UNIT 1

Lesson 1.1

The Big Bang Theory and the

Formation of Light Elements
Objective give evidence for and
explain the formation of
At the end 1 the light elements in the
of the big bang theory.
lesson, you
should be
able to:
 Learn about It!

Cosmology
Cosmology is the body of science that studies the origin,
evolution and eventual fate of the universe
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Cosmology
Religious Cosmology
• Religious or mythological cosmology explains the
origin of universe and life based on religious beliefs of a
specific tradition
• The concept of creatio ex nihilo
• God creating the universe as written in the book of
Genesis
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Cosmology
Physical Cosmology

Physical cosmology explains the origin of universe based on

scientific insights, studies and experiments
• Nicolaus Copernicus and the heliocentric nature of the
universe
• The expanding universe through Albert Einstein’s theory
of relativity
• The big bang theory
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Big Bang Theory

The big bang theory, a cosmological model that describes
how the universe started its expansion about 13.8 billion years
ago, states that the universe continues to move and expand
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Big Bang Theory

1. The universe began as a singularity or a point containing
all space, time, matter and energy
2. It expanded rapidly in nothingness through a rapid yet
peaceful process called inflation
3. The universe cooled down as it expanded
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Big Bang Theory

4. A soup of matter in the form of subatomic particles was
formed and nuclei of light atoms were created via
nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion between protons
and neutrons
5. Electrons interacted with these nuclei to form actual,
primordial atoms via the process of recombination
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Big Bang Theory

Evidences
1. Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz (1910)
• Measurement of redshift
• Observed that most spiral galaxies were moving away
from the earth
2. Georges Lemaître (1927)
• Proposed alternative idea that the universe is
expanding
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Big Bang Theory

Evidences
3. Edwin Hubble (1929)
• Calculated distances between the earth and several
galaxies using redshift of light
• Observed distant galaxies were moving away from the
Earth and one another
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Big Bang Theory

Evidences
4. Robert Wilson and Arno Penzias (1965)
• Discovered cosmic microwave background
radiation (CMBR)—a low, steady humming noise
believed to be energy remains
5. Modern astronomy (2014)
• Universe is estimated to be 13.8 billion years old with
5% of its composition existing as ordinary matter
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Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• Big bang nucleosynthesis (BBN), also known as
primordial nucleosynthesis, is the process of producing
light elements during the big bang expansion
• It yields two stable isotopes of hydrogen, two isotopes of
helium, some lithium atoms and beryllium isotopes
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Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
1. A proton (p) and a neutron (n) may fuse together to
yield a high-energy photon (γ) and an isotope of
hydrogen (H) called deuterium (D or 2H, with one p and
one n)
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Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
2. Two D nuclei may fuse together to form either of the
following:
a. The radioactive H isotope tritium (T or 3H, with one p and two n) and
one p; or
b. The isotope helium-3 (He-3 or 3He, with two p and one n) along with
one n
 Learn about It!

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
3. Helium-4 (He-4 or 4He, with two p and two n) may be
formed from three fusion reactions
a. The fusion of one p and a T atom
b. The fusion of D with T
c. The fusion of D with He-3
 Learn about It!

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
• He-4 has a binding energy of 28 MeV, and further fusion
products were a rarity since these resulting atoms had
binding energies lower than this aforementioned amount
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Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
4. He-4 may still undergo further fusion in the presence of a
T atom, yielding the lithium-7 atom (Li-7 or 7Li, with
three p and four n) and a γ
• Li-7 may react with one p to produce two stable He-4 nuclei
 Learn about It!

Big Bang Theory

Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
5. He-4 may also fuse with He-3 to yield the unstable isotope
beryllium-7 (Be-7 or 7Be, with four p and three n) along
with one γ
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Big Bang Theory

• The correlation between predicted and observed cosmic
abundances of H and He was the major proof of the big
bang theory
• Almost all available neutrons have combined with
protons, forming 24% He-4 by mass
• About 74% H by mass remained uncombined
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Big Bang Theory

• To verify these observations, scientists measured
abundances of primordial material in unprocessed gas in
some parts of the universe with no stars as well as in
parts of meteorites known as chondrites that commonly
fall to Earth
Key Points

The big bang theory is a cosmological model that

1 describes how the universe started its expansion
about 13.8 billion years ago.

Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of producing

2 light elements during the big bang expansion.

The correlation between the predicted and observed

3 cosmic abundances of hydrogen and helium was the
major proof of the big bang theory.
Lesson 1.2

Stellar Evolution and the

Formation of Heavier
Elements
Objective give evidence for and
explain the formation of
At the end 1 heavier elements during
of the star formation and
lesson, you evolution.
should be
able to:
 Learn about It!

Stars, which are giant balls mostly made up of hydrogen and

helium, act as sites for nuclear reactions in the universe.
Through the process, they are able to fuse light elements to
form heavier elements. These reactions also involve light
emission, which is the reason why stars are so bright.

Where did you think atoms making up all living things

originate from?
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Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

The BBN did not give rise to elements heavier than beryllium
• Drop in temperature resulted in insufficient energy levels
for fusion reactions to push through
• Nucleosynthesis continued with the expansion of the
universe
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Stellar Formation
The star formation theory states
that stars formed when gravity acted
on the particles expanding with the
universe.
• These dense regions of molecular
clouds, known as stellar
nurseries collapse, to form young
stellar objects known as
protostars which eventually
become mature stars.
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements associated with both living and nonliving things
mostly originated from stars
• Processes that occurred inside stars were responsible for
the formation of these elements
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than beryllium were formed through
stellar nucleosynthesis
• H and He produced from BBN started to combine in
nuclear fusion reactions
• Very high amounts of energy were released in the form
of light, heat and radiation.
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Stellar Evolution
Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star changes
through its lifetime
• The abundances of elements a star contains change as it
evolves
• The course of evolution is determined by its mass
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Stellar Evolution
All stars are formed from stellar
nurseries called nebulae
• A nebula breaks into smaller fragments as
it further collapses before contracting into
a protostar, or a very hot stellar core that
continues to gather gas and dust as it
contracts and increases in temperature
• Nuclear reactions like the proton-proton
fusion reactions occur at a temperature
of around 10 million K
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Protostars evolve into main sequence stars upon reaching

gravitational equilibrium
• Nuclear reactions form subatomic particles called
neutrinos and positrons
• An increase in pressure brought about by positrons and
neutrinos halt the contraction of the protostar
• When the contraction stops, the gravitational equilibrium is
reached, and the protostar has become a main sequence
star .
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• The sun (yellow dwarf) is believed to be in the middle

of the main sequence phase of stellar evolution. It will
remain as such for at least five billion years.
• Red dwarf is a low-mass main-sequence stars that
stays on the main sequence phase for at least 100
billion years due to the slow rate of hydrogen fusion.
• Red dwarfs are the smallest main sequence stars in our
universe that are able to convert normal hydrogen to
helium.
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Not all protostars become main sequence stars

• Brown dwarf stars are only able to fuel deuterium fusion

reactions
• Brown dwarfs are stars that are too low in mass to convert
normal hydrogen, instead converting deuterium (heavy
hydrogen). Due to this fact brown dwarfs are often referred to
as failed stars.
• They cool gradually and have an average lifespan of less
than a billion years.
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Main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars when all
hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted

1. Helium becomes the major component of the core.

• Proton-proton chain reactions use hydrogen to
produce helium
• Hydrogen fusion moves to the outer shell and the core's
surface
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2. Fusion stops when all hydrogen atoms in the core are

used up
• Pressure in the core decreases
3. Helium atoms or alpha particles are converted to carbon
via the alpha fusion processes
4. Temperature can increase to approximately 10 million K
• Pressure also increases
• Hydrogen is pushed away from the core
• The resulting expansion eventually transforms the main
sequence star to a red giant
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Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority
of helium in their cores are consumed

1. Hot and inert carbon core eventually becomes the white

dwarf
• Lower amounts of helium in the core decrease the rate of
the alpha processes
• Outer shell expands into space, forming a planetary
nebula
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Stellar Evolution
Low mass stars turn into white dwarf stars when the majority
of helium in their cores are consumed
2. A white dwarf’s composition depends on its predecessor’s
mass.
• A sun-sized main sequence star lacks energy to fuse
carbon and the white dwarf would mostly contain inert
carbon and some oxygen
• A smaller star will produce a white dwarf mostly
composed of helium and a bit of hydrogen
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Massive stars evolve into

multiple-shell red giant stars

1. A high mass star can reach pressure and temperature

levels favorable for carbon fusion
2. It evolves through several stages where heavier elements
are fused in the core and in the shells around it
eventually forming multiple shells
• Multiple elements formed in a series of reactions in the
following order:
• carbon → oxygen → neon → silicon → iron
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3. Elements lighter than iron can

be fused since the nucleus
produced has a mass lower
than the sum of their masses
• Missing mass is released as
energy
4. Stellar nucleosynthesis of
elements heavier than iron is
not possible due to its energy
requirement
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Massive stars evolve into multiple-shell red giant stars

A multiple-shell red giant

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Stellar Evolution
Elements heavier than iron are formed after a supernova
1. An exploding multiple-shell red giant is called a supernova
• Happens when its core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity
2. It releases massive quantities of high-energy neutrinos
• Neutrinos break nucleons and release neutrons
3. The generated neutrons are picked up by nearby stars
• Key step in the formation of elements heavier than iron
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Proving Stellar Evolution and Nucleosynthesis

1. The discovery of interstellar gas and dust in the early 1900s
2. The study of different stages of stellar evolution happening
throughout the universe
• Infrared radiation (IR) can be detected from different
stages of stellar evolution
• IR released by protostar is measured and compared to
IR from nearby area with zero extinction
• Approximation of energy, temperature and pressure
from IR
Key Points

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements

1 are formed within stars.

The star formation theory proposes that stars form due

2 to the collapse of the dense regions of a molecular cloud.

Stellar evolution is the process by which a star changes

3 during its lifetime.
Lesson 1.3

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions

in Stars
Objective
At the end write the nuclear fusion
of the 1 reactions that take place
lesson, you in stars.
should be
able to:
 Learn about It!

Stellar nucleosynthesis

- refers to the set of nuclear fusion reactions in a star’s

core and overlying layers

• Responsible for the formation of elements heavier than

those formed during big bang nucleosynthesis (H, He, Li and
Be)

• Nuclear reactions occur when the premature reaches a

temperature of around 10 million K.
 Learn about It!

How do stars evolve?

• Stellar evolution refers to the process in which a star
changes through its lifetime.

1. All stars are formed from stellar nurseries called nebulae.

2. Protostars evolve into either main sequence stars or

brown dwarf stars upon reaching gravitational
equilibrium.
 Learn about It!

3. Low mass main sequence stars evolve into red giant stars
when all hydrogen atoms in their cores get depleted, which in
turn evolve into white dwarf stars when the majority of
helium in their cores are consumed.
 Learn about It!

4. Massive main sequence stars evolve into multiple-shell red

giant stars. When its core can no longer produce energy to
resist gravity, it explodes into a supernova.
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How was the stellar nucleosynthesis theory

formulated?
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• Based on the atomic mass measurements of F. W. Aston,

Arthur Eddington proposed that stars get energy from the
nuclear fusion of H nuclei and that heavier elements are
formed inside stars.
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On September 1, 1877, English chemist,

physicist, and Nobel Laureate Francis
William Aston was born. Aston won the
1922 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his
discovery, by means of his mass
spectrograph, of isotopes, in a large
number of non-radioactive elements, and
for his enunciation of the whole number
rule.
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Eddington discovered in 1926

that the inward gravitational
pressure of a star must maintain
the outward radiation and gas
pressure to remain in
equilibrium. He also
demonstrated that there was an
upper limit on the mass of a star.
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• George Gamow derived the formula for mutual

electrostatic repulsion as well as the rate at which high-
temperature reactions occur.

i. Mutual electrostatic repulsion refers to the probability of

bringing two nuclei close enough such that their forces
overcome the Coulomb barrier.
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George Gamow was a Soviet

and American polymath,
theoretical physicist and
cosmologist. He was an early
advocate and developer of
Lemaître's Big Bang theory.
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• Hans Bethe
- elucidated how energy is
produced in stars via hydrogen
burning.

- was a German-American
theoretical physicist who won
the 1967 Nobel Prize in Physics
for his work on the theory of
stellar nucleosynthesis
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What set of reactions were predominantly dependent on

hydrogen as the starting material or common reactant?
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a. Hydrogen burning is a set of stellar reactions resulting in

the production of He-4 from H. These reactions are also
responsible for producing energy in stars.

b. It has two dominant processes: first, the proton-proton

chain reaction responsible for the formation of helium
cores; and second, the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO)
cycle.
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i. The proton-proton chain reaction is a chain reaction by

which a star transforms H into He, which occurs only when
the kinetic energy of the proton is highly sufficient to
overcome the Coulomb barrier.

3
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1. In the first step called beta-plus decay, two protons fuse to

form a deuteron (deuterium nucleus), a positron (a
positively-charged electron), and a neutrino.
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2. The next step, called deuterium burning, involves the

fusion of deuterium with another proton to produce He-3
and a γ.
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3. Lastly, two He-3 nuclei fuse to form He-4 and two H atoms.
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ii. The carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO) cycle is the dominant

source of energy in stars about 1.3 times more massive
than the sun. This is the main source of helium for such
stars upon recycling ¹²C and finishing the whole cycle.
There are six steps in the process primarily involving
repeated proton capture and beta-plus decay.
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1. First, C-12 fuses with a p to form N-13 along with γ (or

gamma rays) through a process called proton capture.
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2. Second, N-13 undergoes a spontaneous beta-plus decay

producing C-13 and subsequently releasing a positron
(converted from a p) and a neutrino.
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3. Third, C-13 fuses with hydrogen to yield N-14 along with γ.

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4. Fourth, another proton capture happens where N-14 fuses

with a p to yield O–15 and γ.
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5. Fifth, O-15 decays spontaneously to N-15, again yielding a

positron and a neutrino on the side.
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6. Lastly, N-15 fuses with H to form C-12 and He-4. This last p
capture reaction recycles ¹²C and produces ⁴He.
Learn about It!
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What set of reactions were predominantly dependent

on helium as the starting material or common
reactant?
 Learn about It!

a. Helium burning is a set of stellar nuclear reactions that

uses helium to produce energy and heavier elements such
as beryllium, oxygen, neon, and iron.

b. b. It has two dominant processes: first, the triple-alpha

process; and second, the alpha process.
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i. The triple-alpha process is a set of two-stage nuclear

fusion reactions that involve three alpha particles (or He-4
nuclei) eventually being converted to C-12. This process
creates the inert carbon core found in white dwarfs and
larger stars.

1. First, two alpha particles fuse to yield Be-8 and γ.

Learn about It!
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2. Then, Be-8 fuses with another alpha particle to form C-12

and γ. Be-8 is a very unstable isotope, hence, it either
decays or forms ¹²C.
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ii. The alpha process or alpha ladder is a set of nuclear

reactions that convert He into heavier elements. The
reactions consume He and ultimately ends at Fe. Fe-56 is
the most stable element, having the lowest mass to
nucleon (or mass number) ratio.
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1. Alpha processes increase the size and density of the core

by forming heavier elements.

2. Alpha processes are also vital in transforming main

sequence stars to supergiants.
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3. The nuclear reactions that are part of the alpha process

always involve the capture of an alpha particle and the
release of γ. For example, C-12 captures an alpha particle
(helium-4) to make O-16, then O-16 captures an alpha
particle to produce Ne-20.

4. The process continues where the product captures an extra

alpha particle until it produces the last atom in the series,
which is Fe-52.
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5. All atoms produced are from even-numbered elements

since the alpha processes start with even-numbered
elements such as carbon (Z = 6) and involve the
incorporation of helium (Z = 2).
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Key Points

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which elements

1 are formed in the cores and overlying layers of the stars
through nuclear fusion reactions.

Hydrogen burning is a set of stellar processes that

2 produce energy in the stars.

Helium burning is a set of stellar nuclear reactions that

3 uses helium to produce heavier elements such as
beryllium, oxygen, neon and iron.