NCERT FIRST YEAR BOTANY

CHAPTER WEIGHTAGE

UNIT CHAPTER SCORE WEIGHT

2 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION 3

3 PLANT KINGDOM 3

5 MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 5

II

6 ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS 4

8 CELL : THE UNIT OF LIFE 4

III

10 CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION 4

13 PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS 6

IV 14 RESPIRATION IN PLANTS 6

15 PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT 4

2
 Chapter 2
BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Classifications
Two Kingdom classification Five Kingdom Classification
 Proposed by Linnaeus  Proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969)
 Kingdom Plantae and kingdom Animalia  It includes Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and
 DEMERITS :- Animalia
1. Did not distinguish between the eukaryotes  Criteria for classification are,
and prokaryotes. 1. Cell structure,
2. Did not distinguish between unicellular and 2. Body organization
multicellular organisms 3. Mode of nutrition
3. Did not distinguish between photosynthetic 4. Reproduction
and non-photosynthetic organisms. 5. Phylogenetic relationships.
KINGDOM MONERA
Prokaryotic, heterotrophic, unicellular organisms with non-cellulosic cell wall.
It includes bacteria.
Classification of Bacteria
Based on shape Types of Archaebacteria
Lives in extreme salty
Coccus Spherical Halophiles
area
Bacillus rod-shaped Thermoacidophiles Lives in hot springs
Vibrium comma-shaped Methanogens Lives in marshy areas
Methanogens are present in the gut of cows and
Spirillum spiral buffaloes and they are responsible for the
production of biogas (methane).

Cyanobacteria or blue-green algae Eg :- Nostoc and Anabaena

They are eubacteria having chlorophyll a similar to green plants and are photosynthetic autotrophs.
Specialised cells called heterocysts in cyanobacteria can fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Chemosynthetic autotrophic bacteria - Oxidise various inorganic substances such as nitrates, nitrites
and ammonia for energy (ATP) production.
Mycoplasma - Organisms that completely lack a cell wall. They are the smallest living cells.
KINGDOM PROTISTA
Single-celled eukaryotes showing autotrophic (Photosynthetic) and heterotrophic mode of nutrition.
It includes Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans.
Chrysophytes :- It includes diatoms and golden algae (desmids).
Diatomaceous earth :-
The accumulation of cell wall deposits of diatoms over billions of years in sea-floor.
Diatomaceous earth is used in polishing, filtration of oils and syrups.

3
 Dinoflagellates
Marine and photosynthetic unicellular organism that appear yellow, green, brown, blue or red
depending on the main pigments present in their cells.
Gonyaulax –
Red tides causing dinoflagellates that make the sea appear red.
Toxins released by such dinoflagellates kill marine animals such as fishes.
Euglenoids Example: Euglena
They are photosynthetic in the presence of sunlight, when deprived of sunlight they are
heterotrophs.
Pellicle - Protein rich layer around the cells of euglenoids.
Slime Moulds
They are saprophytic protists
Under suitable conditions, they form an aggregation called plasmodium.
Protozoans - Protozoans are heterotrophs and live as predators or parasites.
MAJOR GROUPS OF PROTOZOANS ARE
Types of Protozoans characteristics Examples
Pseudopodia (false feet) are produced for
Amoeboid protozoans Amoeba, Entamoeba
capturing prey.
Trypanosoma
Flagellated protozoans They have flagella.
(Causes sleeping sickness diseases)
Actively moving organisms due to the
Ciliated protozoans Paramoecium
presence of thousands of cilia.
Plasmodium (malarial parasite)
Sporozoans They have an infectious spore-like stage.
which causes malaria

KINGDOM FUNGI
Fungi consist of heterotrophic organisms with cell walls composed of chitin and polysaccharides.
Hyphae - Fungal bodies consist of long, slender thread-like structures called hyphae.
Mycelium - The network of hyphae is known as mycelium.
Coenocytic hyphae - hyphae with multinucleated cytoplasm are called coenocytic hyphae.
Lichens – Symbiotic association of fungi with algae. Lichens are pollution indicators.
Algal component is known as phycobiont and fungal component as mycobiont.
Mycorrhiza – symbiotic association of fungi with roots of higher plants.
Unicellular fungi - Yeast
Wheat rust-causing fungi - Puccinia
Antibiotics producing fungi - Penicillium
The sexual cycle in fungi have following three steps:

 Fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non-motile gametes called plasmogamy.

 Fusion of two nuclei called karyogamy.
 Meiosis in zygote resulting in haploid spores.

Dikaryon – In fungi (ascomycetes and basidiomycetes) fusion of two nuclei is delayed.

Single hyphal cell contains two nuclei.
Such a condition is called a dikaryon and the phase is called dikaryophase.

4
 MAJOR GROUPS OF FUNGI ARE
Types of Fungi Characteristics Examples
 Mycelium is aseptate and coenocytic.
 Asexual reproduction takes place by zoospores
Rhizopus (the bread mould)
(motile) or by aplanospores (non-motile).
Phycomycetes Albugo (parasitic fungi on
 During sexual reproduction zygospore is formed by mustard).
fusion of two gamete.

 Asexual spores are conidia produced exogenously on

the conidiophores.
 Sexual spores are called ascospores which are Aspergillus
Ascomycetes
produced endogenously in sac like asci. So called sac Claviceps
(Sac-fungi)
fungi. Neurospora.
 fruiting bodies are called ascocarps.

 Basidiospores are the sexual reproductive Spores.

 The basidiospores are exogenously produced on the
Agaricus (mushroom)
basidium.
Basidiomycetes Ustilago (smut fungus)
 The basidia are arranged in fruiting bodies called Puccinia (rust fungus)
basidiocarps.

 Known as imperfect fungi because only the asexual

phases of these fungi are known. Alternaria
Deuteromycetes
 They reproduce only by asexual spores known as Colletotrichum
(Imperfect fungi)
conidia. Trichoderma

VIRUSES
A virus is a nucleoprotein and the genetic material is infectious.
Bacteriophages (viruses that infect the bacteria) are usually double stranded DNA viruses.
The protein coat of virus is called capsid and is made of small subunits called capsomeres.
Dmitri Ivanowsky – gave the name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid.
M.W. Beijerinek – Explained virus as Contagium vivum fluidum (infectious living fluid).
W.M. Stanley - Crystallised the viruses and crystals consist largely of proteins.
Examples for virus diseases: - Mumps, small pox, herpes and influenza. AIDS in humans.
Mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing in plants.
VIROIDS
Discovered by T.O. Diener.
Smaller than viruses and causes potato spindle tuber disease.
It was found to be a free RNA, it lacked the protein coat.
Prions
Abnormally folded diseases causing protein.
Diseases caused by prions are,
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) commonly called mad cow disease in cattleCr–
Jacob disease (CJD) in humans.

5
 Chapter 3
PLANT KINGDOM
Artificial classification - based only on gross superficial morphological characters.
Eg. :- Linnaeus classification.
Natural classification - based on natural affinities among the organisms.
Eg. :- Bentham and Hooker classification.
Phylogenetic classification - based on evolutionary relationships between the various organisms.
Numerical Taxonomy - based on all observable characteristics. Number and codes are assigned to all
the characters.
Cytotaxonomy - based on cytological information like chromosome number, structure and behaviour.
Chemotaxonomy – based on the chemical constituents.
ALGAE
Chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic organisms.
Asexual reproduction is by the production of zoospores.
colonial forms like Volvox and the filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
Sexual reproduction may be,
Isogamous: - gametes are flagellated / non-flagellated and similar in size. Eg :- Ulothrix
Anisogamous: - gametes dissimilar in size. Eg :- Eudorina.
Oogamous: - Fusion between one large, nonmotile female gamete and a smaller, motile male gamete.
e.g. :- Volvox, Fucus.
Economic importance of algae
1. Algae fix at least a half of the carbon dioxide fixation on earth.
2. They are the primary producers.
3. Algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids.
e.g.:- algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae).
4. Agar produced by the red algae such as Gelidium and Gracilaria is used in the preparations
of ice-creams and jellies.
5. Chlorella is used as food supplement.
Classification of Algae
Classes
Major Pigments Stored Food Cell Wall Examples
(Common Name)
Chlamydomonas,
Chlorophyceae
Chlorophyll a, b Starch Cellulose Volvox, Ulothrix,
(Green algae)
Spirogyra and Chara
Ectocarpus,
Phaeophyceae Chlorophyll a, c Mannitol Cellulose and Dictyota, Laminaria,
(Brown algae) fucoxanthin Laminarin algin Sargassum and
Fucus
Polysiphonia,
Rhodophyceae Chlorophyll a, d Cellulose and
Floridean starch Porphyra, Gracilaria
(Red algae) phycoerythrin pectin
and Gelidium

6
BRYOPHYTES
Bryophytes are also called amphibians of the plant kingdom because they live in soil but are
dependent on water for sexual reproduction.
The bryophytes are divided into liverworts and mosses.
The male sex organ is called antheridium producing male gamete called antherozoids.
The female sex organ called archegonium.
Economic importance of Bryophytes
Sphagnum (moss) provide peat that have long been used as fuel.
Sphagnum is used as packing material of living material because of their capacity to hold water.
Liverworts e.g., Marchantia
Gemmae
Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called gemma cups
Mosses e.g. :- Funaria, Polytrichum and Sphagnum
Protonema stage :-
Creeping, green, branched and filamentous gametophytic stage develops directly from a spore.
Leafy stage,
It develops from the protonema as a lateral bud and consist of upright, slender axes bearing spirally
arranged leaves.
sporophytic stage
After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a sporophyte.
The sporophytic stage consist of a foot, seta and capsule.
PTERIDOPHYTES
It includes horsetails and ferns.
They are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and phloem.
Sporophytic plant body bear sporangia that are developed on leaf-like appendages called sporophylls.
In Selaginella, Equisetum sporophylls aggregate to form compact structures called strobili or cones.
Prothallus - free-living, green, mostly photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes developed from spores.
Homosporous Heterosporous
similar types of spores are produced. Two kinds of spores are produced.
Large macrospores and small micro spores.
Eg :- Lycopodium, Equisetum Heterospory is a precursor to the seed habit
Eg :- Selaginella and Salvinia
Seed Habit
In pteridophytes the female gametophytes are retained on the parent sporophytes.
The zygotes formed within the female gametophyte develop into embryos.
GYMNOSPERMS
Eg :- Cycas, Pinus, Sequoia (tallest tree), Ginkgo
Gymnosperms are naked seeded (seeds are not covered) plants.
Naked seeded - Gymnosperms produce seed without fruit /Ovary is absent so ovules are not enclosed.
Coralloid roots - Specialised roots of Cycas which are associated with N2 - fixing cyanobacteria.

7
 Chapter 5
MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Tap root system

The primary roots with its lateral roots in dicot are called tap root system.
Fibrous root system
The roots developed from the base of the stem in monocots are called fibrous root system.
Adventitious roots
Roots that are developed from the part other than radicle is called adventitious roots.
Eg :- Monstera
Regions of Root
 The root has the following four parts,
1. Root Cap
2. Region of Meristematic activity
 The cells in this regions are actively dividing.
3. Region of Elongation
4. Region of Maturation
 Root hairs are developed from this region.

VENATION
 The arrangement of veins and veinlet in the leaf lamina is called venation.
 There are two types of venation,
1. Reticulate Venation – Vein and veinlet form a network on leaf lamina.
Characteristic in dicotyledonous plants.
2. Parallel Venation – Vein and veinlet run parallel to each other on leaf lamina.
Characteristic in monocotyledonous plants.
TYPES OF LEAVES.
Simple Leaf – Leaf with single entire leaf lamina, if the lamina is incised it does not touch the midrib.
Compound Leaf – Leaf with a number of leaflets is called compound leaf.
It may be of two types,
Pinnately Compound Leaf
The leaflets are arranged on either side of common axis called rachis. Eg :- Neem.
Palmately Compound Leaf
The leaflets are attached at a common point. Eg :- Silk Cotton
Phyllotaxy :- The mode of arrangement of leaf on stem or branch. 3 Types
Alternate Opposite Whorled
Single leaf in each node Two leaves in each node arranged in More than two leaves in each
opposite manner node
Eg :- China Rose, Eg:- Calotropis & Guava Eg:- Alstonia
Mustard
Inflorescence :- The arrangement of flowers on floral axis is called inflorescence. Two types
Racemose :- Flowers in acropetal succession Cymose :- Flowers in basipetal order
Main axis continues to grow. Main axis terminates in a flower.

8
 Types of Flowers
TYPES CHARACTER EXAMPLE
Actinomorphic Can cut into two equal halves Mustard, Chilli
through any radial plane
A)
Zygomorphic Can cut into two equal halves Pea, Bean & Cassia
only through one vertical plane
Asymmetric Cannot be cut into two equal Canna
halves B)
A) Hypogynous Ovary superior China rose, Mustard
B) Perigynous Ovary half inferior Rose, Peach
C) Epigynous Ovary inferior Cucumber,
sunflower

C)
Aestivation :- The mode of arrangement of sepals or petals in a flower
Valvate Twisted Imbricate Vexillary/Papilionaceous
Overlapping absent Regular overlapping Overlapping present, 5 petals – 1 large standard
one in and one out petal, 2 lateral wing petals
and 2 united keel petals
Eg:- Calotropis Eg:- China rose & cotton Eg:- Cassia & Gulmohur Eg:- Pea & bean

Placentation :- Arrangement of ovules within the ovary

Marginal Axile Parietal Free central Basal
Ovule present on Ovule present on the Ovule present on the Ovule present on the Ovule present in
the margin of ovary central axis of ovary inner wall of ovary central axis without the base of ovary
septa of ovary
Eg:-Pea Eg:-China rose, Eg:- Mustard Eg:-Dianthus Eg:-Sunflower
Lemon

Floral Characters
Calyx - composed of sepals; gamosepalous - Sepals united; Polysepalous – Free sepals
Corolla - composed of petals; gamopetalous - Petals united; Polypetalous – Free petals
Perianth – composed of tepals.
Androecium - composed of Stamens, Epipetalous – Stamen attached to petals; Epiphyllous – stamens
attached to perianth; Polyandrous – free stamens; Monoadelphous- Stamen united to form single bundle;
Diadelphous – Stamen united to form two bundles. Polyadelphous – Stamens in more than two bundle
Gynoecium – composed of carpels; Syncarpous – capels united; Apocarpous- Carpels free

9
Symbols Expansion Symbols Expansion
K Calyx Actinomorphic flower
C Corolla Zygomorphic flower
P Perianth K(5) Calyx consist of 5 sepals, gamosepalous
A Androecium C(5) Corolla consist of 5 petals,gamopetalous
G Gynoecium Bisexual flower
superior ovary, hypogynous Bicarpellary, syncarpous & superior
G
flower ovary
G Inferior ovary, epigynous flower Epipetalous stamens
Half Inferior ovary, perigynous
G 5 stamens, free stamens
flower
Parthenocarpic Fruit :- The fruit formation without fertilization.
Drupe :- Fruit of coconut and mango.
Pericarp :- Fruit wall is called pericarp.
It is differentiated into outer epicarp, middle mesocarp and inner endocarp.
Aleurone layer :- Outer proteinous covering of monocot seed.
Scutellum :- Single large shield shaped cotyledon of monocot seed.
Coleoptile and Ccoleorhiza :- Plumule and radicle are enclosed in sheaths which are called coleoptile and
coleorhiza respectively.

SOLANACEAE

Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic

Calyx: sepals five, united, persistent, valvate aestivation
Corolla: petals five, united; valvate aestivation
Androecium: stamens five, epipetalous
Gynoecium: bicarpellary obligately placed, syncarpous; ovary superior, bilocular, placenta swollen
with many ovules, axile placentation.
Economic Importance: Source of food (tomato, brinjal, potato), spice (chilli)
medicine (belladonna, ashwagandha), fumigatory (tobacco), ornamentals (petunia).

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 CHAPTER 6
ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

Permanent Tissues

Simple Permanent Tissue Complex Permanent Tissue

(Only one types of cells) (More than one types of cells)
Parenchyma Xylem Phloem
 Thin walled & Cellulosic  Consist of 4 types of components  Consist of 4 types of components
 Cells spherical, circular polygonal, oval or round.  Tracheids  Sieve tube elements
 Photosynthesis, storage & Secretion are the  Vessels  Companion cells
functions  Xylem Fibers  phloem Fibers
 Xylem Parenchyma  phloem Parenchyma
 Conducting tissue for water and  Transport food materials
minerals

Tissue System
Epidermal Tissue System Ground Tissue System Vascular Tissue System
Consist of Ground tissue of leaf is called - Consist of
Epidermal cells, Stomata, Mesophyll Tissue Xylem
Trichomes & hairs Phloem

EPIDERMAL TISSUE SYSTEM

 Stomata are the minute opening on the surface of leaf epidermis
 Stomata are supported by specialized epidermal cells called guard cells
 Epidermal cells surrounding the guard cells are called subsidiary cells.
 Guard cells in dicot leaf is bean shaped where as in monocot leaf it is dumb – bell shaped.
GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM
 Ground tissue of leaf is called - Mesophyll Tissue
 Mesophyll tissue is differentiated in dicot leaf
Types of Vascular Bundles

Radial Conjoint Endarch Exarch

Xylem & phloem are situated on the same Protoxylem towards Metaxylem towards
radius the pith and the pith and
Xylem & phloem in
metaxylem towards protoxylem towards
alternate manner
Open Closed the periphery the periphery

Eg: Vascular bundle of Eg: Vascular bundle Eg: Vascular bundle

Roots Eg: Dicot stem Eg: Monocot stem of stem of Roots

Bulliform cells :- Large, empty and colourless cell present on the upper epidermis of grass leaves
During water stress bulliform cell minimize water loss by curling the leaf

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 Primary Characters of Stem, Root & Leaf

STEM ROOT
 Conjoint Vascular bundles  Radial Vascular bundles
 Endarch Vascular bundles  Exarch Vascular bundles
 Casparian thickening present in endodermis
Monocot Stem Dicot Stem Monocot Root Dicot Root
 Sclerenchymatous  Collenchymatous  Numerous vascular  Limitted number of
hypodermis. hypodermis bundles vascular bundles
 Numerous vascular  Limited number of  Pith is large  Pith is small
bundles vascular bundles  Secondary growth absent  Secondary growth
present
 Sclerenchymatous  Sclerenchymatous bundle
bundle sheath present. cap present.
 Vascular bundles are  Vascular bundles are
scattered arranged in ring.
 Closed vascular bundle  Open vascular bundle
 Water containing  Pith present
cavity present in xylem

LEAVES

 Chlorenchymatous mesophyll
Monocot Leaf Dicot Leaf
 Isobilateral leaf.  Dorsiventral leaf.
 Stomata on both upper & lower epidermis.  Stomata on lower epidermis only.
 Mesophyll tissue is not differentiated.  Mesophyll tissue has upper palisade and lower
spongy parenchyma.
Casparian strips
Deposition of water-impermeable, waxy material called suberin on the tangential as well as radial
walls of the endodermal cells.
Conjuctive tissue
The parenchymatous cells which lie between the xylem and the phloem of roots.
Stele
All tissues on the inner side of the endodermis.
It includes pericycle, vascular bundles and pith.

12
 CHAPTER 8
CELL: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
CELL THEORY
Matthias Schleiden - Plant body is composed of different kinds of cells.
Theodore Schwann – The bodies of animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells.
Presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells.
Rudolf Virchow - Cells divide and new cells are formed from pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula).
Concepts of Cell Theory
(i) All living organisms are composed of cells and products of cells.
(ii) All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
PROKARYOTIC CELL EUKARYOTIC CELL
Eg :- Bacterial cell Eg :- Plant cell, Animal cell, Fungal cell & Cells of
Protista
• The cell does not have membrane bound nucleus • The cells contain membrane bound nucleus.
• Membrane bound cell organelles are absent. • Membrane bound cell organelles are present.
• Cell membrane extension called mesosomes present. • Mesosomes are absent.
• Extra genomic DNA called plasmids present. • Plasmids are absent.
• Ribosomes are 70S type. • Ribosomes are 80S type.

 Mesosomes :-
The special extension of plasma membrane into the cell is called mesosome.
The mesosomes are in the form of vesicles, tubules and lamellae.
Mesosome are involved in cell wall formation, DNA replication, respiration & secretion.
Polyribosomes or polysome - Several ribosomes may attach to a single mRNA and form a chain.
Plasmids - small circular DNA outside the genomic DNA in some bacteria.
Cell Membrane
Fluid mosaic model by Singer and Nicolson
cell membrane is mainly composed of lipids and proteins.
Major lipids are phospholipids that are arranged in a bilayer.
Polar head of lipids are towards the outer sides and the hydrophobic tails towards the inner part.
Membrane proteins can be classified as integral and peripheral.
Peripheral proteins lie on the surface of membrane while the integral proteins are partially or totally
buried in the membrane.
Functions of cell membrane
i) Transport of the molecules.ii) Involved in both active and passive transport.
. Endomembrane System
The cell organelles that show coordinated functions.
Endomembrane system includes endoplasmic reticulum (ER), golgi complex, lysosomes and vacuoles.
a. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
Network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm.
There are two types of ER

13
 RER SER
1. Endoplasmic reticulum bearing 1. Endoplasmic reticulum devoid / lacking
ribosomes on their surface is called RER. ribosomes on their surface is called SER.
2. RER is actively involved in protein 2. SER is actively involved in synthesis of lipids /
synthesis and secretion. hormones.
b .Golgi apparatus
First observed by Camilo Golgi.
Consist of many flat disc shaped sac called cisternae.
Functions of Golgi apparatus
 Golgi apparatus is chiefly involved in packaging of materials.
 Modification of protein occur inside Golgi apparatus.
 Golgi apparatus is an important site of formation of glycoproteins & glycolipids.
c. Lysosomes
 Lysosomal vesicles are filled with hydrolytic enzymes called hydrolases that act in acidic pH.
 Hydrolases include lipases, proteases, carbohydrases.
d. Tonoplast - The membrane surrounding the vacuole is called tonoplast.
. Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are double membrane bound organelles.
 The fluid filled space inside the inner membrane is called matrix.
 The infoldings of inner membrane is called CRISTAE.
 Mitochondria are the site of aerobic respiration.
Power House of the Cell
 Mitochondria produce energy in the form of ATP, so they are called power house of the cell.
Mitochondria chloroplast

PLASTIDS
Plastids are present in all plant cells and euglenoides.
Based on the type of pigments plastids are,
CHLOROPLAST – Green coloured plastids contain chlorophyll
CHROMOPLAST – Coloured plastids contain carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls.
LEUCOPLAST – Colourless plastids with stored nutrients.
Leucoplasts are three types,
Amyloplasts - Store carbohydrates
Elaioplasts - Store oils and fats
Aleuroplasts - Store proteins
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 CHLOROPLAST
 Chloroplast perform photosynthesis.
 The fluid filled space inside the inner membrane is called Stroma.
 Stacks of thylakoids present on the stroma is called grana.
 Thylakoids of different grana are connected by stroma lamellae.
 Stroma contain enzymes for dark reaction (synthesis of starch).
 Grana contain pigments that are involved in light reaction.
Ribosomes
First observed by George Palade.
They are composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins.
Eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
‘S’ (Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient.
Cytoskeleton –
Proteinaceous structures consisting of microtubules, microfilaments and intermediate filaments.
It provides mechanical support, motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
Nucleus
 Nucleus was first described by Robert Brown.
 The nuclear matrix or nucleoplasm contain nucleolus and chromatin.
 Nucleolus is the site of rRNA synthesis.
Chromosomes
 Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins called histones.
 Chromatin condense to form chromosome during cell division.
 Each chromosomes have a primary constriction called centromere.
 Disc shaped structures present on the centromere is called kinetochores.
 Based on the position of centromere Chromosomes are,
Metacentric chromosome has middle centromere.
Sub-metacentric chromosome has centromere slightly away from the middle.
Acrocentric chromosome the centromere is situated close to its end.
Telocentric chromosome has a terminal centromere.

Satellite chromosomes
A few chromosomes have non-staining secondary constrictions at a constant location.
This gives the appearance of a small fragment called the satellite.
15
 CHAPTER 10
CELL CYCLE AND CELL DIVISION
CELL CYCLE
The sequence of events occurring in a cell from the time of division to next division is called cell cycle.
The main events involved are cell growth, DNA replication and cell division.
PHASES IN CELL CYCLE
Interphase M Phase (Mitosis phase)
 The phase when the actual cell division or mitosis occur.  The phase between two successive M
 It includes G1 phase, S phase and G2 phase. phases.
 It includes Karyokinesis and cytokinesis.
Cell is metabolically active and Karyokinesis
G1 phase (Gap 1)
continuously grows. Division of nucleus occur.
DNA synthesis or replication takes Daughter chromosomes are separated.
S phase (Synthesis)
place.
Proteins are synthesised in Cytokinesis
G2 phase (Gap 2) preparation for mitosis. Division of cytoplasm occur.
Cell growth continues.

G0 Phase

This phase is called quiescent stage.

The cell which does not undergo division enter into G0 phase

Mitosis
It is also called as equational division.
During the mitotic division number of chromosomes in the parent and progeny cells is the same.
Karyokinesis (Nuclear division)
It includes four substages such as prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Substage Features
 Chromosomal material condenses to form compact mitotic chromosomes.
Prophase  Chromosomes consist of two chromatids attached together at the centromere.
 Centrosome begins to move towards opposite poles of the cell.
 Spindle fibres attach to kinetochores of chromosomes.
Metaphase  Chromosomes are aligned along metaphase plate (equator).
 spindle fibres from both poles are attached to either side of kinetochore.
 Centromeres split and chromatids separate.
Anaphase
 Chromatids move to opposite poles.
 Chromosomes reach at opposite poles.
Telophase  Nuclear envelope develops around the chromosome.
 Nucleolus, golgi complex and ER reform.

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 Cytokinesis
Animal cell
This is achieved by the appearance of a furrow in the plasma membrane.
The furrow gradually deepens and ultimately joins in the centre dividing the cell cytoplasm into two.
Plant Cells
cell wall develops with the formation of cell-plate.
Syncytium
If karyokinesis is not followed by cytokinesis it leads multinucleate condition called syncytium.
e.g. :- liquid endosperm in coconut.
Significance of Mitosis
It maintains the same number of chromosomes in daughter cells.
Multicellular organisms grow due to mitosis.
Mitosis helps in cell repair.
Mitotic divisions in the meristematic tissues in plants help in growth.
MEIOSIS
Meiosis is specialised kind of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half.
Meiosis ensures the production of haploid phase.
It involves two sequential cycles of nuclear and cytoplasmic division called meiosis - Ⅰ and meiosis - ⅠⅠ.

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 Prophase – I :
Prophase - I of meiosis - I is the longest phase and more complex compared to prophase of
mitosis.
Prophase - I have following five phases.
Leptotene, Zygotene, Pachytene, Diplotene and Diakinesis.
Phase Features
Leptotene • Chromosomes become gradually visible.
• Chromosomes start pairing.
• Process of pairing is called synapsis.
Zygotene • Synapsis is accompanied by the formation of protein complex called
synaptonemal complex.
• Pair of synapsed homologous chromosomes is called a bivalent or a tetrad.
• Recombination nodules appear.
• Crossing over occurs between non-sister chromatids of the homologous
Pachytene
chromosomes leading to recombination.
• Crossing over is mediated by the enzyme called recombinase.
• Dissolution of the synaptonemal complex.
Diplotene • Chiasmata formation occur.

• Terminalisation of chiasmata occur.

Diakinesis
• Nucleolus & nuclear envelope disappear.

Interkinesis :- The stage between the two meiotic divisions is called interkinesis.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
Help in production of gametes for sexual reproduction.
It results in crossing over and recombination that create variability in new generation.
Specific chromosome number is maintained during sexual reproduction.

MITOSIS MEIOSIS
• It occurs in somatic cells. • It occurs in reproductive cells (Gamete
producing cells).
• Two daughter cells are produced. • Four daughter cells are produced.
• Daughter cells have equal number of • Daughter cells have half the number of
chromosomes to that of parental cell. chromosomes to that of parental cell.
• It is called equational division. • It is called reduction division.
• Crossing over and recombination • Crossing over and recombination present.
absent.

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 CHAPTER 13
PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS
Early Experiments/ hypothesis
Joseph Priestley - Revealed the essential role of air in the growth of green plants.
Plants restore to the air whatever breathing animals and burning candles remove.
Jan Ingenhousz - Sunlight is essential to the plant process that somehow purifies the air
He showed that it is only the green plants that could release oxygen.
Julius von Sachs - Provided evidence for production of glucose when plants grow.
T.W Engelmann - First action spectrum of photosynthesis described.
He used a green alga, Cladophora as an experimental material.
Paper chromatography – Method used to separate the leaf pigments of green plant.
PIGMENTS INVOLVED IN PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Pigment Feature
Chlorophyll a (bright or blue green colour)  Chief pigment associated with photosynthesis.
chlorophyll b (yellow green colour)  Accessory pigments.
Xanthophylls (yellow colour)  Protect chlorophyll a from photo-oxidation.
Carotenoids (yellow to yellow-orange colour)

Absorption spectrum.
The graph obtained by plotting the amount of light absorbed against the wavelength of light
spectrum is called absorption spectrum.
Action spectrum
The graph obtained by plotting photosynthetic rate (measured in amount of O 2 evolved)
against the wavelength of light spectrum is called action spectrum.

Light reactions (photochemical reactions)

It includes,
1. Light absorption 2. Water splitting 3. Oxygen release
4. Formation of high-energy intermediates (ATP and NADPH).
PIGMENT SYSTEMS
The pigment system consists of a reaction centre (Chlorophyll a) and light harvesting complexes (LHC).
PIGMENT SYSTEM I (PS – Ⅰ) PIGMENT SYSTEM II (PS – II)
 Reaction centre is Chlorophyll a 700.  Reaction centre is Chlorophyll a 680.
 It has an absorption peak at 700 nm.  It has an absorption peak at 680 nm.
 It is known as P 700.  It is known as P 680.

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Light Reaction / Electron transport
Light reaction occurs in grana of chloroplast
During light reaction two types of electron transport,
1. Cyclic electron transport
2. Non cyclic electron transport or Z - Scheme

CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION

(Cyclic electron transport) (Noncyclic electron transport)
1. Electrons are transported in cyclic manner. 1. Electrons are transported in non-cyclic manner.
2. Only PS - I is involved. 2. Both PS - I & PS - II are involved.
3. Only ATP is produced. 3. Both ATP & NADPH+H+ are produced.
4. Photolysis of water is absent. 4. Photolysis of water is present.
5. Oxygen is not liberated. 5. Oxygen is liberated.
6. External electron donor is absent 6. External electron donor (water) is present.

PHOTOLYSIS OF WATER
• Breakdown of water into proton (H+), electron (e-) and oxygen (O2) with the help of light energy
during noncyclic electron transport is called photolysis of water.
• Photolysis of water is associated with PS – II.
CHEMIOSMOTIC HYPOTHESIS
According to this concept proton gradient was created inside the grana, the reversal of this proton
gradient provide energy for ATP synthesis.
Grana thylakoid contain ATP synthase with CFo – CF1 units which is involved in ATP synthesis.
Proton gradient in the thylakoid lumen is created by three methods,
• Photolysis of water increase the proton concentration inside the thylakoid.
• The electron transport through the electron transport system pump proton from stroma into the
thylakoid lumen.
• The proton gradient increases indirectly by production of NADPH+H+ in the stroma.
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Biosynthetic phase / Dark reactions / Carbon reactions
Dark reaction occurs at the stroma of chloroplast.
This process does not directly depend on the presence of light but is dependent on the products of the
light reaction, i.e., ATP and NADPH+H+.
The biosynthetic Phase or Dark Reaction for carbohydrate synthesis occur by two ways in plants.
• C3 PATHWAY or CALVIN CYCLE
• C4 PATHWAY or HATCH AND SLACK PATHWAY
Calvin Cycle
This pathway was first elucidated by Calvin as a cyclic pathway. So, this pathway is known as Calvin
Cycle.
The first stable compound of this cycle is a 3-carbon compound called PGA (Phosphoglycerate). So, it
is called C3 Cycle.
The primary acceptor of CO2 in C3 cycle is a 5-carbon compound RuBP (Ribulose bisphosphate).
RuBisCO (RuBP Carboxylase-Oxygenase) enzyme help in carboxylation.
The end products of Calvin cycle is Glucose / Sucrose/ Starch.
Calvin Cycle is the common pathway in both C3 and C4 plants.
The major steps involved in C3 Cycle are,
• CARBOXYLATION
• REDUCTION
• REGENERATION
Calvin Cycle C4 PATHWAY

THE C4 PATHWAY
• This pathway was first elucidated by Hatch & Slack. So, this pathway is known as Hatch & Slack
pathway.
• The first stable compound of this pathway is a 4-carbon compound called OAA (Oxaloacetic Acid).
So, it is called C4 Cycle.
• The primary acceptor of CO2 in C4 cycle is a 3-carbon compound called PEP (Phosphoenolpyruvate).
• PEP case (PEP Carboxylase) enzyme helps in carboxylation.

21
Kranz anatomy
• Examples for C4 Plants: - Sorghum and Maize.
• Leaf of C4 Plants has specialized anatomy called Kranz anatomy
 Kranz anatomy means wreath like anatomy.
 The bundle sheath cells are large, several layered and are with large chloroplast.
 Wall of bundle sheath cells are thick and inter cellular spaces are absent.
Photorespiration
• The oxygenation activity of RuBisCO occurs at low CO2 concentration or high O2 concentration.
• The oxygenation activity of RuBisCO leading to the production one molecule of phosphoglycerate
and one molecule of phosphoglycolate is called photorespiration.
• Photorespiration does not produce sugar but results in the release of CO2 with the utilisation of
ATP.
𝐑𝐮𝐁𝐏 𝐎𝐱𝐲𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐬𝐞
𝐑𝐮𝐁𝐏 + 𝐎𝟐 →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 𝐏𝐡𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐲𝐜𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 + 𝐏𝐡𝐨𝐬𝐩𝐡𝐨𝐠𝐥𝐲𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐭𝐞
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
EXTERNAL FACTORS INTERNAL FACTORS
 Availability of sunlight  Number, size and Orientation of leaf
 Temperature  Amount of chloroplast
 CO2 concentration  Amount of chlorophyll
 Water  Internal CO2 concentration
LAW OF LIMITING FACTORS
• This law was first proposed by Blackman in 1905.
• If a chemical process is affected by more than one factor, then its rate will be determined by the
factor which is nearest to its minimal value.

C3 PLANTS C4 PLANTS
1. Primary CO2 acceptor is RuBP. 1. Primary CO2 acceptor is PEP.
2. Enzyme involved in carboxylation is RuBisCO. 2. Enzyme involved in carboxylation is RuBisCO.
3. First stable compound is 3-PGA. 3. First stable compound is OAA.
4. Photorespiration present. 4. Photorespiration absent.
5. Kranz anatomy absent. 5. Kranz anatomy present.
6. Productivity is low. 6. Productivity is high.

RuBisCO (RuBP Carboxylase-Oxygenase) enzyme show dual function,

• Carboxylation – Fixation of carbon dioxide (CO2)
• Oxygenation – Fixation of oxygen (O2)

22
 CHAPTER 14
RESPIRATION IN PLANTS
Oxidation of organic compound within the cells, leading to release of energy is called respiration.
The compounds that are oxidized during this process are known as respiratory substrates.
carbohydrates are the usual respiratory substrate.
Proteins, fats and even organic acids can also be act as respiratory substances.
Types of respiration
Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration or Fermentation
 Respiration occurs in the presence of  Respiration occurs in the absence of oxygen.
oxygen.  Partial oxidation of substrate occurs.
 Complete oxidation of substrate occurs.  Ethanol or Lactic acid and less amount of ATP is
 2 2
CO , H O and ATP are produced. produced.
 Occur in cytoplasm and mitochondria.  Occur in cytoplasm.
 High energy output.  Low energy output.
GLYCOLYSIS
• Glycolysis is the common pathway in both aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
• The glycolytic pathway was first elucidated by G. Embden, O. Meyerhof and J. Parnas, so it is also
known as EMP pathway.
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell.
• Glycolysis produces two molecules of pyruvic acid, ATP and NADH+H+.
• In Plants Sucrose is first converted into glucose and fructose in the presence of enzyme invertase.
𝐈𝐧𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐚𝐬𝐞
𝐒𝐮𝐜𝐫𝐨𝐬𝐞 →−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 𝐆𝐥𝐮𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐞 + 𝐅𝐫𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐬𝐞

Steps in Glycolysis
ATP is utilized in two steps
Glucose →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Glucose 6 − phosphate
Fructose 6 − phosphate →−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Fructose 1,6 − bisphosphate
23
 ATP is produced in two steps
1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid →−−−−−−−−−→ 3 − phosphoglyceric acid
phosphoenolpyruvate →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ pyruvic acid
NADH+H+ is produced in one step
Glyceraldehyde 3 − phosphate →−−−−−→ 1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid
Total ATP produced from glycolysis is 8.
Types of Anaerobic respiration or Fermentation
ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION LACTIC ACID FERMENTATION
 Pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis is  Pyruvic acid produced in glycolysis is converted
converted into CO2 and ethyl alcohol. into lactic acid.
 Reaction is catalyzed by enzymes, pyruvic acid  Reaction is catalyzed by enzymes lactate
decarboxylase and alcohol dehydrogenase. dehydrogenase.
 Alcoholic fermentation is carried out by Yeast.  Shown by Lactobacillus bacteria and Muscle cells.
AEROBIC RESPIRATION

 During aerobic respiration the following events occur

 Pyruvic acid is oxidized to produce reduced energy rich molecule (NADHH+ & FADH2) and CO2.
 Oxidation of NADHH+ & FADH2 and passing of electron to oxygen (O2) to produce water and ATP.

The major steps involved in aerobic respiration are,

1. Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
2. Electron Transport System and Oxidative Phosphorylation
Before entering into Krebs cycle Pyruvic acid is oxidatively decarboxylated to produce acetyl CoA in
the presence of enzyme pyruvate dehydrogenase.
+
𝐌𝐠𝟐
𝐏𝐲𝐫𝐮𝐯𝐢𝐜 𝐚𝐜𝐢𝐝 + 𝐂𝐨𝐀 + 𝐍𝐀𝐃+ →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 𝐀𝐜𝐞𝐭𝐲𝐥 𝐂𝐨𝐀 + 𝐂𝐎𝟐 + 𝐍𝐀𝐃𝐇 + 𝐇+
𝐏𝐲𝐫𝐮𝐯𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐝𝐞𝐡𝐲𝐝𝐫𝐨𝐠𝐞𝐧𝐚𝐬𝐞
Krebs Cycle or Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle
• Acetyl CoA – The first compound entering into Krebs cycle.
• Steps in Tricarboxylic acid cycle was first elucidated by Hans Krebs so it is commonly called as
Krebs’ cycle.
• Krebs cycle is a 5-step reaction occurring in the matrix of mitochondria.
• Steps in Tricarboxylic acid cycle are,
1. Acetyl group of Acetyl CoA combine with
oxaloaceticacid (OAA) to yield citric acid.
2. Citric acid is decarboxylated into 𝛼-Ketoglutaric acid.
3. 𝛼-Ketoglutaric acid is decarboxylated into succinic
acid.
4. Succinic acid is dehydrogenated in the presence of
succinate dehydrogenase to malic acid.
5. Malic acid is dehydrogenated to oxaloacetic acid.

24
Steps in Krebs Cycle
NADH+H+ is produced in three steps
1. Citric acid →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ α − ketoglutaric acid
2. α − ketoglutaric acid →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Succinic acid
3. Malic acid →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Oxaloacetic acid

FADH2 is produced in one step

1. Succinic acid →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Malic acid
GTP is produced in one step
1. α − ketoglutaric acid →−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→ Succinic acid

ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM & OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

• This final oxidation occurs in the CRISTAE of mitochondria.
• Oxygen act as final electron acceptor in ETS.
• ATP synthesis through ETS (Oxidation of NADHH+ & FADH2) is called oxidative phosphorylation.
The enzyme complex involved are
1. Complex – I - NADH Dehydrogenase
2. Complex – II - Succinate Dehydrogenase
3. Complex – III - Cytochrome bc1
4. Complex – IV - Cytochrome C oxidase
5. Complex – V - Fo - F1 Complex (ATP ase Complex)

RESPIRATION IS AMPHIBOLIC PATHWAY

• The various organic molecules involved in respiratory pathway are involved in both catabolism
and anabolism so respiratory pathway is called amphibolic pathway.
RESPIRATORY QUOTIENT
Respiratory quotient (RQ) is the ratio of carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption during a
respiratory process.
Or
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐚𝐫𝐛𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐢𝐨𝐱𝐢𝐝𝐞 𝐞𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐯𝐞𝐝
RQ = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐱𝐲𝐠𝐞𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐝
Eg:-
𝟔
1. 𝐂𝟔𝐇𝟏𝟐𝐎𝟔 + 𝟔𝐎𝟐 →−−−−−−−−−→ 𝟔𝐂𝐎𝟐 + 𝟔𝐇𝟐𝐎 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 RQ = 𝟔 = 𝟏
Glucose
𝟏𝟎𝟐
2. 𝟐𝐂𝟓𝟏𝐇𝟗𝟖𝐎𝟔 + 𝟏𝟒𝟓 𝐎𝟐 →−−−−−−−−−→ 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟐 + 𝟗𝟖 𝐇𝟐𝐎 + 𝐄𝐧𝐞𝐫𝐠𝐲 RQ = 𝟏𝟒𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟕
Tripalmitin
RQ value provide knowledge about the respiratory substrate
 If RQ = 1 Respiratory substrate is carbohydrate.
 If RQ = 0.9 Respiratory substrate is protein.
 If RQ is less than one (RQ < 1) Respiratory substrate is fat.

25
 CHAPTER 15
PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Geometrical growth curve / Sigmoid growth curve
Geometric growth curve has three phases
 Lag phase - initial slow growth.
 Log or exponential phase - an exponential rate of growth.
 Stationary phase - growth slows down.

Differentiation:
During differentiation divided cell undergo maturation and perform particular function.
Dedifferentiation:
The development of meristematic cells from mature fully differentiated cells is called
differentiation.
Redifferentiation:
Formation of fully differentiated tissue from the cells produced from the dedifferentiated cells
is called redifferentiation.
Plasticity
Different adaptations developed in response to environment in plants is called plasticity.
e.g.:- heterophylly in cotton, coriander and larkspur.
PLANT GROWTH HORMONES
GROWTH PROMOTERS GROWTH INHIBITORS
Involved in growth promoting activities. Involved in growth inhibiting activities
Eg:- Eg:-
 AUXINS  ABSCISIC ACID (ABA)
 GIBBERELLINS  ETHYLENE
 CYTOKININS

PLANT GROWTH HORMONES CHARACTERISTICS

Phytohormone Discovered by Chemical nature
Auxins Isolated by F.W. Went Indole compound
Gibberellins E. Kurosawa Terpene derivatives
Observation by F. Skoog Adenine (Purine)
Cytokinins Identified & crystallised by Miller derivative

Abscisic acid Carotene derivative

Ethylene H.H. Cousins Gaseous hormone.
 The ‘bakanae’ (Foolish Seedling) disease of rice seedling was caused by the fungal pathogen
Gibberella fujikuroi.
 The active compound behind foolish seedling disease was gibberellic acid.
26
 Plant Growth Hormones Forms & its functions
Phytohormone Forms Functions
 Auxin help to initiate rooting in stem cutting.
Natural Forms  It promotes flowering in pineapples.
 IAA (Indole 3-Acetic Acid)  It helps to prevent fruits and leaf drop at early stage.
Auxins  IBA (Indole 3-Butyric Acid)  It promotes apical dominance (Growth of apical bud and inhibition of lateral
(Hormone of Synthetic auxins buds).
Apical Dominance)  NAA (Naphthalene Acetic Acids) o Removal of apical buds promote lateral bud growth. This is widely
 2, 4-D applied in hedge making and tea plantation.
(2,4 dichlorophenoxy acetic acid)  It also induces parthenocarpy (Fruit formation without seed) in tomato.
 2,4 – D is widely used as herbicides (Kill dicotyledonous weeds).
 Gibberellins increase the length of stem.
GA1 , GA2 , GA3 are the various forms.
o Useful in sugarcane, grapes etc.
Gibberellins  It promotes early seed production in conifers.
First gibberellins discovered
(Bolting Hormone)  They delay senescence.
Gibberellic acid (GA3 )
 It also promotes bolting (internode elongation prior to flowering) in beet,
cabbage etc.
Natural Forms
Cytokinins  Cytokinin helps to produce new leaves and chloroplast in leaves.
 kinetin - From herring sperm DNA.
 It helps in the formation of lateral shoot and adventitious shoot.
(Hormone of  Zeatin -
 It helps to overcome apical dominance.
Cytokinesis) From corn-kernels and coconut milk.
 It promotes nutrient mobilization that delay leaf senescence.
 Abscisic acid generally acts as plant growth inhibitor and inhibit metabolism.
 It inhibits seed germination.
Abscisic acid  ABA stimulate the closure of stomata (Anti-transpirant).
(Stress hormone)  It increases the tolerance of plants to various kind of stresses. So called stress
hormone.
 It plays an important role in seed development, maturation and dormancy.
 ABA acts as an antagonist to gibberellins (GAs).
 Ethylene promotes senescence and abscission of plant organs.
Ethylene  It is highly effective in fruit ripening.
Artificial  Ethylene breaks seed and bud dormancy.
(Gaseous hormone)
Ethephon - source of ethylene  Ethylene promotes root growth and root hair formation.
(Ripening hormone)  It initiates flowering and synchronized fruit set in pineapples.
 It induces flowering in mango.

27