1.

Persistent Storage
Persistent storage in the context of guided media and networking refers to storage mediums
that retain data even when power is lost. In computer networks, persistent storage is critical in
devices that manage and control the flow of data through guided media.
Types of Persistent Storage:
 Flash Memory: Often used in network devices for storing firmware and configuration
files. It's non-volatile, meaning it retains data without power.
 EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory): Stores small
amounts of data that need to persist, such as MAC addresses or BIOS settings.
 Hard Drives/SSDs: In more complex devices like servers or network appliances, hard
drives or solid-state drives may be used for extensive logging, caching, or storing large
configuration databases.
For example, a router uses the persistent storage to keep track of the best routes for packets to
take through the network, which is crucial for ensuring that data sent over fiber-optic cables,
for example, reaches its destination efficiently.

Twisted Pair Cable

Types of Twisted pair:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted around
one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not depend on a
physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair
 Susceptible to external interference
  Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet and
in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
 More expensive
 Bulky
Coaxial Cable
Structure of Coaxial Cable
Copper conductor: A central conductor, which consists of copper. The conductor is the point at
which data is transmitted.
Insulator: Dielectric plastic insulation around the copper conductor. it is used to maintain the
spacing between the center conductor and shield.
Braided mesh: A braided mesh of copper helps to shield from electromagnetic interference,
The braid provides a barrier against EMI moving into and out of the coaxial cable.
Protective plastic layer: An external polymer layer, which has a plastic coating. It is used to
protect internal layers from damage.
Coaxial cable is of two types:
 Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting a single signal at high
speed.
 Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of transmitting multiple signals
simultaneously.
Advantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables support high bandwidth.
 It is easy to install coaxial cables.
 Coaxial cables have better cut-through resistance so they are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers, this
compromises the security of the data.
Optical Fiber Cable
Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It is
used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Increased capacity and bandwidth
 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable
 Difficult to install and maintain
 High cost
 Fragile
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable
 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.
 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.
Advantages of Guided Media:
 High data transmission rates.
 Low electromagnetic interference.
 Greater security against eavesdropping.
 Reliable and stable connection over long distances.
Disadvantages of Guided Media:
 Limited mobility and flexibility.
 High installation and maintenance costs.
 Vulnerable to physical damage and environmental factors.
 Difficult and expensive to upgrade or expand.
2.Wireless Transmission (unguided media)
An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without using any physical
medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless transmission or Unbounded transmission
media.
In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic energy can flow easily.
Wireless communication involves no physical link established between two or more devices,
communicating wirelessly.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts
the digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor
on the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances
different ranges of frequency used for data transmission.
Narrow Band: Refers to a small range of frequencies, typically used for simple, low-data-rate
communications. It is often used in applications like voice communication and some low-speed
data transmissions. Narrow-band signals are more susceptible to interference and noise, but
they require less bandwidth and can be more efficient for specific types of communication.
Wide Band: Refers to a larger range of frequencies, allowing for higher data rates and more
complex communications. Wide-band systems are used for applications requiring high-speed
data transfer, such as video streaming and high-speed internet. They offer better performance
in terms of data capacity and resistance to interference compared to narrow-band systems.
Types of unguided media:
Radio transmission:
Radio transmission is a fundamental component of wireless communication media. It involves
the use of radio waves to transmit data between devices without the need for physical cables.
The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not aligned, i.e., the wave
sent by the sending antenna can be received by any receiving antenna.
An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Modulation Techniques:
Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the amplitude of the carrier wave to encode information.
Used in AM radio broadcasting.
Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the frequency of the carrier wave to encode information.
Used in FM radio broadcasting and some communication systems.
Phase Modulation (PM): Varies the phase of the carrier wave. Used in some digital
communication systems.
Applications Of Radio waves:
 A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender and many receivers.
 An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio wave.
Advantages:
 Allows communication without the need for physical cables.
 Provides flexibility and convenience for mobile devices.
 Useful in areas where it’s difficult or expensive to install wiring.
 Can cover a wide area, including remote locations.
 Enables easy setup and use for various applications, from radios to Wi-Fi.
Disadvantages:
 Signals can be affected by interference from other electronic devices.
 Performance can be reduced by physical obstacles like walls and buildings.
 Range may be limited compared to wired connections.
 Weather conditions can impact signal quality.
 Signals may be weaker or less reliable over long distances.
Microwave transmission
Microwave transmission is a method of sending data through high-frequency radio waves
known as microwaves.
Microwaves are of two types:
 Terrestrial microwave
 Satellite microwave communication.
Terrestrial Microwave Transmission
Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the focused beam of a radio
signal from one ground-based microwave transmission antenna to another.
Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the range from 1GHz to
1000 GHz.
Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is to be aligned, i.e., the
waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly focussed.
In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna which is
km away.
It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted on the towers are the
direct sight of each other.
Satellite Microwave Communication
A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a known height.
Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more flexibility than cable and
fibre optic systems.
We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite communication.
application of Radio transmission
 Wi-Fi: Connects devices like laptops and smartphones to the internet without cables.
 Bluetooth: Enables short-range communication between devices like headphones and
phones.
 Remote Controls: Uses radio waves to operate devices like TVs and garage doors.
  Wireless Sensors: Collects data and sends it wirelessly for applications like home
automation.
Advantages:
 Sends data very quickly.
 Good for long-distance communication, especially when using satellite communication..
 Less interference from other signals.
 Provides strong, clear connections between points.
Disadvantages:
 Needs a clear line-of-sight to work properly.
 Weather like rain or fog can weaken signals.
 Setting up and maintaining equipment can be costly.
 Signals can be blocked by buildings or hills.
Infrared transmission
Infrared (IR) transmission uses infrared light waves to communicate data between devices.
Here are some key points:
How It Works: IR communication involves sending data as infrared light waves, which are
invisible to the human eye. Devices with IR transmitters and receivers exchange data through
these light waves.
applications of infrared (IR) transmission:
 Remote Controls: Used for controlling televisions, air conditioners, and other
appliances.
 Data Transfer: Enables short-range file transfers between devices like smartphones and
laptops.
 Wireless Peripherals: Connects devices like keyboards, mice, and printers to computers.
 Security Systems: Used in motion detectors and alarm systems for detecting intrusions.
Advantages:
 Works well for short-range communication, such as between a remote control and a TV.
 Doesn't interfere with other radio frequencies or electronic devices.
 Secure for indoor communication since signals don't pass through walls easily.
 Simple and inexpensive technology to implement.
Disadvantages:
 Requires a direct line-of-sight between devices to function.
 Limited range, usually only a few meters.
 Signals can be blocked by obstacles or physical objects.
 Performance can be affected by strong light sources or sunlight.
light transmission
Light transmission in wireless networks typically refers to the use of infrared or visible light for
communication, a technology known as Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)
1. Li-Fi (Light Fidelity)
Concept: Li-Fi is a technology that uses light to transmit data. It’s similar to Wi-Fi but uses
visible light instead of radio waves. Li-Fi uses LED lights to encode data by varying their
brightness at high speeds.
Components:
LED Light Source: Emits visible light that can be modulated to carry data.
Photodetector: Receives the light signal and converts it back into an electrical signal.
Infrared Communication
Concept: Infrared (IR) communication uses infrared light, which is not visible to the human eye,
for short-range data transmission.
Components:
Infrared LEDs: Transmit data via infrared light pulses.
Infrared Receiver: Detects the infrared light and decodes the data.

Optical Wireless Communication

Concept: This encompasses both visible light communication (VLC) and infrared
communication. Optical wireless communication uses light in different forms (visible or
infrared) to transmit data through the air.
Components:
Transmitter: Can be an LED or laser that modulates light to encode data.
Receiver: A photodiode or a similar device that captures and decodes the light signal
Applications:
 Security Systems: Real-time video feed transmission from cameras to monitoring
stations.
 Smart Lighting: Facilitates smart city applications and environmental monitoring using
Li-Fi.
 AR/VR: Enables high-speed data transfer for complex virtual environments.
 Li-Fi: Provides high-speed internet access in offices and homes.
 Indoor Navigation: Uses LED lights for real-time positioning in large buildings.
Advantages:
 Very fast data transfer speeds.
 Secure because light doesn’t escape from the fiber.
 Not affected by electrical interference.
 Can cover long distances without losing signal quality.
Disadvantages:
 Needs a direct, clear path between the sender and receiver.
 Installation can be costly and complicated.
 Easily damaged; broken fibers can cut off communication.
 Not suitable for moving devices, mostly used for fixed setups.
3.Telephone Network
Telephone Network is used to provide voice communication. Telephone Network uses Circuit
Switching. Originally, the entire network was referred to as a plain old telephone system
(POTS) which uses analog signals. With the advancement of technology, i.e. in the computer
era, there comes a feature to carry data in addition to voice. Today’s network is both
analogous and digital.
Major Components of Telephone Network: There are three major components of the
telephone network:
 Local loops
 Trunks
 Switching Offices
There are various levels of switching offices such as end offices, tandem offices, and regional
offices. The entire telephone network is as shown in the following figure:

A telephone system
Local Loops:
Local Loops: Local Loops are the twisted pair cables that are used to connect a subscriber
telephone to the nearest end office or local central office. For voice purposes, its bandwidth
is 4000 Hz. It is very interesting to examine the telephone number that is associated with
each local loop. The office is defined by the first three digits and the local loop number is
defined by the next four digits defines.
Types of Local Loop:
Telephone Modems (Dial-up):
 Analog Connection: Uses traditional copper telephone lines.
 Speed: Very slow, typically up to 56 kbps.
 Usage: Primarily for voice communication but can also be used for data transmission
(e.g., dial-up internet).
ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line):
 Digital Connection: Also uses copper telephone lines but allows simultaneous voice and
data transmission.
 Speed: Higher than dial-up, with download speeds typically ranging from 1 Mbps to 24
Mbps, while upload speeds are lower.
 Usage: Primarily for internet access, supporting activities like browsing, streaming, and
light downloads.
Fiber:
  Optical Connection: Uses fiber-optic cables, which transmit data as light signals,
allowing for much higher speeds and bandwidth.
 Speed: Extremely high, with download speeds often exceeding 1 Gbps (Gigabit per
second).
 Usage: Ideal for heavy internet usage, including HD video streaming, gaming, and large
data transfers.
Trunks:
Trunks: It is a type of transmission medium used to handle the communication between
offices. Through multiplexing, trunks can handle hundreds or thousands of connections.
Mainly transmission is performed through optical fibers or satellite links.
Digital Voice Signals
Digital Voice Signals refer to voice data that has been converted from an analog format (the
natural sound waves of speech) into a digital format (a series of binary numbers). This
conversion is done using a process called Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), where the analog
signal is sampled at regular intervals, quantized into discrete values, and then encoded into a
digital bitstream.
Advantages of Digital Voice Signals:
 Clarity: Less susceptible to noise and interference compared to analog signals.
 Compression: Digital signals can be compressed, saving bandwidth.
 Integration: Easily integrated with other digital services, such as data and video.
 Use in Telephony: In modern telephone networks, voice signals are usually digitized at
the subscriber's premises and transmitted over digital lines, such as those used in T-
carrier systems.
T-Carrier System in Multiplexing
T-Carrier System is a digital transmission system used in telecommunications to transmit
multiple voice or data channels over a single physical medium. The most common type in this
system is the T1 line.
 T1 Line:
 Channels: A T1 line can carry 24 individual voice channels, each at 64 kbps.
 Speed: The total data rate of a T1 line is 1.544 Mbps.
 Multiplexing: T1 lines use Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) to combine the 24
channels into a single data stream. Each voice channel is assigned a specific time slot in
the T1 frame.
 Higher T-Carrier Levels:
 T2, T3, etc.: Higher levels in the T-carrier system, such as T2 and T3, carry more channels
by combining multiple T1 lines using TDM. For example, a T3 line can carry 28 T1 lines,
Multiplexing Optical Networks
SONET (Synchronous Optical Network) and SDH (Synchronous Digital Hierarchy) are
standardized protocols for transmitting digital data over optical fiber. They are the backbone
technologies for high-speed optical networks, widely used in telecommunications to ensure
efficient, reliable, and scalable data transmission across long distances.resulting in a total
capacity of 672 voice channels at a rate of 44.736 Mbps.
Structure of SONET/SDH:
Basic Transmission Unit:
 SONET: Uses STS (Synchronous Transport Signal) as its basic transmission unit. The
fundamental rate is STS-1, which operates at 51.84 Mbps.
 SDH: Uses STM (Synchronous Transport Module) as its basic unit. The fundamental rate
is STM-1, equivalent to 155.52 Mbps (three times STS-1).
Higher Levels of Multiplexing:
 SONET: Higher levels like STS-3, STS-12, STS-48, etc., are multiples of STS-1. For
example, STS-3 has a rate of 155.52 Mbps, similar to STM-1.
 SDH: Higher levels like STM-4, STM-16, STM-64, etc., are multiples of STM-1.
Multiplexing in SONET/SDH:
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): SONET/SDH uses TDM to multiplex lower-rate
signals into a higher-rate signal. For example, multiple STS-1 signals can be combined
into an STS-3 signal.
 Add-Drop Multiplexing: Allows specific channels to be added or dropped from a higher-
level signal without having to demultiplex the entire signal. This is useful for efficiently
managing bandwidth in large networks.
Switching Offices
Switching Offices: As there is a permanent physical link between any two subscribers. To
avoid this, the telephone company uses switches that are located in switching offices. A
switch is able to connect various loops or trunks and allows a connection between different
subscribes.

Switching:
Switching refers to the process of directing data from one point in a network to another. It
involves selecting a path for data packets to travel through the network to reach their
destination. Switching is a critical function in network infrastructure, especially in large-scale
networks like the internet, where data must efficiently and accurately reach the correct
endpoint.
Types of Switching:
Circuit Switching:
Process:
  Establishes a dedicated communication path or circuit between the sender and the
receiver before data transmission begins.
 This circuit remains reserved for the duration of the communication session.
Example:
 Traditional telephone networks (PSTN) where a dedicated line is established for the
entire duration of a call.
Advantages:
 Consistent quality of service (QoS) since the dedicated circuit provides a fixed path with
no competition for resources.
Disadvantages:
 Inefficient use of resources, as the circuit remains occupied even if no data is being
transmitted (e.g., during pauses in a phone call).
Packet Switching:
Process:
 Data is broken into small units called packets, which are sent independently across the
network.
 Each packet may take a different path to reach the destination, where they are
reassembled in the correct order.
Example:
 The internet, where data (e.g., web pages, emails) is sent in packets.
Advantages:
 Efficient use of network resources, as multiple packets from different sources can share
the same network paths.
 Scalability, as it can handle varying traffic loads without needing dedicated paths.
Disadvantages:
 Potential for packet loss, delays, or out-of-order delivery, which requires additional
mechanisms for error checking and correction.
Types of Telephone Network:
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
 Overview: PSTN is the traditional global telephone network that facilitates voice
communication through circuit-switching technology.
 Structure: It consists of a network of copper wires, fiber-optic cables, switching centers,
and telephone exchanges.
 Functionality: When a call is made, a dedicated circuit is established between the caller
and the receiver for the duration of the call.
 Use Case: Primarily used for landline telephony, though it can also carry data in the form
of dial-up internet connections.
Private Network (Private Branch Exchange - PBX)
 Overview: A private network is typically a telephone system within an organization that
manages internal and external communications.
  Structure: It connects internal telephones within a company and interfaces with the
PSTN or VoIP systems for external calls.
 Functionality: PBX systems allow for features like call forwarding, extensions, voicemail,
and conference calling without requiring a separate line for each user.
 Use Case: Commonly used by businesses to manage internal and external
communication efficiently while saving on costs.
Advantages of Telephone Network:
 It is a circuit-switched network.
 There is no transmission delay as any receiver can be selected.
 It is cheap in price because it is a widely spread network.
Disadvantages of Telephone Network:
 It requires a large time for connection.
 It has a low transmission speed.
Applications of Telephone Network:
 It helps to connect people.
 It is used by business organizations to advertise their products.
 It is also used around the world for recreational purposes.
cellular network :
Cellular networks are a type of wireless network commonly used for mobile communication.
They enable mobile devices, like smartphones and tablets, to connect to the internet and
communicate with each other without needing physical cables.
A cellular network is divided into small geographic areas called cells. Each cell is served by a
base station (or cell tower) that communicates with mobile devices within that cell. The
network's structure allows for efficient frequency reuse and ensures that many devices can use
the network simultaneously.
3. Key Components
Cell Towers/Base Stations: These are fixed antennas that provide wireless coverage to a
specific area. They handle all communications within their cell, including voice calls, text
messages, and data transfer.
Mobile Devices: These are the users' phones, tablets, or other portable devices that connect to
the network.
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): This central component manages the communication between
different cells and maintains call connections as users move from one cell to another.
Base Station Controller (BSC): This manages multiple base stations and handles tasks like
handovers (switching between cells), frequency allocation, and power level adjustments.
Home Location Register (HLR) and Visitor Location Register (VLR): These databases store
information about subscribers, including their service plans, location, and active sessions. HLR is
the main database, while VLR is used temporarily for active sessions.
Architecture of Cellular Networks
The architecture of cellular networks is designed to manage wireless communication efficiently,
allowing many users to connect simultaneously and move between different areas. Here's a
breakdown of its key components and structure:
1. Basic Structure
1.1 Cells and Base Stations:
Cells: The network is divided into small areas called cells, each covered by a base station (cell
tower).
Base Stations: Each base station provides wireless coverage to its cell. It handles
communication between mobile devices and the rest of the network.
2.Core Network Components
2.1 Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
Base Transceiver Station (BTS): The BTS is responsible for transmitting and receiving radio
signals to and from mobile devices within the cell. It handles the radio communication.
Base Station Controller (BSC): The BSC manages multiple BTSs, controls handovers between
cells, manages radio frequencies, and handles power levels.
2.2 Network Switching Subsystem (NSS):
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC is a central component that routes calls and data
between different cells and connects the cellular network to other networks like the public
switched telephone network (PSTN) and the internet.
Home Location Register (HLR): The HLR is a database that stores information about
subscribers, such as their user profiles, service plans, and current locations.
Visitor Location Register (VLR): The VLR temporarily stores information about subscribers who
are currently within the MSC’s area of coverage. It helps in managing active sessions and
authentication.
2.3 Gateway Subsystem:
Gateway Mobile Switching Center (GMSC): The GMSC routes calls and data from the cellular
network to other networks, like PSTN or the internet.
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN): The SGSN handles data traffic and manages sessions for
mobile data services, such as browsing and email.
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN): The GGSN connects the cellular network to external data
networks like the internet. It translates data between different network protocols.
3.Communication Flow
3.1 Mobile Device Communication:
Signal Transmission: A mobile device communicates wirelessly with the BTS of the cell it is
currently in. The BTS transmits and receives signals to and from the device.
3.2 Handoff/Handover Process:
Handoff: When a mobile device moves from one cell to another, the BSC manages the handoff
process, transferring the connection from the old BTS to the new BTS to maintain uninterrupted
service.
3.3 Data and Call Routing:
Data Flow: When a mobile device sends or receives data, the BTS communicates with the BSC,
which then routes the data through the MSC and the SGSN to its destination, whether within
the cellular network or to external networks via the GGSN.
Evolution of Cellular Networks
1G (First Generation): Used for basic analog voice communication.
2G (Second Generation): Introduced digital signals, allowing text messaging and better
spectrum use.
3G (Third Generation): Improved data speeds for internet browsing and multimedia.
4G (Fourth Generation): Provided high-speed internet, HD video streaming, and better
performance.
5G (Fifth Generation): Offers very high speeds, low latency, and supports a large number of
devices, paving the way for technologies like smart cities and autonomous vehicles.
First-Generation (1G):
Advantages:
 Enabled mobile voice communication.
 Simple technology.
Disadvantages:
 Analog signals with poor quality.
 No data or text capabilities.
2g:
What is GSM?
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications. It’s a type of 2G (second
generation) mobile network technology that started in Europe in the 1980s and became
popular worldwide.
How GSM Works:
Cells and Base Stations: The coverage area is divided into smaller sections called cells, each
served by a base station. Think of a base station as a tower with antennas that communicate
with your phone.
SIM Card: Your phone has a SIM card (Subscriber Identity Module) that stores your phone
number and other important information. The SIM card lets the network know who you are and
helps secure your communications.
Network Components:
Base Station Controller (BSC): Each base station is managed by a BSC. The BSC controls the
radio frequencies and handles handoffs (when you move from one cell to another).
Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The MSC routes calls and texts and connects to the main
phone network (PSTN, or Public Switched Telephone Network).
Databases:
Visitor Location Register (VLR): This database keeps track of which base stations are currently
managing each phone within its area. It helps the network know where to send your calls and
messages.
Home Location Register (HLR): This database contains information about each phone’s home
location and helps route incoming calls to the right place.
Frequency and Time Slots:
Frequency Bands: GSM uses specific radio frequencies (like 900 MHz, 1800 MHz) to
communicate. Each frequency band is divided into smaller channels.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): To handle multiple calls at once, GSM splits each frequency
channel into time slots. Each phone gets its own time slot to talk or listen. This allows many
phones to use the same frequency without interfering with each other.
Communication Process:
Air Interface: Your phone communicates with the base station using the air interface. This
involves sending and receiving signals over the radio.
Control Channels: GSM has different control channels:
Broadcast Control Channel: Sends out information about the base station and the network.
Dedicated Control Channel: Used for things like call setup and location updates.
Common Control Channel: Includes:
Paging Channel: Notifies your phone of incoming calls.
Random Access Channel: Allows phones to request access to the network.
Access Grant Channel: Lets phones know they can use the network.
Handoff:
When you move from one cell to another, the network needs to transfer your call smoothly. In
GSM, while your phone is not actively sending or receiving data (during idle time slots), it
measures signal strength from nearby base stations. This information helps the network decide
when and how to switch your call to a new cell.
Advantages:
 Clearer digital voice quality.
 Text messaging (SMS) introduced.
 Improved digital security.
Disadvantages:
 Slow data speeds.
 Basic multimedia support
Third-Generation (3G) Technology: Digital Voice and Data
Background:
First Generation (1G): Analog voice.
Second Generation (2G): Digital voice.
Third Generation (3G): Introduced digital voice and data.
Reasons for 3G Development:
Increased Data Traffic: Data traffic started surpassing voice traffic on fixed networks, and a
similar trend was seen in mobile devices.
Convergence of Services: Phones, Internet, and video services began merging, driven by the
rise of smartphones like Apple's iPhone, which initially used a 2.5G network. The need for more
data capacity led to the adoption of 3G.
Transition to 3G:
2.5G Technologies: EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution) improved data rates over
2G networks but had limitations due to errors and modulation schemes.
IMT-2000 Blueprint:
The International Telecommunication Union (ITU) created IMT-2000 as a vision for 3G. It aimed
to provide:
 High-quality voice transmission.
 Messaging services (email, SMS, etc.).
 Multimedia services (music, videos, TV, etc.).
 Internet access (Web surfing with audio and video).
Global Standard: ITU hoped for a single worldwide technology for ease of device use and
network operation. This was overly ambitious, as IMT-2000 faced delays and challenges, such as
spectrum allocation and realistic performance expectations.
Major 3G Technologies:
WCDMA (Wideband CDMA): Used in Europe as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications
System).
CDMA2000: Proposed by Qualcomm in the US.
Key Features of 3G:
Broadband CDMA: Allows different data rates for users using varying chip sequences.
CDMA Advantages:
 Efficient use of bandwidth due to overlapping frequencies.
 Soft handoff (seamless transition between cells) for continuous service.
Advantages:
 Faster data speeds for web and multimedia.
 Supports video calls and streaming.
 Enhanced voice quality.
Disadvantages:
 Slower than 4G and 5G.
 Higher latency.
 Complex network management.

Fourth-Generation (4G) Technology: Packet Switching

Introduction:
4G Technology: Emphasizes packet-switched networks rather than circuit-switched ones. Key
technologies include LTE (Long Term Evolution) and others.
Main Innovations:
Packet Switching: Uses an Evolved Packet Core (EPC) to handle both voice and data in IP
packets, optimizing network resource use.
Performance Goals: Achieves high data rates (100 Mbps upload, 50 Mbps download) and
spectral efficiency (15 bps/Hz downlink, 6.75 bps/Hz uplink).
4G Network Components:
Serving Gateway (S-GW): Forwards data packets to maintain connectivity during handoffs.
MME (Mobility Management Entity): Manages device connections and handoffs.
Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW): Interfaces with packet data networks and handles tasks
like address allocation and traffic management.
HSS (Home Subscriber Server): Validates subscriber information.
4G Architecture:
eNodeB: Handles physical layer operations and various control functions in LTE networks.
Advantages:
 Faster data rates (up to 100 Mbps).
 Efficient packet-switching.
 Low latency.
 VoLTE for better voice quality.
Disadvantages:
 Limited rural coverage.
 High spectrum demand.
 Requires significant infrastructure upgrades.
Fifth-Generation (5G) Technology
Introduction:
5G Technology: Focuses on higher data rates and lower latency compared to 4G.
Goals and Innovations:
Ultra-Densification: Smaller cells (picocells, femtocells) increase network capacity and
efficiency.
Millimeter Waves: Utilize higher-frequency spectrum (20-300 GHz) for more bandwidth but
with challenges in propagation.
Massive MIMO (Multiple-Input Multiple-Output): Uses many antennas to improve capacity
and handle interference. Includes innovations like FD-MIMO (Full-Dimension MIMO).
Network Slicing:
Virtual Networks: Allows creation of multiple virtual networks on the same physical
infrastructure, catering to different application needs.
Supporting Technologies:
SDN (Software-Defined Networking) and NFV (Network Functions Virtualization): Facilitate
network slicing and manage resources efficiently
Advantages:
  Ultra-high speeds (exceeding 10 Gbps).
 Very low latency.
 High network capacity with dense cells.
 Network slicing for tailored use cases.
Disadvantages:
 Expensive deployment.
 Shorter range and more obstructions.
 Complex implementation.
Advantages of cellular network:
 You can use it from different locations.
 It grows easily with more users.
 Less need for physical cables and infrastructure.
 Works in places where wired networks can't reach.
 Modern networks offer fast internet.
Disadvantages of cellular network:
 Performance can drop due to obstructions.
 Can slow down in crowded areas.
 Can be slower than wired connections.
 More vulnerable to attacks.
 Costs can change based on usage and roaming.
communication satellite :
 Communication satellites in computer networks are used to provide wireless
communication over large distances. They enable data transfer by transmitting signals
from one ground station to another via the satellite in orbit. Communication satellites
are commonly used in television broadcasting, satellite internet, telephony, military
communications, and weather monitoring.
 Communication satellites help send and receive data over long distances. They act like a
middleman in the sky. Communication satellites in computer networks are used to
transfer data between different locations on Earth using satellites in space. They play a
key role in transmitting signals like TV broadcasts, internet data, and telephone
communication over long distances.
 Communication satellites work as a relay station, receiving signals from one ground
station, amplifying them, and then sending them to another location on Earth.
How a Satellite Works
 A satellite is a body that moves around another body in a particular path. A
communication satellite is nothing but a microwave repeater station in space. It is
helpful in telecommunications, radio and television along with internet applications.
 A repeater is a circuit, which increases the strength of the received signal and then
transmits it. But, this repeater works as a transponder. That means, it changes the
frequency band of the transmitted signal from the received one.
  The frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink frequency.
Similarly, the frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called
as Downlink frequency. The following figure illustrates this concept clearly.

 The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is called
as uplink. Similarly, the transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station
through a channel is called as downlink.
 Uplink frequency is the frequency at which, the first earth station is communicating with
satellite. The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends
it down to the second earth station. This frequency is called as Downlink frequency. In
similar way, second earth station can also communicate with the first one.
 The process of satellite communication begins at an earth station. Here, an installation
is designed to transmit and receive signals from a satellite in an orbit around the earth.
Earth stations send the information to satellites in the form of high powered, high
frequency (GHz range) signals.
 The satellites receive and retransmit the signals back to earth where they are received
by other earth stations in the coverage area of the satellite. Satellite's footprint is the
area which receives a signal of useful strength from the satellite.
Types of Communication Satellites
Geostationary Satellites (GEO):
 How it works: These satellites stay over the same spot on Earth because they orbit at
the same speed as Earth's rotation.
 Why it matters: They provide constant communication for large areas, making them
great for TV broadcasts and internet. Since they are far from Earth, the signal might take
a bit longer to reach, causing slight delays in communication.
 Use: TV channels, satellite-based internet, weather monitoring.
Medium Earth Orbit Satellites (MEO):
 How it works: These satellites orbit at a lower height than GEO satellites. Their speed is
faster but they don’t cover as much area.
 Why it matters: They offer faster data transmission with less delay than GEO satellites.
They’re especially good for navigation systems like GPS.
 Use: GPS systems, communication for specific regions.
Low Earth Orbit Satellites (LEO):
 How it works: These satellites are very close to Earth, so they move fast around the
planet. Since they cover smaller areas, multiple LEO satellites (called constellations)
work together to cover the whole Earth.
 Why it matters: They offer super-fast data transmission and minimal delay, making
them great for internet services in rural areas. However, they need more satellites to
cover large areas.
 Use: Satellite internet (e.g., Starlink), tracking systems.
Elliptical Orbit Satellites:
 How it works: These satellites follow an egg-shaped orbit. Sometimes they are closer to
Earth, and other times farther away.
 Why it matters: They are used for communication in areas where other satellites may
not reach, like the poles.
 Use: Communications in polar regions, or specific military purposes.
Pros of Satellite Communication:
 Wide area coverage, including remote places.
 Global reach to every corner of the Earth.
 Cost of service doesn't increase with coverage area.
 High bandwidth for multiple broadcasts and data transfers.
Cons of Satellite Communication:
 High cost to launch satellites.
 Slower signal transmission compared to land-based systems.
 Difficult and expensive to repair malfunctioning satellites.
 Greater signal loss in space.
 Potential frequency congestion.
Applications of Satellite Communication:
 Radio and voice broadcasting.
 TV broadcasting (e.g., Direct To Home).
 Internet services (e.g., web browsing, GPS).
 Military communication and navigation.
 Remote sensing.
 Weather monitoring and forecasting.