Unit II

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING STUDIES

Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories, listed as follows
1. Inventory studies
It provides a list or graphic display of existing information, such as street widths, parking spaces, transit
routes, and traffic regulations.
2. Administrative studies, and
It uses the existing engineering records, available in govt. agencies & departments. It includes the results of surveys,
which may involve field measurements and/or aerial photography.
3. Dynamic studies.
Dynamic studies involve the collection of data under operational conditions and include different traffic studies. The
different traffic studies involved in traffic engineering are listed below.
1. Speed Studies (safety)
2. Volume Studies ( basic traffic studies)
3. Travel-time Studies (measure quality of service)
4. Delay Studies (parts of travel time that user find particularly annoying)
5. Origin and Destination Studies
6. Parking Studies (inventories or parking supply, parking accumulations)
7. Accident Studies (accident characteristics, factor, specific location)
8. Good Movement & Transit Studies (loading facilities & transit systems)
9. Pedestrian Studies (crosswalks at signalized/un-signalized locations)
10. Observance Studies (effectiveness of various traffic controls)

TRAFFIC ENGINEERING-I
1. Speed Studies
Speed is an important transportation consideration because it relates to safety, time, comfort, convenience,
and economics. The speed of a vehicle is defined as the rate of movement of the vehicle under specific
condition and for a specific purpose, is generally expressed in kmph in metric units.
Different Types of Speed:
Spot Speed
Spot speed is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at a specified location. A spot speed is carried out by recording
the speed of a sample of vehicles at a specified location. Spot speed studies are used to determine the speed
characteristics of a traffic stream at a specific location along the roadway. Speed characteristics identified
by such a study will be valid only for the traffic and environmental conditions that exists at the time of the study.
Running Speed
Running speed is the average speed maintained over a particular course while the vehicle is moving and is
found by dividing the length of the course by the time duration the vehicle was in motion. i.e. this speed
doesn't consider the time during which the vehicle is brought to a stop, or has to wait till it has a clear road
ahead. The running speed will always be more than or equal to the journey speed, as delays are not
considered in calculating the running speed.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝑅𝑢𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 − 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
Journey Speed
Journey speed is the effective speed of the vehicle on a journey between two points and is the distance
between the two points divided by the total time taken for the vehicle to complete the journey including
any stopped time. If the journey speed is less than running speed, it indicates that the journey follows a
stop-go condition with enforced acceleration and deceleration. The spot speed here may vary from zero
to some maximum in excess of the running speed. Uniformity between journey and running speeds
denotes comfortable travel conditions.
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠𝑒
𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑦 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑙𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦)
1.1 Objectives/ Applications/ Importance of Spot Speed Studies
Speed characteristics determined from a spot speed study may be used to
(1) Determine existing speed trends in roadways.
a. Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a
stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway.
(2) Traffic control planning for

Traffic Engineering-I 2
 a. Establishing minimum and maximum speed limit
b. speed zoning
c. Establish length of passing zone
d. Proper location of regulatory, warning and guide signs
e. Analyze school zone protection
(3) Establishing roadway design (geometric design) elements
a. Evaluating and determining proper intersection sight distance, stopping sight distance and
geometric features such as radii of horizontal curve and length of vertical curve
(4) Monitor the effect of speed enforcement programs
(5) Accident studies
(6) Capacity Studies
(7) Before and after studies
(8) Assessing roadway safety questions:
a. Evaluating and verifying speeding problems, assessing speed as a contributor to vehicle
crashes, investigating input from the public or other officials
1.2 Spot Speed Study Steps
• STEP 1: Organize Study Plan
• STEP 2: Select Data Collection Technology
• STEP 3: Select Appropriate Site and Collect Field Data
• STEP 4: Reduce and Analyze Data
• STEP 5: Interpret and Report Findings
1.3 Location, Time and duration of Spot Speed Studies
Location wise: The locations for spot speed studies depend on the anticipated use of the results. The
following locations are generally used for the different applications listed.
• Locations that represent different traffic conditions on a highway or highways are used for basic
data collection
• Midblock of urban highways and straight level sections of rural highways are sites for speed trend
analyses.
• Any location can be used for the solution of a specific traffic engineering problem
Data collections: It is important to collect unbiased data during spot speed studies. Hence when the
studies are being conducted, the drivers should be unaware of such studies. Equipments used therefore

Traffic Engineering-I 3
be concealed from the driver and the observers conducting the study should be inconspicuous. Since the
speeds recorded will eventually be subjected to statistical analysis, it is important to record adequate
number of vehicle speed.
Time and duration of spot speed studies: it depends on the purpose of the study. When the purpose
of study is to collect basic data, to observe speed trends or to establish speed limit, then it is recommended
that the study be conducted when traffic is free flowing, usually during off-peak hours. The duration of
the study should be such that the minimum number of vehicle speed required for statistical analysis is
recorded. Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
1.4 Methods of Conducting Spot Speed Studies
There are several ways in which one can conduct the spot speed study. Some of them are listed below.
4. Manual Method [Direct timing Method]
5. Mirror Box method [Enoscope Method]
6. Pressure Contact Strip method
7. Radar Speed meter method
8. Time-Lapse Camera method
9. Electronic meter method
• Direct-Timing Procedure
Two reference points are marked on the pavement at a suitable distance apart and observer starts and
stops the stop watch as a vehicle crosses these two marks. It can be done by keeping either a single observer
or two observers at each reference point. In single observer method, the observer has to note both entry
and exit time, and from the known distance and the
measured time interval it is possible to calculate
speed. The issue related to this method is the errors
that will be happening due to the parallax effect.
In two observer method, the observer standing at
the point which is the entry point of the vehicle
signals the second observer that the vehicle to be Figure: Single Observer Method
timed is passing the point and the second observer
then starts the stop watch. Once the vehicle leaves the exit point the second observer stops the stop watch.
The main drawback of this method is the difference in the reaction time of two different observers.
• Mirror Box or Enoscope Method

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Enoscope which is also known as Mirror-box is an L shaped device open at both the ends with a mirror
set at 45 degree angle to the arms of the instrument. This can be used either single or two enoscopes at a
time. If one is used, the instrument is placed directly opposite to the first reference point and the observer
stands at the exit reference point. The instrument bends the line of sight of the observer so that it is
perpendicular to the path of the vehicle. This will eliminates the parallax error single observer takes direct
readings.
On enoscope the mirror is placed which is shown in figure
3, the observer is standing at exit point, so as soon as the
vehicle crosses entry line the image gets reflected in the
mirror and from the enoscope the observer can see that the
vehicle is crossing that line and stopwatch is pressed at that
moment. As soon as vehicle leaves the exit point he presses
the ‘stop watch’ again. So the time interval is noted and that
is the time of travelling this distance by the vehicle.
Figure: Enoscope
If two enoscopes are used, the observer stations at the midway
between the two reference points. He starts the stopwatch once the vehicle crosses the entry point and
stops it once the vehicle leaves the exit point. Some of the disadvantages with this method are the drivers may get
affected, and this method is not advisable for heavy traffic and for multi lane roads.
• Radar Speed Meters
A radar meter is a commonly used device for directly measuring speeds in spot speed studies. This device
may be hand-held, mounted in a vehicle, or mounted on a tripod. It measures speed directly by reflecting
an emitted radar wave of an oncoming vehicle and measuring the difference in the frequency between the
emitted and reflected radar wave. It is radar meter which is targeted to a
vehicle, so the wave, the frequency between the emitted and reflected wave
that the difference is used to calculate the speed. The difference infrequency-This
is normally referred to as Doppler Effect and is proportional to the speed of the on-coming
vehicle.
The effective measuring distance for radar meters ranges from 200 feet (60
m) up to 2 miles (3200 m) and measures the speed at an accuracy of at least Figure: Radar
1.5 to 3 kmph. A radar meter requires line-of-sight to accurately measure speed
and is easily operated by one person. If traffic is heavy or the sampling strategy is complex, two radar units
may be needed. The speed of the vehicle in both directions can be observed by this method.
This method also has some drawbacks. Different sized vehicles and the detection of the observation
vehicle may affect radar readings. Large vehicles such as trucks and buses send the strongest return signal
to the radar meters and as a result smaller vehicles may not be detected. If there is a presence of large
vehicles, the observer may need to record the speeds of vehicles that are alone. Also, some vehicles are
equipped with radar detectors to warn them that a radar unit is operating in their vicinity. Drivers will slow
down when warned by a detector. It is not unusual for other drivers to slow down also. This slowing will
affect the study results. Radar gun is difficult to conceal the wave. It looks like a gun, it is not a real gun
but it looks like a gun, so you target it to the vehicle and take the reading. Now, drivers, the moment they

Traffic Engineering-I 5
find somebody is targeting the vehicle with an instrument like that, so, they may deviate from the normal
behavior so they may either reduce the speed or maybe like to stop to see what is happening here.
• Pressure Contact Tubes (Pneumatic Tubes)
The pneumatic road tube method is normally used for longer data collection time periods than those of
either the stopwatch or radar meter method. In this method,
pneumatic tubes are placed in the travel lanes. When a vehicle
passes over the tube at the entry point, an air impulse is sent
which activates the electro magnetically controlled stop watch in
the hands of the observer. When the vehicle passes over the
second tube, the stop watch automatically stops. The readings
can also be recorded by automatic data recorders. The main issue
in this method is that by seeing this tube, the driver’s behavior
might change and it affects their speed. Figure : Pneumatic Tube
• Photographic or Video Camera Method
In photographic methods, photographs are taken at fixed intervals of time on a special camera (time-lapse
camera photography). By projecting the films on a screen the passage of any vehicle can be traced with
reference to the time. Images by video cameras are latest method used in data collection in traffic studies.
1.5 Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data:
1.5.1 Presentation of Data: The data collected in spot speed studies are usually taken from a sample of
vehicles using the section of the highway on which the study is conducted, but are used to determine the
speed characteristics of the whole population of vehicles travelling on the study site. It is therefore
necessary to use statistical methods in analyzing these data. Hence the data must be presented in a suitable
form for analysis. Common presentation format used are frequency distribution table, histogram and
cumulative frequency distribution curve. The frequency distribution table consists of different classes of
data and the frequency of each vehicle in that class. Usually the mid value of the range is taken as the speed
of the vehicle in that class. Histogram is a chart showing the mid value for each class as the abscissa and
the observed frequency for each class as the ordinate. The frequency distribution curve shows a plot of
the cumulative percentage against the upper limit of each corresponding speed class.

• Histogram • Frequency Distribution • Cumulative Distribution

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1.5.2 Analysis of Data: In analysis, the main idea is to identify key parameters associated with roadway
speeds, which may include any or all of the following:
Mean Speed: The average speed; calculated as the sum of all speeds divided by the number of speed
observations
85th Percentile Speed: The speed at or below which 85 percent of a sample of free flowing vehicles is
travelling; this is typically used as a baseline for establishing the speed (based on a spot speed study)
95th Percentile Speed: The speed at or below which 95 percent of a sample of free flowing vehicles is
travelling (based on a spot speed study)
Median (50th Percentile Speed): The speed that equally divides the distribution of spot speeds; 50 percent
of observed speeds are higher than the median; 50 percent of observed speeds are lower than the median.
The Modal Speed: The mode is defined as the single value of speed that is most likely to occur. As no
discrete values were recorded, the modal speed is also determined graphically from the frequency
distribution curve. A vertical line is dropped from the peak of the curve, with the result found on the
horizontal axis.
Speed Variance: The difference in travel speeds for vehicles on the road. Mathematically, variance is the
average of the squares of the difference to the mean for each observed speed.
Pace: It is defined as the 10Km/h increment in speed in which the highest percentage of drivers is
observed. The pace is found as follows: A 10 Km/h template is scaled from the horizontal axis. Keeping
this template horizontal, place an end on the lower left side of the curve and move slowly along the curve.
When the right side of the template intersects the right side of the curve, the pace has been located. This
procedure identifies the 10 Km/h increments that intersect the peak of the curve; this contains the most
area and, therefore, the highest percentage of vehicles.
1.6 Interpret and Report Findings
Collected data should answer questions such as…
1) How do observed speeds compare with the specified speed limit for the observed roadway?
2) How does the distribution of speeds before compare with speeds during or after an enforcement
campaign?
3) If residents are complaining about excessive speeds during a certain period of time, does the data
support this claim?
4) Are speeds on the approach to a high crash location higher than the roadway design speed?
5) What is the speed variance? Are all vehicles traveling at approximately the same speed, or is there
a wide range of observed speed values?
6) Since the installation of a new speed limit sign, how have roadway speeds changed?

Traffic Engineering-I 7
2. Speed and Delay Studies
The speed and delay studies give the running speeds, journey speeds, fluctuations in speeds and delay
between two stations on a road. They also give the information such as the amount, location, frequency
and causes of the delay in the traffic stream. For a traffic engineer it is necessary to understand different
types of speed measurement and delay measurement met in traffic engineering.
Running speed: it is the average speed maintained by the vehicle over a given section of highway while the
vehicle is in motion. For calculating running speed, running time is needed which is the total journey time
exclusive of delay.
Journey speed: it is the effective speed of the vehicle to cross a given length of course.
length of course
Running speed =
running time [journey time − delay]
distance
Journey speed =
journey time + delay
Time mean speed (vt): it is the average of the speed measurements at one
point in space over a period of time.
𝒏
𝒊X𝟏 𝒗𝒊
𝒗𝒕 =
𝒏
Where vi- initial speed, n - total number of observations
Figure 1: Time mean speed
Space mean speed (vs): it is the average of the speed measurements
over a space distance at an instant of the time.
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝒗𝒔 = 𝒕 + 𝒕 + ⋯ . . 𝒕
𝟏 𝟐 𝒏
𝒏 Figure 2: Space mean speed
𝒏
𝒗𝒔 =
𝒕𝒊
𝒅𝒊
𝒏
𝒗𝒔 =
𝟏
𝒗𝒊
The two speeds have the following relationship
𝝈𝟐𝒔
𝒗𝒕 = 𝒗𝒔 +
𝒗𝒔
Hence, time mean speed is space mean speed plus standard deviation of the spot speed divided by the
space mean speed. Time mean speed will be always greater than space mean speed since standard deviation
cannot be negative. If all the speed of the vehicles are the same, then spot speed, time mean speed and
space mean speed will also be same.
Delay: it is the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the control of the driver.

Traffic Engineering-I 8
Stopped time delay: it is that part of the delay during which the vehicle is at rest.
Operational delay: It is that part of the delay caused by the impedance of other traffic. This impedance
can occur either as side friction, where the stream flow is interfered with by other traffic (for example,
parking or unparking vehicles), or as internal friction, where the interference is within the traffic stream
(for example, reduction in capacity of the highway).
Fixed Delay: it is that part of the delay caused by control devices such as traffic signals. This delay will
occur regardless of the traffic volume.
Travel-time delay: difference between the actual travel time and the travel time that will be obtained by
assuming that a vehicle traverses the study section at an average speed equal to that for an uncongested
traffic flow on the section being used.
Speed and delay study determines the amount of time required to travel from one point to another on a
given route. In conducting such a study, information may also be collected on the locations, durations and
causes of the delays. Data obtained from such studies give a good indication of the level of service on the
study section.
2.1 Applications/ Importance of Speed and delay Studies
1. Journey-time studies on a road network in a town are useful to evaluate congestion, capacity, level
of services and need for the improvements.
2. Primary data information in highway economics, since the costs of a journey depends on the speed
at which it is made.
3. Performance of economic studies in the evaluation of traffic operation alternatives that reduce
travel time.
4. Determination of the efficiency of a route with respect to its ability to carry traffic.
5. Identification of locations with relatively high delays and the cause of those delays
6. Performance of before-and-after studies to evaluate the effectiveness of traffic operation
improvements
2.2 Methods of conducting Speed and Delay Studies
Methods commonly used can be grouped into two general categories: (1) those using a test vehicle and (2)
those not requiring a test vehicle. The particular technique used for any specific study depends on the
reason for conducting the study and the available personnel and equipment.
2.2.1 Methods Requiring a Test Vehicle
This category involves three possible techniques:
1. floating-car method
2. average-speed method
3. Moving observer method
Floating - car method:
In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the test section so that the test car “floats” with
the traffic. The driver of the test vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his test

Traffic Engineering-I 9
vehicle. The time taken to traverse the study section is recorded. This is repeated, and the average time is
recorded as the travel time.
Moving observer method
In this method, a test vehicle or vehicles is driven over a given course of travel at approximately the average
speed of the stream, thus trying to float with the traffic stream. A number of test runs are made along the
study stretch and a group of observers record the various details. Two to three observers are required with
two stop watches. One of the stop watches is continuously operated and is required to find out the travel
time between two control points along the stretch. These control points are fixed beforehand and include
any fixed point such as intersections, bridges etc. The other stop watch is used to find the duration of
individual delays. One of the observers, records the duration, location and cause of these delays as well as
the overall travel time between two control points either on suitable tabular forms or by voice recording
instruments. Third observer has to count the number of overtaking vehicles, overtaken vehicles and
parked vehicles and then record it. It is desirable to make twelve to sixteen runs in each direction along
the route to arrive at an accurate estimate of the speed and flow.
Advantages of the method:
1. It enables data on speed and flow to be collected at the same point of time
2. It gives mean value of speed and flow over a section rather than at a point
3. Additional information on stops at intersection, delays and parked vehicles
4. Economical in manpower compared to other methods specially, stationary observer method
Consider a stream of vehicles moving in the north bound direction. Two different cases of motion can be
considered. The first case considers the traffic stream to be moving and the observer to be stationary. If
no is the number of vehicles overtaking the observer during a period, t, then flow q is no/t , or
𝑛c = 𝑞×𝑡
The second case assumes that the stream is stationary and the observer moves with speed vo. If np is the
number of vehicles overtaken by observer over a length l, then by definition,
density k is np/l or
𝑛f = 𝑘×𝑙
𝑛f = 𝑘×𝑣c ×𝑡
where v0 is the speed of the observer and t is the time taken for the observer to cover the road stretch.
Now consider the case when the observer is moving within the stream. In that case mo vehicles will
overtake the observer and mp vehicles will be overtaken by the observer in the test vehicle. Let the
difference m is given by m0 - mp, then from above equations,
𝑚 = 𝑞𝑡 − 𝑘𝑣c 𝑡
This equation is the basic equation of moving observer method, which relates q; k to the counts m, t and
vo that can be obtained from the test. However, we have two unknowns, q and k, but only one equation.
For generating another equation, the test vehicle is run twice once with the traffic stream and another one
against traffic stream, i.e.

Traffic Engineering-I 10
 𝑚i = 𝑞𝑡i − 𝑘𝑣i 𝑡i
𝑚i = 𝑞𝑡i − 𝑘𝑙
𝑚j = 𝑞𝑡j + 𝑘𝑣j 𝑡j
𝑚j = 𝑞𝑡j + 𝑘𝑙
Where a,w denotes against and with traffic flow. It may be noted that the sign of equation (against traffic
flow) is negative (when the test vehicle moves in the opposite direction, the observer simply counts the
number of vehicles in the opposite direction).
Adding above equations we will get the first parameter of the stream, namely the flow (q) as:
𝑚i + 𝑚j
𝑞=
𝑡i + 𝑡j
kl n p
Space mean speed, =𝑞−
ml o ml

𝑚i 𝑡jor
=𝑞 1−
𝑡i 𝑡i
If vs is the mean stream speed, then average travel time is given by tavg = l/vs. Therefore,
𝑚i 𝑡jor
= 𝑡i 1 −
𝑞 𝑡i
𝑚i 𝑙
𝑡jor = 𝑡i − =
𝑞 𝑣s
Rewriting the above equation, we get the second parameter of the traffic flow, namely the mean speed vs
p
and can be written as, 𝑣s = u
ml t l
v

Thus two parameters of the stream can be determined. Knowing the two parameters the third parameter
of traffic flow density (k) can be found out as
𝑞
𝑘=
𝑣s
2.2.2 Methods does not Require a Test Vehicle

1. License plate or Registration number method

2. Elevated observer method
3. Interview method
4. ITS advanced technologies
License plate or Registration number method
In this method synchronized stop watches are used. Observers are stationed at the entrance and exit of
the test section. The timings and the registration numbers of the vehicles are recorded by the observers of
the selected sample. Usually two observers are employed for each direction of travel, one for noting the

Traffic Engineering-I 11
registration number and calling it and the other for recording it along with the time. By matching the
registration numbers later, travel time of each vehicle can be found. The one good advantage of this
method is there is no need of sophisticated and costly equipments for this method. Though the method
is simple and cheap it has some drawbacks also. This method cannot be used in highway section having
intersection areas. In intersection areas of the section, the vehicle may enter, leave or stop. Similarly this
method fails to yield important details such as data on delay, causes of delays and the duration and
frequency of individual delays within the test section. Hence it is not possible to record running speed
using this method.
Interview Method
The interviewing method is carried out by obtaining information from people who drive on study site
regarding their travel times, their experience of delays, and so forth. This method facilitates the collection
of a large amount of data in a relatively short time. However it requires cooperation of the people
contacted, since the result depends entirely on the information given by them.
Elevated observer method
In this method, the observer stationed on top of an elevated building select vehicles at random and follow
their course along the road, noting the time of entering the test section, duration and nature of delays
suffered and the time of leaving. For doing this method, the test section should be short so that the
observer can record it efficiently. Also, the duration of time should not be more than 2 hours to avoid
observers strain. This method cannot be used in a section where there is heavy traffic.
ITS advanced technologies
The one set of ITS has facilitated the development of advanced technologies to support the system. The
use of cell phones to collect the travel times through on roadways is one such technology. GPS based
approach is the update method to get developed in recent years. The GPS device is installed at each testing
vehicle and movement information of each vehicle on the roadways will be received by the control center.
The travel time will be then calculated based on predetermined algorithm.
2.3 Presentation of the data
The journey speed and running speed pertaining to a road network in an area can be conveniently
represented in graphical form. The delay measured can be compared with the total travel time. One such
graphical comparison is shown below (Ref. CRRI report 2011).

Fig: Speed and Delay studies

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3. Traffic Volume Studies
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and classifications of roadway
vehicles at a given location. These data can help identify critical flow time periods, determine the influence
of large vehicles or pedestrians on vehicular traffic flow, or document traffic volume trends. The length
of the sampling period depends on the type of count being taken and the intended use of the data recorded.
3.1 Terminology
Sometimes it is only necessary to measure the flow for a short term say an hour, or it can even extend up
to a week, month, year or so. Traffic volume studies are conducted when certain volume characteristics
are needed some of which follow:
ADT (Average Daily Traffic): it is the average of 24-hour counts collected over a number of days greater
than one day but less than a year. ADTs may be used for
Planning of highway activities
Measurement of current demand
Evaluation of existing traffic flow
AADT (Average Annual Daily Traffic): it is the average of 24-hour counts collected everyday in the
year. AADTs are used in traffic and transportation analyses for
Estimation of highway revenue
Evaluation of economic feasibility of highway projects
Establishment of traffic volume trends
Computation of accident rates
Development of improvement and maintenance programs
PHV (Peak Hour Volume): it is the maximum number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway during
a period of 60 consecutive minutes. PHVs are used for
Functional classification of highways
Design the geometric characteristics of a highway (eg. Number of lanes)
Capacity analysis, development of parking regulation
VC (Vehicle classification): records the volume with respect to the type of vehicles, say passenger cars,
two-axle trucks or three-axle trucks. It is mainly used in the structural design of highway pavements.
VMT (Vehicle miles of travel): measure of travel along a section of the road. VMT = ADT × length of
roadway in miles to which the volume is applicable.
3.2 Methods of Conducting Volume Counts
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume counts: (1) manual and (2) automatic. Sometimes
a combination of manual and automatic method is also used for conducting traffic volume counts. Manual
counts are typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle classification, turning movements,

Traffic Engineering-I 13
direction of travel, pedestrian movements, or vehicle occupancy. Automatic counts are typically used to
gather data for determination of vehicle hour patterns, daily or seasonal variations and growth trends, or
annual traffic estimates. There is no distinct difference between the two methods however; the economic
use or selection of an appropriate method of traffic counting is a function of the level of traffic flow and
the required data quality.
1. Manual Method
Manual counting involves one or more persons recording observed vehicles using a counter. Manual
counts are recorded using one of three methods: tally sheets, mechanical counting boards, or electronic
counting boards.
Tally sheets (Field data sheet)
Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means of conducting manual counts. The data can be
recorded with a tick mark on a pre-prepared field form. A watch or stopwatch is necessary to measure the
desired count interval.
Mechanical Counting Boards
Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on a board
that record each direction of travel. Common counts include
pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts.
Typical counters are push button devices with three to five registers.
Each button represents a different stratification of type of vehicle
or pedestrian being counted. The limited number of buttons on the
counter can restrict the number of classifications that can be
counted on a given board. A watch or a stopwatch is also necessary
with this method to measure the desired count interval. Figure 7
shows a mechanical counting board. Figure: Mechanical Counting Board

Electronic Counting Boards

Electronic counting boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices
used in collecting traffic count data. They are similar to mechanical
counting boards, but with some important differences. Electronic
counting boards are lighter, more compact, and easier to handle. They
have an internal clock that automatically separates the data by time
interval. Special functions include automatic data reduction and
summary. The data can also be downloaded to a computer, which
saves time.
There are three steps to a manual traffic volume count:
Figure: Electronic counting board
Prepare. Determine the type of equipment to use, the
field procedures to follow, and the number of
observers required. Label and organize tally sheets. Each sheet should include information about
the location, time and date of observation, and weather conditions.

Traffic Engineering-I 14
 Select observer location(s). Observers (data collectors) should be positioned where they have a clear view
of traffic and are safely away from the edge of the roadway.
Record observations on site.
The main disadvantages of the manual count method are that (i) it is labor intensive and can therefore be
expensive (ii) it is subject to the limitation of human factors (iii) cannot be used for long periods of
counting.
2. Automatic Method
Some automatic counters use a counting method that involves the laying of surface detectors (pneumatic
road tubes) or subsurface detectors (magnetic or electric devices) on the road. These detect the passing
vehicle and transmit the information to a recorder which is connected to the detector at the side of the
road.
Pneumatic Tubes
These are tubes placed on the top of road surfaces at locations
where traffic counting is required. As vehicles pass over the
tube, the resulting compression sends a burst of air to an air
switch, which can be installed in any type of traffic counting
devices. Air switches can provide accurate axle counts even
when compressions occur more than 30 m from the traffic
counter. Although the life of the pneumatic tubes is traffic
dependant as they directly drive over it, it is used worldwide
for speed measurement and vehicle classification for any level
of traffic. Care should be exercised in placing and operating
the system, to ensure its efficient operation and minimize any Figure: Pneumatic Road Tube and
potential error in the data. Recorder

Inductive loops
Inductive loop detector consists of embedded turned wire from which it gets its name. It includes an
oscillator, and a cable, which allows signals to pass from the loop to the traffic counting device. The
counting device is activated by the change in the magnetic field when a vehicle passes over the loop.
Inductive loops are cheap, almost maintenance-free and are currently the most widely used equipment for
vehicle counting and detection. Single loops are incapable of measuring vehicular speed and the length of
a vehicle. This requires the use of a pair of loops to estimate speed by analyzing the time it takes a vehicle
to pass through the loops installed in series. An inductive loop can also, to a certain degree, be used to
detect the chassis heights and estimate the number of axles
Weigh-in-motion sensor type
A variety of traffic sensors and loops are used world-wide to count, weigh and classify vehicles while in
motion, and these are collectively known as Weigh-In-Motion (WIM) sensor systems. Whereas sensor
pads can be used on their own traffic speed and axle weighing equipment, they are trigged by “leading”
inductive loops placed before them on the roadbed. This scenario is adopted where axle speed and
statistical data are required. Some notable traffic sensors are: bending plate, capacitive strip, capacitive mat
and piezo-electric cable.

Traffic Engineering-I 15
Videotape
Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can be counted by viewing
videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital clock in the video image can prove useful
in noting time intervals. Videotaping is not a cost-effective option in most situations. Few small
jurisdictions have access to this equipment.
3.3 Types of Volume Counts
Cordon counts
When information is required for vehicle accumulation within an area, such as central business district
(CBD) of a city, particularly during a specific time, cordon count
is taken. The area for which the data are required is cordoned off
by an imaginary closed loop, the area enclosed within the loop is
known as cordon area. The intersection of each street crossing the
cordon line is taken as a count station, the volume counts of
vehicles and/or persons entering and leaving the cordon area are
taken. The information obtained from such a count is useful for
planning parking facilities, evaluating and updating traffic
operational techniques.
Figure : Station Location for a
Screen Line counts cordon count
The study area is divided into large sections by running imaginary lines known as screen lines across it. In
some cases, natural barriers such as ricers or railway tracks are used as screen lines. The traffic counts are
taken at each point where a road crosses the screen lines. The information obtained from such a count
helps in detecting variations in traffic volumes and traffic flow.
Intersection counts
These are taken to determine vehicle classification through movements and turning movements at
intersections. This data will be helpful in determining phase length and cycle times for signalized
intersections.
Pedestrian Volume counts
Such volume counts are made at subway stations, mid-blocks and crosswalks. The counts are usually taken
at these locations when the evaluation of existing or proposed pedestrian facilities is to be undertaken.
This also includes pedestrian overpass and underpass.
Periodic Volume counts
In order to obtain traffic data such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain data continuously. It is not feasible
to collect continuous data on all roads because of the cost involved. To make reasonable estimates of
annual traffic volume characteristics on an area wide basis, different types of periodic counts are
conducted. The data obtained from these periodic counts are then used to determine values that are then
used in estimating the annual traffic volume. The periodic counts usually conducted are continuous,
control or coverage counts.

Traffic Engineering-I 16
3.4 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
The data collected from traffic volume counts may be presented in one of several ways, depending on the
type of count conducted and the primary use of the data.
Traffic Flow Maps
These maps show traffic volumes on individual routes. The volume of traffic
on each route is represented by the width of a band, which is drawn in
proportion to the traffic volume it represents. When flows are significantly
different in opposite directions on a particular street, then separate bands are
provided for each direction. The numerical value represented by each band
is also mentioned in the map.

Figure: Traffic flow map

Intersection Summary Sheets
These are graphic representations of the volume and directions of all traffic
movements through the intersection. These volumes can be either ADTs or
PHVs depending on the use of the data.

Figure: Intersection Summary Sheet

Time-Based Distribution Charts
These charts show the hourly, daily, monthly or annual variations in
traffic volume in an area on a particular highway. Each volume is usually
given as a percentage of the average volume.

Figure: Time based distribution chart

Summary Tables
These tables give a summary of traffic volume data such as PHV, VC and ADT in tabular form.

Traffic Engineering-I 17
4. Parking Studies
Parking is one of the major problems that is created by the increasing road traffic. It is an impact of
transport development. The availability of less space in urban areas has increased the demand for parking
space especially in areas like Central business district. This affects the mode choice also. This has a great
economical impact.

4.1 Parking system:

On street parking : On street parking means the vehicles are parked on the sides of the street itself. This
will be usually controlled by government agencies itself. Common types of on-street parking are as listed
below. This classification is based on the angle in which the vehicles are parked with respect to the road
alignment. As per IRC the standard dimensions of a car is taken as 5× 2.5 meters and that for a truck is
3.75× 7.5 meters.

1. Parallel parking: The vehicles are parked along the length of the road. Here there is no backward
movement involved while parking or unparking the vehicle. Hence, it is the most safest parking from the
accident perspective. However, it consumes the maximum curb length and therefore only a minimum
number of vehicles can be parked for a given kerb length. This method of parking produces least
obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since least road width is used.

2. 30◦ parking: In thirty degree parking, the vehicles are parked at 30◦ with respect to the road alignment.
In this case, more vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking.

3. 45◦ parking: As the angle of parking increases, more number of vehicles can be parked. Hence compared
to parallel parking and thirty degree parking, more number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type
of parking.

4. 60◦ parking: The vehicles are parked at 60◦ to the direction of road. More number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this parking type.

5. Right angle parking: In right angle parking or 90◦ parking, the vehicles are parked perpendicular to the
direction of the road. Although it consumes maximum width kerb length required is very little. In this type
of parking, the vehicles need complex maneu- vering and this may cause severe accidents. This
arrangement causes obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width is less. However, it can
accommodate maximum number of vehicles for a given kerb length.

2. Off street parking:

In many urban centers, some areas are exclusively allotted for parking which will be at some distance away
from the main stream of traffic. Such a parking is referred to as off-street parking. They may be operated
by either public agencies or private firms.

4.2 Parking requirements:

There are some minimum parking requirements for different types of building. For residential plot area
less than 300 sq.m require only community parking space. For residential plot area from 500 to 1000 sq.m,

Traffic Engineering-I 18
minimum one-fourth of the open area should be reserved for parking. Offices may require at least one
space for every 70 sq.m as parking area. One parking space is enough for 10 seats in a restaurant where as
theatres and cinema halls need to keep only 1 parking space for 20 seats. Thus, the parking requirements
are different for different land use zones.

4.3 Ill effects of parking:

Parking has some ill-effects like congestion, accidents, pollution, obstruction to fire-fighting operations
etc.

1. Congestion: Parking takes considerable street space leading to the lowering of the road capacity. Hence,
speed will be reduced, journey time and delay will also subsequently increase. The operational cost of the
vehicle increases leading to great economical loss to the community.

2. Accidents: Careless maneuvering of parking and unparking leads to accidents which are referred to as
parking accidents. Common type of parking accidents occur while driving out a car from the parking area,
careless opening of the doors of parked cars, and while bringing in the vehicle to the parking lot for
parking.

3. Environmental pollution: They also cause pollution to the environment because stop- ping and starting
of vehicles while parking and unparking results in noise and fumes. They also affect the aesthetic beauty
of the buildings because cars parked at every available space creates a feeling that building rises from a
plinth of cars.

4. Obstruction to firefighting operations: Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement of firefighting
vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants and access to buildings.

4.4 Parking surveys:

Parking surveys are conducted to collect the above said parking statistics. The most common parking
surveys conducted are in-out survey, fixed period sampling and license plate method of survey.

1. In-out survey: In this survey, the occupancy count in the selected parking lot is taken at the beginning.
Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking lot for a particular time interval is counted. The number
of vehicles that leave the parking lot is also taken. The final occupancy in the parking lot is also taken.
Here the labor required is very less. Only one person may be enough. But we wont get any data regarding
the time duration for which a particular vehicle used that parking lot. Parking duration and turn over is
not obtained. Hence we cannot estimate the parking fare from this survey. For quick survey purposes, a
fixed period sampling can also be done. This is almost similar to in-out survey. All vehicles are counted at
the beginning of the survey. Then after a fixed time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to i hour,
the count is again taken. Here there are chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a
short duration.

2. License plate method of survey : This results in the most accurate and realistic data. In this case of
survey, every parking stall is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license plate
number is noted down. This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was
using the parking bay. This will help in calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration

Traffic Engineering-I 19
for which the vehicle was parked. If the time interval is shorter, then there are less chances of missing
short-term parkers. But this method is very labor intensive.

4.5 Definitions of parking terms:

1. A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of 1
hour.
1. Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length
of time, usually a day.
2. Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time.
3. parking load the number of space-hours used during the specified period of time.
4. Parking duration length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking indication of how frequently a
parking space becomes available.
5. Parking turnover rate of use of a parking space. Obtained by dividing the parking volume for a
specified period by the number of parking spaces.

4.6 Steps in parking study:

1. Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities:
◦ detailed listing of the location and all other relevant characteristics of each
legal parking facility, private and public.
◦ The study area includes both on- and off-street facilities.
◦ Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility
◦ Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
◦ Type of ownership (private or public)
◦ Parking fees, method of collection, Restrictions
◦ Other restrictions, loading and unloading zones, bus stops, taxi ranks
◦ Permanency
The inventory should be updated at regular intervals of about four to five years
2. Collection of Parking Data
◦ Accumulation:
◦ by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on different days of the
week.
◦ Carried out on an hourly or 2-hour basis
◦ used to determine hourly variations of parking and peak periods of parking
demand.
◦ Turnover and Duration:
◦ collecting data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block.
◦ recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space in the
sample at the ends of fixed intervals during the study period.
◦ The length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible duration.

Traffic Engineering-I 20
5. Accident Studies:
The main objectives of accident study is
1. To study the causes of accidents and suggest corrective measures at potential location
2. To evaluate existing design
3. To compute the financial losses incurred
4. To support the proposed design and provide economic justification to the improvement suggested
by the traffic engineer
5. To carry out before and after studies and to demonstrate the improvement in the problem.

5.1 Causes of road accidents:

The various causes of road accidents are:
1. Road Users - Excessive speed and rash driving, violation of traffic rules, failure to per- ceive traffic
situation or sign or signal in adequate time, carelessness, fatigue, alcohol, sleep etc.
2. Vehicle - Defects such as failure of brakes, steering system, tyre burst, lighting system .
3. Road Condition - Skidding road surface, pot holes, ruts.
4. Road design - Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance, inadequate width of
shoulders, improper curve design, improper traffic control devices and improper lighting,.
5. Environmental factors -unfavorable weather conditions like mist, snow, smoke and heavy rainfall
which restrict normal visibility and and makes driving unsafe.
6. Other causes -improper location of advertisement boards, gate of level crossing not closed when
required etc..

5.2 Accident data collection :

1. The accident data collection is the first step in the accident study. The data collection of the
accidents is primarily done by the police. Motorist accident reports are secondary data which are
filed by motorists themselves. The data to be collected should comprise all of these parameters:
2. 1. General - Date, time, person involved in accident, classification of accident like fatal, serious,
minor
3. 2. Location - Description and detail of location of accident

3. Details of vehicle involved - Registration number, description of vehicle, loading detail, vehicular
defects
4. Nature of accident - Details of collision, damages, injury and casualty
5. Road and traffic condition - Details of road geometry, surface characteristics , type of
traffic, traffic density etc..
6. Primary causes of accident - Details of various possible cases (already mentioned) which are the
main causes of accident.
7. Accident cost - Financial losses incurred due to property damage, personal injury and casualty

These data collected need proper storing and retrieving for the following purpose. The purposes are as
follows:

1. Identification of location of points at which unusually high number of accident occur.

2. Detailed functional evaluation of critical accident location to identify the causes of acci- dents.

Traffic Engineering-I 21
 3. Development of procedure that allows identification of hazards before large number of accidents
occurs.
4. Development of different statistical measures of various accident related factors to give insight
into general trends, common casual factors, driver profiles, etc

5.3 Accident Investigation:

The accident data collection involves extensive investigation which involves the following procedure:
1.Reporting: It involves basic data collection in form of two methods:
(a) Motorist accident report - It is filed by the involved motorist involved in all
accidents fatal or injurious.
(b) Police accident report - It is filed by the attendant police officer for all accidents at which an
officer is present. This generally includes fatal accidents or mostly accidents involving serious injury
required emergency or hospital treatment or which have incurred heavy property damage.
2. At Scene-Investigation: It involves obtaining information at scene such as measurement of
skid marks, examination of damage of vehicles, photograph of final position of vehicles,
examination of condition and functioning of traffic control devices and other road equipment’s.
3. Technical Preparation: This data collection step is needed for organization and interpretation
of the study made. In this step measurement of grades, sight distance, preparing drawing of after
accident situation, determination of critical and design speed for curves is done.
4. Professional Reconstruction: In this step effort is made to determine from whatever data is
available how the accident occurs from the available data. It is professionally referred as
determining behavioral or mediate causes of accident.
5. Cause Analysis: It is the effort made to determine why the accident occurred from the data
available and the analysis of accident reconstruction studies.

5.4 Accident data analysis:

The purpose is to find the possible causes of accident related to driver, vehicle, and roadway. Accident
analyses are made to develop information such as:
1. Driver and Pedestrian - Accident occurrence by age groups and relationships of accidents to
physical capacities and to psychological test results.
2. Vehicle - Accident occurrence related to characteristic of vehicle, severity, location and extent
of damage related to vehicles.
3. Roadway conditions - Relationships of accident occurrence and severity to characteristics of the
roadway and roadway condition and relative values of changes related to roadways.
It is important to compute accident rate which reflect accident involvement by type of highway. These
rates provide a means of comparing the relative safety of different highway and street system and traffic
controls. Another is accident involvement by the type of drivers and vehicles associated with accidents.
1. Accident Rate per Kilometer:
On this basis the total accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents of all types per km of
each highway and street classification.
R = A /L
where, R = total accident rate per km for one year,
A = total number of accident occur- ring in one year,

Traffic Engineering-I 22
L = length of control section in kms

2. Accident involvement Rate :

It is expressed as numbers of drivers of vehicles with certain characteristics who were involved in accidents
per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel.
R = N × 100000000 /V
where, R = accident involvement per 100 million vehicle-kms of travel,
N = total number of drivers of vehicles involved in accidents during the period of investigation and
V = vehicle-kms of travel on road section during the period of investigation.

3. Death rate based on population :

The traffic hazard to life in a community is expressed as the number of traffic fatalities per 100,000
populations. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire area.
R = (B × 100000) /P
where, R = death rate per 100,000 population,
B = total number of traffic death in one year and
P = population of area.
4. Death rate based on registration :
The traffic hazard to life in a community can also be expressed as the number of traffic fatalities per
10,000 vehicles registered. This rate reflects the accident exposure for entire area and is similar to death
rate based on population.
R = (B × 10000)/ M
where, R = death rate per 10,000 vehicles registered,
B = total number of traffic death in one year and
M = number of motor vehicles registered in the area.
5. Accident Rate based on vehicle-kms of travel :
The accident hazard is expressed as the number of accidents per 100 million vehicle km of travel. The
true exposure to accident is nearly approximated by the miles of travel of the motor vehicle than the
population or registration.
R = (C × 100000000 )/V
where, R = accident rate per 100 million vehicle kms of travel,
C = number of total accidents in one year and
V = vehicle kms of travel in one year

Traffic Engineering-I 23
6. Origin and Destination Studies:
An origin-destination study is used to determine travel patterns of traffic on an installation during a typical
day. They are useful in assisting long-range traffic planning, especially when there are substantial changes
anticipated in the installation mission or strength.
This is a study to determine and analyze trips. Trips are defined as one-way movement, from where a
person starts (origin) to where the person is going (destination). Trips are further classified as follows:
Internal--From one point on post to another point on post.
External--From on-post to off-post or vice versa.
6.1 Objectives:
1. to determine the amount of by passable traffic that enters a town, and thus establish the need for a
bypass
2. To develop trip generation and trip distribution models in transport planning
3. To determine the extent to which the present highway system is adequate and to plan for new facilities
4. To asses the adequacy of parking facilities and to plan for future.

6.2 Different methods

There are five methods by which an origin-destination study can be made. These are:
1. Registration Questionnaire--Driver lists are obtained from the vehicle registration form and each is
sent a questionnaire at his place of duty with a return date requested.
2. Post Card--A prepaid post card with the questionnaire on it is distributed to all drivers entering the
installation during a given time. A traffic volume count is made at the time the cards are distributed.
3. Roadside Interview--This method requires advance publicity and a greater number of personnel.
Uniformed MPs should conduct the interview. Considerations should include:
Interview 50 percent of vehicles during non peak hours.
Interview 25 percent of drivers during peak hours.
Insure stations are visible and safe. One interview should not take more than 40 seconds, and there should
not be more than five (5) interviewers in a file (one lane).
Approximately 300 drivers can be interviewed per hour. Stations do not have to be operated at the same
time.
A manual count of traffic is made by hour, direction and type of vehicle. By doing this the sample can be
expanded into a 24-hour analysis.
4. Tag on Car--This is a limited study good for studying through trips. It is conducted by having all cars
counted when they enter the installation. At stations just inside the entrance gates, MPs stop vehicles and
affix a piece of colored tape (different for each station) to the car's front bumper. At exit gates of the
installation, a tally of cars with each colored tape is made. It provides a rough estimate of through trips
on the installation. It's necessary for each installation entrance and exit to be manned during this study.
5. Comprehensive Home Interview--This method is performed by other governmental organizations.
It is not normally done on a military installation unless it is near a large city that is under review. It provides
the most detailed data.
The guide to origin destination studies table can be helpful in choosing the best method for your studies.

6.3 Application:
Origin-destination studies may be augmented with the following studies:

Traffic Engineering-I 24
Land Use Study--This study of an installation and the surrounding area concerns residential, industrial,
commercial and recreational land use.
Growth Trends Study--This study concerns trends in population, land use and highway travel. It is made
in conjunction with planning agencies, utility companies and highway officials. Population trends are
classified as military/civilian office workers, civilian maintenance, contractors, hospital personnel, service
personnel and visitors.
Off-Post Route Improvements--Studies of new routes or changes in routes off post by local officials
should be considered.
wrap open.

6.4 Presentation of results:

1. O-D Matrix:
The most convenient form is an O-D matrix, in which the origin
zones and destination zones are represented. The zones may be
further classified into internal and external zones if the survey
covers both internal and external zones. The number of trips is
entered in the cells of the matrix.

2. Desire line chart:

Another form of representation is by means of desire line chart. In
this chart, the trips between any pair of zones are represented by a
straight line connecting to the centroids of the two zones and having
a band width drawn to a suitable scale to represent the actual volume
of trips.

References
1. Lecture Notes: Dr. Tom V. Mathew, IIT Bombay
2. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 1987.
3. William R McShane, Roger P Roesss, and Elena S Prassas. Traffic Engineering. Prentice-
Hall, Inc, Upper Saddle River, New Jesery, 1998.
4. Garber Nicholas J. and Lester A. Hoel, Traffic and Highway Engineering, Third edition,
University of Virginia
5. Papacostas, C.S. and P. D. Prevedouros. Transportation Engineering and Planning. Third
Edition. Prentice Hall. 2001.
6. L. R Kadiyali. Traffic Engineering and Transportation Planning. Khanna Publishers, New
Delhi, 1987

Traffic Engineering-I 25