Direct Method (2) Example-2. Give a direct proof that if “m” and “n” are both perfect squares, then “nm” is also a perfect square.
Answer
By definition of perfect square, it follows that there are integers “s” and “t” such that m=s2 and n=t2.
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Hence, mn = s2t2 = (st)2= k2.
So, product of “m” and “n” is also a perfect square.
2. Proof by Contraposition (1) Example-1. Prove by contraposition that if n is an integer and 3n+2 is odd, then n is odd.
Answer
p: 3n+2 is odd
q: n is odd
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By contraposition, we assume ¬q i.e. “n is even” and prove “¬p” i.e. “3n+2 is even”.
As we assume “n is even”, therefore n=2k.
If n=2k, then 3n+2=3(2k)+2=6k+2=2(3k+1) =2m.
Hence, 3n+2 is also even.
Proof by Contraposition (2) Example-2. Prove by contraposition that if n2 is even then n is also even.
Answer
p: n2 is even
q: n is even
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Contraposition: If n is odd then n2 is odd.
n=2k+1
n2=(2k+1) 2 = 4k2+4k+1 = 2(2k2+2k)+1 = 2m+1
Proof by Contraposition (3) Example-3. Prove by contraposition that if n = ab, where a and b are positive integers, then a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n.
Answer
p: n=ab
q: a ≤ √n or b ≤ √n
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By contraposition, we assume ¬q i.e. “a>√n and b>√n” and prove “¬p” i.e. “n≠ab” i.e.
So, if a>√n and b>√n, then ab>√n√n i.e. ab>n. Hence ab≠n. 3. Proof by Contradiction (1) Example-1. Prove that √2 is irrational. Answer Let p be the proposition “√2 is irrational.” To start a proof by contradiction, we suppose that ¬p is true i.e. √2 is rational. If √2 is rational, there exist integers a and b with √2 = a/b (where b ≠ 0 and “a” and “b” have no common factors). Because √2 = a/b, when both sides of this equation are squared, it follows that a2=2b2 i.e. a2 is even.
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We can prove that if “a2” is even then “a” is also even (proof by contraposition). As “a” is even, a=2c. Substituting a=2c in a2=2b2, we get (2c)2=2b2 => 4c2=2b2 => b2=2c2 i.e.b2 is even. We can prove that if “b2” is even then “b” is also even. So, we have proved “a” and “b” to be even i.e. “a” and “b” are both divisible by 2, or we can say that “a” and “b” have a common factor which was found out to be 2. But we assumed √2 = a/b, where “a” and “b” have no common factor. Hence our assumption turns out to be false i.e. there is a contradiction to our assumption. Therefore, our assumption that “√2 is rational” comes out to be false. This leads to the conclusion that “√2 is irrational”. Proof by Contradiction (2) Example-2. Prove by contradiction: For every integer n, if n2 is odd then n is odd.
Answer
• p: n2 is odd
• q: n is odd
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• In proof by contradiction, to prove p→q we assume p is true and prove that ¬q is false.
• ¬q: n is even
• If p→¬q is false then its contrapositive q→¬p is also false.
• Hence, we have to show that “If n is odd then n2 is even” is false.
• n = 2k+1 => n2 = (2k+1)2 is 4k2+4k+1 = 2(2k2+2k)+1 i.e. n2 is odd.
Proof by Contradiction (3) Example-3. Prove by contradiction that at least 4 of any 22 dates must fall on the same day of the week.
Answer
• p: at least 4 of any 22 dates must fall on the same day of the week.
¬p: at most 3 of any 22 dates must fall on the same day of the week.
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•
• As a week has 7 days, and we assign the assumed most number of dates (i.e. 3) to each day, then we can assign maximum 21 dates. But we have 22 dates, so there is a contradiction to our assumption of ¬p, therefore p is correct. 4. Proof by Mathematical Induction (1) Example-1: Show that 1+2+3+…+n = [n(n+1)] /2
Answer
Let P(k) be a proposition that the sum of first k positive integers is k(k+1)/2.
Basis step: P(1) is true, because 1 = [1(1+1)] /2.
Inductive step:
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if P(k) is true, 1+2+…+k = [k(k+1)] /2
if P(k+1) is true, 1+2+…+(k+1) = [(k+1)(k+2)] /2
We assume P(k) to be true, and add the next term i.e. (k+1) to both sides in P(k)
i.e. if 1+2+…+k+(k+1) = [k(k+1)/2]+(k+1) is true, then P(k+1) is also true.
LHS: 1+2+…+(k+1) = [(k+1)(k+2)] /2 = (k2+3k+2)/3 (as per given formula)
As 3(k2+k) is divisible by 3, then if P(k) is divisible by 3, then P(k+1) is also divisible by 3.
Proof by Mathematical Induction (3) Example-3. Prove by mathematical induction: For every positive integer, the expression 2n+2 + 32n+1 is divisible by 7. Answer Basis step: P(0) = 22 + 31 = 7 is divisible by 7. Inductive step: P(k)= 2k+2 + 32k+1 is true.
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P(k+1) = 2(k+1)+2 + 32(k+1)+1 = 2k+3 + 32k+3 = 2∙2k+2 + 9∙32k+1 = 2∙2k+2 + (2+7)∙32k+1 = 2∙2k+2 + 2∙32k+1 +7∙32k+1 = 2∙(2k+2 + 32k+1 ) + 7∙32k+1 . The first term 2∙(2k+2 + 32k+1 ) contains P(k) which we have assumed to be divisible by 7. The second term 7∙32k+1 is obviously divisible by 7. Hence, P(k) is divisible by 7 then P(k+1) is also divisible by 7. Proof by Mathematical Induction (4) Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality 2n<n! for n≥4.
Answer
• Basis step: 24=16 and 4!=24. So, 24<4!.
• Inductive step: Let 2k<k!.
Now, 2k+1 = 2∙2k < 2∙k!
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2∙k! < (k+1)k! as 2<k+1 (since k≥4) 2∙k! <(k+1)! as (k+1)k! = (k+1)! Therefore, 2k+1 <(k+1)! Proof by Mathematical Induction (5) Use mathematical induction to prove the inequality n<2n.
Strong MI (1) Example-1: Show that if “n” is an integer greater than 1, then “n” can be written as product of primes (or as a single integer).
Answer
Basis step: We have to prove for n>1 i.e. lowest value of “n” can be 2, therefore P(2) is basis step. P(2) is true, as 2 is a prime number itself.
Inductive step: We have to show that P(k) is true i.e. k (>1) can be written as product of primes.
We have two cases here:
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(i) k is a prime number, so P(k) is true.
(ii) k is not a prime number i.e. k is a composite number.
Every composite number can be written as product of two integers.
Therefore, k = x· y, where x and y are positive integers and x,y<k.
By hypothesis of strong induction, we assume P(2)⋀P(3)⋀…⋀P(k–1) are true.
Hence, we have P(x) and P(y) i.e. x and y both can be written as product of primes.
i.e. k can be written as product of primes of x and y i.e. P(k) is true as well. Strong MI (2) Example-2. Prove that every amount of postage of 12 cents or more can be formed using just 4 cents and 5 cent stamps.
Answer
Basis step:
P(12) is true as postage of 12 cents can be formed using three 4 cents stamps.
P(13) is true as postage of 13 cents can be formed using two 4 cents + one 5 cent stamps.
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P(14) is true as postage of 14 cents can be formed using two 5 cents + one 4 cent stamps.
P(15) is true as postage of 15 cents can be formed using three 5 cent stamps.
Inductive step:
We assume P(12)⋀P(13)⋀P(14)⋀P(15)⋀…⋀P(k–1) are true.
We have to prove P(k) to be true, where k≥16.
P(k) = P(k–4) + 4 cents, where k≥16, or P(k) = P(k–5) + 5 cents, where k≥17
