, heart and hand.”
Through the practice of yoga, awareness develops of the interrelation between the
emotional, mental and physical levels, and how a disturbance in any one of these
affects the others. Gradually, this awareness leads to an understanding of the more
subtle areas of existence.13; According to B.K.S Iyengar, Yoga is to unite body with
the mind, and taking body and mind together, to bring it in par with the eternal,
evergreen state of the Self.14
The Explanation outside India
According to Professor Wang Zhicheng, who is famous for yoga translation,
comments and publishing books on yoga, Yoga consists of four parts, the first, the
message conveyed by yoga is eternal, and the message is also conveyed to the world;
the second, Yoga provides a method to explore and solve the survival dilemma; the
third, Yoga provides the methodologies and ways to solve the problems on three
dimensions including physical, mind and soul;the last, Yoga provides a holistic
strategies and ways to pursue the harmony of body, mind and soul, and finally to
achieve the perfection of the life.15; Nowadays, according some researches in both
historical and contemporary contexts the word yoga can have a range of meanings
including ‘Skill in work, desireless action, acquisition of true knowledge, indifference
to pleasure and pain, addition(in arithmetic), and conjunction (in astronomy)’(Banerji
1995)16And then Suzanne (2009) expressed that modern transnational yoga consists
of a vast range of embodied practices and a diversity of ideas about the meaning of
these practices, just like the diverse uses for its linguistic signifier.17In 2008, Elizabth
De Michelis has set out a helpful typology which draws attention to what are
sometimes vastly different manifestations of phenomena described ‘yoga’. She has
outlined five ideal-typical descriptions of Modern Yoga: (1)Early modern
10
Vinay Kant Jha (Edited in 2015)Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Sanskrit Text with Transliteration，Translation & Commentary.
Commentary by Swami Vivekananda, Solar Books, 2015. P.13.
11
参看视视：Yoga，AligningtotheSource,by PSBT, www.indiandiplomacy.in; www.psbt.org.
12
SwamiSivananda(1937, first Edition,2013, the sixth Edition), Raja Yoga, The Devine Life Society, P.O.
Shivanandanagar-249 192. Tehri-Garhwal, Uttarakhand, Himalayas, India.p.23.
13
[印]斯瓦米•萨特亚南达•萨拉斯瓦提著：《体位法调息法契合法收束法》，沙金张张丹译，东北大学出版社
，2015年版，《瑜伽导导》第2页。
14
参看视视：Yoga，AligningtotheSource,by PSBT, www.indiandiplomacy.in; www.psbt.org.
15
参见2015年11月王志成教授在云南民族大学中印瑜伽学院讲座内容。
16
Banerji, S. C. (1995)，Studies in Origin and Development of Yoga. Calcutta: PunthiPustak. P.44.
17
Newcombe, Suzanne, The Development of Modern Yoga: A Survey of the Field, Religion Compass 3/6(2009):986-
1002,10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00171.x
33
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
Psychosomatic yoga of Vivekanda(1863-1902), the book named Raja Yoga is the
keystone (1896), which influenced the other ideal types; (2)Neo-Hindu yoga which
incorporates nationalistic and religious ideals often with a physically based practice;(3)
Postural yoga which puts an emphasis on the orthopraxy of postures(āsana) and may
have little explicit ideological doctrine; (4) Meditational yoga which focuses on a
specific set of meditations (usually a practice of dhāranā or concentration with an
object) rather than postural practices. The meditation-focused groups are more likely
to have explicit ideological content than the postural forms and may overlap
significantly with (5) Denominational yoga which focuses more explicitly on doctrine,
bhakti (a practice of devotion and service towards a manifestation of the divine)
.Denominational yoga groups often focus on a particular guru or avatār (an
incarnation of a divine being in a human form). These ideal-typical distinctions can be
helpful in understanding the variety of contemporary manifestations of ‘yoga’ with
the caveat that those teaching and practising ‘yoga’often embody elements of multiple
types.18
And according toYardi, there is a general impression that Yoga is not a philosophical
system but only a practical method of meditation. This impression owes its origin to
two factors, namely(i) that it has broadly the same cosmology as the Sāṅkhya and (ii)
that Yoga as the method of meditation has been accepted by almost all schools of
Hindu Philosophy.In fact, the commentators on the Yogasūtras acknowledge that it is
a tract on the Sāṅkya system. Thus Vyāsa statesin the colophon at the end of each part
of the Yogasūtras that his commentary pertains to Patañjali’s science of Yoga in the
exposition of the Sānkhya.19Yoga in its practical aspect is defined by Patañjalias
restraint suppression of the mind.20Vyāsa describes it as contemplation.21The term
‘Yoga’ here is derived from ‘yuj’ ‘to contemplate’ and means contemplation, and not
‘conjunction’ from the root ‘yujir’ ‘to yoke, to conjoin’, as in the Vedānta texts.
22From what are mentioned above, there are a lot of explanations on Yoga. And from

the origin, Yoga is close to contemplation. From this point, we can draw a conclusion
that Yoga makes people contemplate on certainpoint, and then from this
contemplation, people can understand, differentiate between real and unreal, and then
have the self-realization. And finally, the person can achieve the independence
finally.23

18
De Michelis, E. (2008). Modern Yoga: History and Forms. In: M. Singleton and J. Byrne (eds.), Yoga in the Modern
World: Contemporary Perspectives, pp. 17–35. London: Routledge, cited from Newcombe, Suzanne, The Development
of Modern Yoga: A Survey of the Field, Religion Compass 3/6(2009):986-1002,10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00171.x.
19
Itiśrīpātañjalesāṅkhya-pravacaneyogaśāstreśrīmadvyāsabhāş ,ye.Vyāsa’aBhāṣya on the Yogasūtras.
1.51转引自：Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an Introduction, Sanskrit Text the Yogasūtras, English
Translation and Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. p.7.
20
Yogasūtras of Patañjali.1.2转引自：Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an Introduction, Sanskrit Text the
Yogasūtras, English Translation and Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. p.10.
21
Yogaḥsamādhiḥ, Vyāsa’aBhāṣya on the Yogasūtras.1.1.转引自：Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an
Introduction, Sanskrit Text the Yogasūtras, English Translation and Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. p.10.
22
Tattvavaiśāradἶ of Vācaspati Miśra.1.1.转引自：Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an Introduction,
Sanskrit Text the Yogasūtras, English Translation and Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. p.10.
23
参见：Vinay Kant Jha (Edited in2015)Patanjali Yoga Sutras, Sanskrit Text with Transliteration，Translation &
Commentary. Commentary by Swami Vivekananda, Solar Books. P.111.
34
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
The Definition given by UNESCO
On Eleventh session of Intergovernmental Committee for the Safeguarding of the
Intangible Cultural Heritage held from Nov.28-Dec.2 2016, Yoga was nominated for
inscription on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of
Humanity for ‘The philosophy behind the ancient practice of yoga has influenced
various aspects of how society functions in India, whether it be in relation to areas
such as health and medicine or education and the arts. Based on unifying the mind
with the body and soul to allow for greater mental, spiritual and physical wellbeing,
the values of yoga form a major part of the community’s ethos. Yoga consists of a
series of poses, meditation, controlled breathing, word chanting and other techniques
designed to help individuals build self-realization, ease any suffering they may be
experiencing and allow for a state of liberation. It is practiced by the young and old
without discriminating against gender, class or religion and has also become popular
in other parts of the world…Yoga is deeply embedded in Indian culture, history and
society and considered a symbol of Indian cultural identity. Its bearers comprise a
wide spectrum of individuals, general public groups, members of communities,
educational institutions and any others interested without any restrictions of gender,
age, nationality, class or religious dispositions. 24 In fact, on December 11 in 2014, the
United Nations General Assembly declared June 21 as the International Day of Yoga.
The declaration came after the call for the adoption of 21 June as International Day
of Yoga(IDY) by Indian Prime Minister, Narendra Modi during his address to UN
General Assembly on September 27, 2014 wherein he stated: “Yoga is an invaluable
gift of India’s ancient tradition. It embodies unity of mind and body; thought and
action; restraint and fulfillment; harmony between man and nature; a holistic approach
to health and well-being. It is not about exercise but to discover the sense of oneness
with yourself, the world and the nature.’ According to the Resolution adopted by the
General Assembly on 11 December 2014, it is said, ‘Noting the importance of
individuals and populations making healthier choices and following lifestyle patterns
that foster good health; Underscoring the fact that global health is a long-term
development objective that requires closer international cooperation through the
exchange of best practices aimed at building better individual lifestyles devoid of
excesses of all kinds; Recognizing that yoga provides a holistic approach to health and
well-being; Recognizing also that wider dissemination of information about the
benefits of practicing yoga would be beneficial for the health of the world population,
25 So, Yoga is not only an exercise on the physical body. As Sam Kutesa, the chairman

of General Assembly, emphasized that for centuries, people from all kinds of fields
are practicing Yoga for they found that yoga can unite body and mind. Yoga can help
them to realize the harmony between thoughts and action.’26
There is also a logo for IDY. And the explanation given by UNESCO is that ‘Folding
of both hands in the logo symbolizes Yoga, the union, which reflects the union of

24
《瑜伽被列入：人类非物质文化遗遗，可喜可贺》，摘自搜狐新闻，http://www.sohu.com/a/120645789_482
902。CONVENTION FOR THE SAFEGUARDING OF THEINTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE;INTERGOVERNMENTAL
COMMITTEE FOR THE SAFEGUARDING OF THE INTANGIBLE CULTURAL HERITAGE;Eleventh session, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia,28 November to 2 December 2016.DECISIONS,https://ich.unesco.org/en/11com.
25
United Nations Official Document https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/69/131
26
国际瑜伽日：见见合国教科文组组网站，http://www.un.org/zh/events/yogaday/background.shtml
35
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
individual Consciousness with that of universal Consciousness, a perfect harmony
between mind & body, man & nature; a holistic approach to health & wellbeing.The
brown leaves in the logo symbolize the Earth element; the green leaves symbolize the
Nature; blue symbolizes the Water element, brightness symbolizes the Fire element
and the Sun symbolize the source of energy and inspiration. Finally, the logo reflects
harmony and peace for humanity, which is the essence of Yoga.’27

Yoga as the Bridge to Link Traditional Culture between India and & China
To be honest, Chinese know about Yoga from Yoga postures. With the further insight
of the study of Yoga, Yoga is found that it is a broad system. Yoga postures are only a
little part of the system.Gudrun Bühnemann had attempted to trace the history of the
postural practice, In his book which had been published, he reproduced illustrations
of yoga āsana from extant illustrated manuscripts, the earliest dating from
1734.28From the definitions and what have been mentioned, yoga should be regarded
as a holistic philosophical system. In this system, the wisdom how to be a human
being is expressed, the ethics of to do and not to do, the exercises to keep body
health, how to extend the breath for the importance to the body, how to concentrate
the mind; how to purity the mind, how to get the true knowledge, how to contemplate
the value of the nature and the body, how to achieve the independence. In all, yoga is
a way to think about the relationship between the human and the nature, the human
and the society, the self-development. So in this way, it is a philosophy to know about
oneself, to know about the surroundings, to know about how to live in the
surrounding with meaningful. It is a kind of wisdom from the Indian sages and it is
passed on from generation to generation. In this way, we can find the similar wisdom
in Chinese traditional wisdom. In the following, some of the concise and explicit
comparison is made in the following.
The Link between Yama & Niyama of Eight-fold Path of the Patanjali Yoga of
India and “《礼记》记录的传统”(the Traditional Regulations in Li of China)
In Eight-fold Path of the Patanjali Yoga of India, the first part is ‘yama’, which
contains ‘Non-injury, Truth, Abstention from Stealing, Continence and Abstinence
from avariciousness’; the second part is ‘niyama’, which includes ‘Cleanliness,
Contentment, Austerity, Study of the Scriptures and Chanting of the Mantras’ and
Devotion to God. In a brief way, Yama expresses what an Indian can’t do to others;
On the contrary, Niyama means how an Indian should behave oneself. These are the
traditional disciplines for each person. The interesting thing is that some of the
traditional disciplines for each person can also be found in Chinese tradition. What is
more, there are some masterpieces are related to these tradition, such as ZhouLi, YiLi
and Li Ji. What is Li? According to Confucianism philosophy, Li is the use of of
Taoism in human society. So Li is made for the harmony with the original
surroundings, the Taoism. In this way, the foundation of metaphysics can be achieved.

27
国际瑜伽日相关背景材料：http://idayofyoga.org/index.php?route=information/information&information_id=4
28
Bühnemann, G. (2007a). The Identification of an Illustrated Hathayoga Manuscript and Its Significance for Traditions
of 84 Asanas in Yoga. In: Asian Medicine: Tradition and Modernity 3, pp. (1), pp. 156–176. (2007b). Eighty-Four
Asanas in Yoga: A Survey of Traditions (With Illustrations). New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd.
36
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
29In the Chapter 9 of Li Ji, it is said that the foundation of Li should learn from the
origin of Taoism; the running of the foundation performs in the way of
phenomenon. In this way, there are many phenomena appeared. And they appear and
disappear as the changes of the four seasons. During these changes, they will be suit
for the nature of the procedures. So Li should be made according to the nature.
People should learn to treat everything with respect and modesty.30 Li is also the norm
of all social activities. According to Confucianism philosophy, human should behave
himself with ‘De’, which embodies the request of helping each other, having justice,
obeying the etiquette, having the right behavior, having the loyalty and truth. In order
to achieve ‘De’, a series of norms are made, which are also called Li. In the series of
norms, how to take care of the parents, how to greet the elders and the honorary
persons and other norms are made, which is summed up to be regulations. And it is
also regarded as the most reasonable behaviors in the Community involvement. Li is
also regarded as the suitable way of communicating between the people. A person
should have Li to greet others when he greets the other.31 In the beginning of the
book called Li Ji, the minor norms have been mentioned, for they are the right
behaviors for the small children to learn when they are ten. In the beginning, the
respect to others, the strength of contemplation, and the assurance of the speech and
the trust from others are mentioned. And then some of the abstinences are also
mentioned, that is ‘Not to be arrogant; not to be controlled by the desire; not to be
complacency on the self-realization; not to flow towards the worldly pleasures without
control.’32As a form of interpersonal communication, Li also stipulates how to
communicate each other and how to act in the norm of Li.In Qu Li of Li Ji, which
means the minor norms, the following also mentioned, ‘ a person should keep the
alert state and keep one’s promise, which is the superior quality of a person. Only
when one can achieve this both in speeches and practices, it is regarded as the practice
of Li.’33‘The essence of Li is to respect others with a humble attitude. Even the
humblest person has somebody to respect, so does the noble persons. In this way, the
noble persons with Li won’t be proud and wasteful; the humble persons with Li won’t
be mean and cowardly.34“The persons who are knowledgeable and have sharp
memories have the humble attitude. And the persons who can keep such kinds of
nature are considered Junzi35. They don’t ask for any praise from others, nor do they
29
彭林：《中国古代礼仪文明》，中华华局，2013年版，第5页。
30

“所以礼的原理必本于天，由此理之运行乃显示为为象界，从而列成无数的事物，其消长的作用有如四时之递
嬗，但在其递嬗过程，如十二律之旋相为为一样，每一阶段必契合于本阶段的分际。”引自：王梦鸥注译：
《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第203页。
31
彭林：《中国古代礼仪文明》，中华华局，2013年版，第6-8页。
32
“一切行为准则皆以“敬”为基础，态度要端庄持重而若有所思的样子，说说亦要安详而确定。这样才能使
人信服啊！不可起傲慢的念头，不可受欲望的支配。求善的志向不可自满；享乐的行为则要适可而止。”引
自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第1页。
33
“自已时常警惕振作，实践自己说过的说，这可称为完美的品行。品行修整而言行一致，那就是礼的实践。
”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第2页。
34
“礼的主要精神在于克制自己而尊重别人。虽在微贱之辈，犹有可尊重的人，更不消说富贵的人们了。唯是
，富贵的人懂得爱好礼，才不至于骄傲而淫侈；同样的，贫贱的人懂得爱好礼，则其居心也不至于卑怯而无
所措其手足。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第4页。
35
君子：在古代原指政治权贵（如:天子、诸侯、卿大夫）的子弟，或指有官位者。孔子保留了这种用法，同
时更强调以“君子”代指学行兼备的有德之人。因此之故,君子成为儒家的人格典型，指有理想、有原则、不
37
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
ask for the respect from others. However, they can keep a very close and long
relationship with others. ’36……In Qu Li, many daily behaviors and disciplines are
introduced to the children to instruct them；In Yue Ji of Li Ji, it is said that the
nature of the people can be modulated by Li.37In the chapter, it is also mentioned that
‘Yue means the harmony of the nature; Li performs the order of nature; Millions of
objects are produced because of harmony; Millions of characters are performed
because of the order. Yue is produced by nature; Li is produced for the need. So
everything will be in disorder if Li surpasses the order. Yue will be violent if it beyond
harmony. Only if the relationship between order and harmony is realized, Li and Yue
can be created.’38Yue is used to modulate the spirit; Li is used to modulate the
appearance. If one wants to modulate the appearance, one should restrain oneself; if
one wants to modulate the spirit, one should develop one’s character.39 To sum up, the
emphasis on the respect to others and restraining of oneself are found in Li Ji. In
Xueji of Li Ji, It is said that the bowlder can be the jade without grinding. A person
cannot be a knowledgeable person without study. So, if the ancient emperor wanted
to establish a strong country with capable people, education is the most important
way. So, the study should be considered seriously from the beginning.40From it, we can
see how important education is. In Xue Ji of Li Ji, the effects, the methods, the goals
and the importance of teaching are mentioned in order to raise a goal for the
beginners. Moreover, in the chapter, the goal should be achieved in the 9 years are
explained, ‘one can read the article in the meaning group to judge his ideal for the first
year; one can concentrate on his career and have a harmonious relationship with
others in the third year; one can study broadly and respect his teachers and parents in
the fifth year; one can have some of the comments on the classics and the friends
who he chose in the seventh year;one can master all kind of knowledge and grasp the
rules. He can make the difference between real and unreal. Moreover, he can also
follow what the teachers told him in the ninth year. In this way, the people get good
education, they can also improve themselves. In this way, the people nearby shows
respect to them; the people faraway want to join them. This is the procedure of the
high education.’41 In this way, people can have some foundation for the promising

断进德修业、追求至圣境界的人。引自：傅佩荣：《傅佩荣译解导论》，东方出版社，2012年版，第2页。
36
“见闻广博而记记力强，且能谦谦自处，这样修身践言，力行不懈，便可称为君子了。君子不讨别人无尽的
喜欢，亦不要别人无尽的爱戴，这样，才能保持永久的交情。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王
云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第18页。
37
“以礼来调调人们的性情。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，
2011年版，第328页。
38
“乐是表为自然的和谐；礼是表为自然的秩序。因其和谐故能化生万物；因有秩序故能显出万品。乐本于人
声之自然而起，礼则因后天的需要而作。所以，如果礼逾越秩序则紊乱，乐逾越和谐则暴慢。认清这先天后
天的关系，然后能创制礼乐。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011
年版，第330页。
39
“乐是调理精神的，礼是调理外貌的。调理外貌要以克制自己尊重别人为原则；调理精神则以充分发发性情
为原则。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第347页。
40
“玉的质地虽然美好，但不加磨琢，就不会成为器皿；人虽为万物之灵，若不学习，亦不会明白道理。所以
古代王者建设国家，治理人民，以教育为最先的任务。《尚华・兑命》篇说：从始至终，要经常想着学习。
就是这个意思。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第316-
317页。
41
“入学一年考经文的句读，辨别志向所趋；三年考察学生是否专心事业，乐合群众；
五年考察学生是否广博学习，亲敬师长；七年考察学生在学术上的见解，及对朋友的选选，这时候叫做小成
38
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
development in Da Xue.
From what we have mentioned, some of the disciplinesin the Indian tradition and
Chinese tradition are found to be similar. That is to say, the Chinese tradition is being
reflected during the studying of Yoga. In the study of Yoga culture, more people
realized why Yoga is regarded as a living style. At the same time, people also came to
know why Indian civilization and Chinese Civilization can be passed down one
generation to another. That is because the people of the two countries can guide their
people with different language on how to be a valuable person, how to behave in the
right way. Moreover, one should have a harmonious relationship with the nature. One
should think about the sustainable development in getting on with others.
The Link between Asanas and “五禽戏”(Hua Tuo'sWu Qin Xi)42
Āsana is the third part of Eight-fold Path of the Patanjali Yoga, which is from the
imitation from the creatures in the world and named according to the creature. These
were created by the rishes, who are said to be the prophet seer in ancient Indian. After
they watched the world carefully for a long time, they found the secret of the
creatures, especially the animals. The animals have their wisdom to live in harmony
with their environment and with their own bodies. They understood, through
experience, the effects of a particular posture and how the hormonal secretions could
be stimulated and controlled by it. Through imitating animal postures, the rishes
found they could maintain health and meet the challenges of nature for themselves.43
It is so surprising that it is not a unique instance, but has its counterpart. In China, A
famous traditional Chinese doctor Hua Tuo, who was born in about 145AD, created
Wu Qin Xi based on the Er Qin Xi44 created by Zhuangzi. The name and functions
of Wu Qin Xi can be found in Hua Tuo Biography of the CollectedBiographies on
Mystic Techniques in History of the Later Han Dynasty.45 The first exercise of Wu
Qin Xi is to imitate the action of tiger when the tiger arefluttering its forelimbs; the
second exercise is to imitate the action ofdeer when it is stretching and turning around
its head and neck; the third exercise is to imitate the action of bear when it is lying
down and then stand up; the fourth exercise is to imitate the action of ape when it is
jumping high with the toes; the fifth exercise is to imitate the action of the bird when
it is stretch its wings to fly high in the sky. Hua Tuo is considered as one of the
creators of Chinese ancient medical gymnastics. He is not good at curing the diseases,
but also encouraging people to keep health with the exercises. He also advocated that
the importance of prevention of the illness is much important to the rehabilitation.46
In the two wisdoms, both people from the two countries learned how to keep health
from the animals and realized the importance of prevention through stretching and

；九年而知识识达，能触类旁通，临事而不惑，不违背师师，这就叫做大成。这时，才能够化育人民，改变
风俗，附近的人都心悦诚服，远方的人都来归附，这是大学教育的步骤。”引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注
今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第316-317页。
42
It can be translated in Five Mimic-animal Boxing, which is now on the list of national intangible cultural heritage in
China.
43
[印]斯瓦米•萨特亚南达•萨拉斯瓦提著：《体位法调息法契合法收束法》，沙金张张丹译，东北大学出版社
，2015年版，《瑜伽导导》第3-4页。
44
It can be translated in Two Mimic-animal Boxing.
45
《后汉华•方术列传•华佗传》
46
华佗_360百科 https://baike.so.com/doc/3329333-3506346.html.
39
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
subtle strength.
The Link between Prāṇāyāma and “六字诀”(Six-character Formula)
Prāṇāyāma means the controlling of the vital forces of the body. Prana is not breath.
It is the sum-total of the cosmic energy. It is the energy that is in each body, and its
most apparent manifestation is the motion of the lungs. This motion is caused by
Prana drawing in the breath, and is what one seeks to control in Prāṇāyāma. One
begins by controlling the breath, as the easiest way of getting control of the Prana.
The three sorts of motion of this Prāṇāyāma are, one by which we draw the breath in,
another by which we throw it out, and the third action is when the breath is held in
the lungs, or stopped from entering the lungs.47 According to Swami
SatyanandaSaraswati, there are four important aspects of breathing which are utilized.
These are inhalation (Pooraka), exhalation (Rechaka), internal breath retention
(Antarkumbhaka) and external breath retention (Bahir kumbhaka). The most
important part of Prāṇāyāma is actually kumbhaka or breath retention.However, in
order to perform breath retention successfully, there must be a gradual development
of control over the function of respiration. Therefore, in the Prāṇāyāma practices
more emphasis is given to inhalation and exhalation at the beginning, in order to
strengthen the lungs and balance the nervous and pranic system in preparation for the
practice of breath retention. These initial practices influence the flow of prana in the
nadis, purifying, regulating and activating them, thereby inducing physical and mental
stability.48Six-character Formula is the instruction to breathe during the exercise to
keep health. It is a kind of traditional way of breathing exercise which was passed
down from ancient time. The benefits of the exercise are that the organizational
function can be strengthened if one can continue practicing; The potential of internal
organs can be stimulated and modulated to prevent the illness. The exercise can
prevent premature aging as people grow older. A lot of comments can be found in
the classic texts. Such as the comments in Lu Shi Chun Qiu written in around 239B.C.
have been made to introduce that the breathing exercise has been used to cure some
of the diseases. In Ke Yi of Zhaungzi written around 368 B.C. ~288B.C. , the
exhalation of the foul air and inhalation of fresh air has been mentioned.In the
following period, in the book named The Bibliography of Wang Bao written before 8
B.C. the benefits of the exhalation and inhalation is also mentioned. Before Sun
Simiao, which was the famous doctor in Tang Dynasty(618-907 A.D.) mentioned the
Six-character Formula in his classic book, a lot of classic books mentioned the
benefits of exhalation and inhalation in curing diseases and keeping health. To sum
up, we can find that both Chinese ancestors and Indian ancestors realized the
importance of exhalation and inhalation. They made it as a tradition passed down
from generation to generations.

The Link between Pratyāhāra& “去彼取此”（Controling the Sensation）

Pratyāhāra is the fifth part of 8-limb Yoga, which means the person who practiced

47
Vinay Kant Jha (Edited in 2015)Patanjili’s Yoga Sutra, 2.49- 2.51, commentary by Swami Vivekananda, Solar Books,
New Delhi,2015.pp. 88-89.
48
Swami SatyanandaSaraswati(first Edition 1969, fourth edition 2008), Asana Prāṇāyāma Mudra Bandha, Yoga
Publications Trust, Munger, Bihar, India.p.370.
40
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
Yoga has succeeded in preventing the organs from taking the forms of external
objects, and in making them remain one with the mind-stuff, then comes perfect
control of the organs, and when the organs are perfectly under control, every muscle
and nerve will be under control, because the organs are the centers of all the
sensations, and of all actions. When the organs are controlled, the person who
practices yoga can control all feeling and doing; the whole of the body will be under
his control. So when the control of the organs is obtained, a person can feel how
wonderful the body is.49 Similarly, in Chapter 12 of TaoTe Ching, Lao-tzu also
mentioned that one will feeldazzled if he/she sees the five colors together; One’s
hearing is impaired if he/she hear the five tunes together; One will discern his/her
taste if he/she tastes five tastes together; If one is obsessed with hunting and other
worldly entertainment, he/she will be mad in the inner; One cannot control
him/herself if he/she became interested in rare treasures. Sothe saint should control
the desire, and learned to get rid of the lure of material desire and to emphasis on the
satisfaction of inner development.50 Although India and China have different cultural
backgrounds, they have different ultimate goals. In India, the goal of Pratyāhārais is to
achieve concentration and then the people can have some links with God. And for
Chinese, the goal of “去彼取此”is to establish the active human relationships and
then achieve the goal to be a saint. However, the two cultures realized the importance
of the control of sensation.
The Link between Dhāraṇā and Dhyāna&与“慎思明辨”(Contemplation and
Discrimination)
After practicing the withdrawal of senses, one should address oneself to the internal
aids of conscious contemplation. This is achieved in three successive steps, fixed
attention(dhāraṇā), meditation(dhyāna) and contemplation(Samādhi). The first step is
to fix the attention on a physical spot and try to focus the attention on a span
containing this spot. The next stage is meditation in which there is an uninterrupted
flow of cognitions of the same object as the unbroken stream of oil. It is
characterized by an intense awareness of the object in which, although there is
complete obliteration of other thoughts, the meditation still retains the consciousness
of the distinction between the object cognized and the Self as the cogniser. It is a
mental state in which all actions of sense-organs and the mind are restrained and
concentrated towards the proper ascertainment from memory of the object under
contemplation. The main aim of this conscious contemplation is to attain to a clearer
cognition or knowledge of an object without error or misconception. And gradually,
one can achieve the reflective stage and then to the super-reflective stage. When a
person attainsto the stage of super-reflective contemplation, his/her mental faculty
gains in range and depth and develops a mastery which can extend without
obstruction both ways to the minutest things as well as the greatest magnitudes. It
then develops a contemplative insight, which is capable of penetrating to the truth
without recourse to formal steps of deductive logic.51 It is so amazing that in Xue Ji

49
Vinay Kant Jha (Edited in 2015),Patanjili’s Yoga Sutra, 2.54, 2.55commentary by Swami Vivekananda, Solar Books,
New Delhi,2015.p. 90.
50
参见傅佩荣：《傅佩荣译解老子》，东方出版社2012年版，第27页。
51
参看：Yardi, M.R. (1979), The Yoga of Patañjali , with an Introduction, Sanskrit Text the Yogasūtras, English
41
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
of Li Ji, similar views can be found. ‘When one knows that he/she is not
knowledgeable during study, he/she can have the ability of self-reflection. When one
knows that he/she doesn’t understand it completely during teaching others, he/she
will encourage himself/herself. That is why there is a saying; there is mutual-
improvement during teaching and learning.’52 Here, the importance of contemplation
and self-reflection is also mentioned. In Da Xue, there is some points to emphasis the
importance on the value of contemplation on the understanding and achieving the
goal with the sentence ‘One can only achieve the goal perfectly after the
contemplation.’53 Moreover, in one chapter of Mean, which is about what Lu Aigong
is asking Confucius about politics, the following five views are mentioned, ‘One
should learn something widely; One should question something intensively; One
should contemplate thoroughly; One should discriminate clearly; One should practice
accordingly.’Furthermore, ‘If one starts leaning, he/she cannot stop unless he/she is
skillful in everything; If one starts questioning something; he/she cannot stops unless
he/she understands everything; If one starts contemplation; he/she cannot stops
unless he/she masters the points completely; If one starts discriminating something,
he/she cannot stop unless he/she discriminate everything; If one starts practicing,
he/she cannot stops unless he/she are skillful with it. ’54In this way， the importance
of contemplation and discrimination is emphasized and encouraged to follow. At the
same time, the perseverance is also highlighted.
The Link betweenSamādhiand“止于至善”(Perfection)
Samādhi is a Sanskrit word, which means ‘when the object of meditation only shines
forth in the mind as through devoid of the thought of even the self, is called the state
of Samadhi. According to Swami Vivekananda, ‘the concentration is Samādhi, and
that is Yoga proper; that is the principle them of this science, and it is the highest
means. Samādhi is the means through which we can gain anything and everything,
mental, moral or spiritual.’55In 1914, Sri Aurobindo raised the concept of The Sythesis
of Yoga. In his opinion, ‘all life is either consciously or subconsciously a yoga. For by
this term a methodized effort towards self-perfection by the expression of the secret
potentialities latent in the being and- Highest condition of victory in that effort –a
union of the human individual with the universal and transcendent Existence partially
expressed in man and in the Cosmos.56 In Da Xue, From the first sentence of the
classic book, we know that ‘The ultimate goal of university is that the glorious virtues
of a person should bemanifested; One can purify himself/herself every day; And then
one cannot stops until one achieve the ultimate goal of the perfection. For if one
knows his/her ultimate goal, he/she will have the right direction; With right direction,
one can keep calm; With calmness, one can satisfied with his surroundings; With the
satisfaction, one can have considerate contemplation; With the contemplation, one

Translation and Notes, Bhandarkar, Pune. pp.51-55.

52
引自：王梦鸥注译：《礼记今注今译》，王云五主编，新世界出版社，2011年版，第317页。
53
引自：傅佩荣：《傅佩荣译解大学中庸》，东方出版社，2012年版，第3页。
54
引自：傅佩荣：《傅佩荣译解大学中庸》，东方出版社，2012年版，第77页。
55
Vinay Kant Jha (Edited in 2015), Patanjili’s Yoga Sutra, commentary by Swami Vivekananda, Solar Books, New
Delhi,2015.p. 113.
56
K.C. Anand,(2011)Introduction to Sri Aurobindo’s ‘The Synthesis of Yoga’,Pradeep Narang for Sri Aurobindo Society,
Puducherry-605 001.p.3
42
 YOGA: THE BRIDGE
can realize the value of the goal; Every object has the vital part and minor part; Every
event has the beginning and the end; If one can realize the reason and order, the goal
of university can be realized.’57
To sum up, there is a lot of similar wisdom can be found in both Indian Yoga culture
and Chinese Traditional culture. After the comparative studies are made, one will find
that only after the careful researches on the two cultures, the mutual understanding
can be achieved. From the intercultural exchange, the mutual appreciation can be also
achieved. And in such kind of comparison, the similar wisdom from the ancient time
can also found in the way of life. In the comparison, the wisdom and culture of self-
reflection and self-perfection can be found in both countries, although the people of
the two countries have different goal. As expressed by Chen(2017), ‘Chinese culture
emphasizes on the relationship between people and people, however the Indian
culture emphasizes on the glorification of the God and super natural
power.58However, in such kind of comparative study, Yoga can be found not only to
link the people who practice Yoga, but to link the two great ancient civilizations. In
such kind of link, people can also share the essence of each culture and learn from
each other. In this way, the mutual respect, the harmony between countries can be
achieved. In this way, Yoga became the bridge to link traditional culture between India
and & China.

57
“大学的理想，是要彰显一个人光明的德行；是要他亲近爱爱百姓；是要他抵达完美的目标。知道目标何在
，就会引发确定的志向；有了确定的志向，才可能保持平静的心情；保持平静的心情，才可能安于所处的环
境；安于所处的环境，才可能进行周全的思虑；进行周全的思虑，才可能领悟目标的价值。外物的存在有根
本部分，也有末调部分；事件的发生有结束阶段，也有开始阶段。知道这一切的先后次序，就接近大学的理
想了。”引自：傅佩荣：《傅佩荣译解大学中庸》，东方出版社，2012年版，第3页。
58
陈来：《古代宗教与伦理：儒家思想的根源》（增订本），北京大学出版社，2017年版，第9页。
43