Republic of Yemen

University of Aden
Faculty of Engineering
Civil Engineering Department

Environmental Engineering-I&II
Water Supply Engineering
&
Sanitary Engineering
B3A/B3AE

Eng. Amani H. Sadaqa

2022-2023
 PART -I
WATER SUPPY ENGINEERING
Chapter-1: Introduction
Chapter-2: Quantity of water
Chapter-3: Sources of Water Supply
Chapter-4: Quality of water
Chapter-5: Pumps and pumping Stations
Chapter-6: Treatment of Water
Chapter-7: Distribution System
LECTURES IN WATER SUPPLY ENGINEERING Eng. Amani H. Sadaqa

CHAPTER (1): INTRODUCTION

1.1. Environmental Engineering

It is the branch of civil engineering concerned with the application of scientific and engineering
principles for protection of human health and environment. Environmental Engineering consists of:

1) Water Supply Engineering.

2) Sanitary Engineering (Wastewater Engineering).

1.2. Water Supply Engineering

It is related to demand of water for various purposes in human life, sources of water supply,
quantity and quality of water, treatment and distribution of water, etc.

1.3. Water Supply System

A complex of engineering works which aimed to collection, transmission, purification, storage and
deliver of water to the consumer with necessary quantity, quality and pressure, as shown in Fig (1.1).

1.4. Objectives of water Supply System

The objectives of water supply system are:

1) To supply safe and wholesome water to the consumers.
2) To supply water in sufficient quantities.
3) To supply water at convenient points and timings.
4) To supply water at reasonable cost to the users.

Fig. (1.1). Water and wastewater System.

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1.5. Studies Required for

For the proper design of water supply system these basic studies must be done :

1) Population (present and future).

2) Design period.
3) Rate of water consumption.
4) Resources of water.
5) Location.
6) Area properties (Planning of area, topography).

1.6. Water Supply System component/works

Municipal water supply system comprises of:
1) Collection works.
2) Transmission works.
3) Purification works (Treatment).
4) Distribution works.

1.7. Hydrology:
It is the science which deals with the movement of the water on the ground, under the ground,
evaporation from the land and water surfaces and transpiration from the plants. It also deals and includes
the way of going back the water to the atmosphere from where it precipitates.
The water which goes in atmosphere by evaporation and transpiration and again comes back in
the form of precipitation under favourable climatic conditions is known as hydrologic cycle. Fig 1.2.

Fig. (1.2). Hydrology cycle of water.

• Infiltration: The entrance of rain water or melted snow into the ground is known as infiltration.

• Percolation: The movement of water after entrance into the ground is known as percolation.

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CHAPTER (2): QUANTITY OF WATER

(Population Studies and water consumption)

2.1. Data to be collected:

Before designing the water supply project for a town or city, it is essential to determine the total
quantity of water required daily for various purposes (domestic, industrial, commercial, and public)
by the city. These based on two factors:

1. Population: The persons to be served by the scheme are calculated and estimate of future
population is calculated with the help of suitable method.

2. Rate of water consumption: The requirements of water for various uses are properly analysed
and the rate of consumption per head is calculated.

2.2. Population Forecasting Methods

It is essential to know the population of the past, investigate the population of the present to predicate
the population of the future.
The prediction of future population is essential in connection with, planning, design and management
of water supply works.

Methods of population production:

1. Arithmetical increase method.

2. Geometrical increase method.
3. Incremental increase method.
4. Graphical method.
5. Comparative method.
6. Master plan method or zoning method (Density Method).

Factors affecting population increase:

1. Birth rate.
2. Death rate.
3. Industrial and commercial activity
4. Transportation facilities.
5. War and diseases.
6. Immigration rate.
7. Migration rate.

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❖ Design Period: The future period for which a provision is made in the various service units of
water supply or sanitary engineering (wastewater engineering) are designed is known as the design
period.

1- Arithmetical Increase Method

𝜟𝒑
• Assumption: The population increase from decade to decade at constant rate. (i.e., 𝜟𝒕 = Ia, a constant).
• This method is suitable for large and old cities which have
reached their maximum development.
The future population Pf after n decade is thus given by:

Pf = P +n Ia

Where:
Pf : Future population at the end of n decades,
P: Present population,
Ia: Average increase for a decade.
n: Number of decades. Fig. (2.1). Arithmetical Increase Method.

Example 2.1: The following data have been noted from the census department.

Year 1940 1950 1960 1970

Population 8,000 12,000 17,000 22,500

Calculate the probable population in the year 1980, 1990 and 2000.

Solution:
Year Population Increase In Pop.
1940 8,000 --
1950 12,000 4,000
1960 17,000 5,000
1970 22,500 5,500
Total 14,500
Average, (Ia) 4,833
1. Probable population in various decades shall be as follows

Year Expected population

1980 P(n=1) = 22,500 + 1×4,833=27,333= 27,400 capita

1990 P(n=2) = 22,500 + 2×4,833=32,166 = 32,200 capita
2000 P(n=3) = 22,500 + 3×4,833=36,999 = 37,000 capita

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2- Geometric Increase Method

• Assumption: The percentage (%) increase in population from decade to decade is constant.
• This method is when the city is young and rapidly increasing.

𝑰𝒈 𝒏
Pf = P( 𝟏 + )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Where:

𝑰𝒈 : Average % increase in population per decade.

Fig. (2.2). Geometric Increase Method.

Example 2.2: Forecast the population of example 2.1 by means of geometrical increase method.

Increase in
Year Population % Increase. in pop.
population, Ia
1940 8,000 -- --
4000
1950 12,000 4,000 × 100 = 50%
8,000
5000
1960 17,000 5,000 × 100 = 41.7 %
12,000
5500
1970 22,500 5,500 × 100 = 32.4%
17,000
Total 14,500 124.1%
Average Ia = 4,833 𝑰𝒈 = 41.34%

Solution:
The population at the end of various decades shall be as follows:

Year Expected population

41.34 1
1980 22,500 ×(1 + ) = 31,802 = 31,800 capita
100
41.34 2
1990 22,500 ×(1 + 100
) = 44, 948 = 45,000 capita
41.34 3
2000 22,500 ×(1 + ) = 63,529 = 63,600 capita
100

3- Master plan Method OR Zoning Method`

Zoning is one of the very important features of modern city planning.
The entire city is divided in different types of districts (or zones) and each
zone is named according to the purpose it serves. (e.g., residential,
commercial, industrial, educational, agricultural zones etc), this will help the
engineers in solving the problems of water supply and sewerage, as shown
in Fig (2.3).

Fig. (2.3). Zoning Method.

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2.3. Rate of water consumption (water demand)

In the design of any water works projects, it is necessary to estimate the total daily amount of
water that required. This involves determining the per capita water consumption rate together with the
number of people will be served. Fig (2.4) shows total daily water consumption curve of city or for per
capita.

Total daily water consumption, city (Qav , m3/sec) = amount of water per capita, qav (liter / capita /per) X Pop.

Type of water Consumption

The demand of water may be classified into the following:

• Domestic use (50%): drinking, washing, bathing and cooking.
• Commercial use (15%): shopping centres, hotels, hospital.
• Industrial use (15%): Factories, offices.
• Public use (10%): Irrigation of gardens, flushing streets, fire protection.
• Loses and wastes (10%): Pump slippage, leakage in connections.

Factors affecting water consumption

1. Climatic conditions (day and night, summer and winter seasons).

2. Size of city.
3. Standard of living.
4. Metering system and Pricing.
5. Water pressure.
6. Water quality.
7. Existence of sewage system.
Hydrograph of Demand

Fig. (2.4). Water consumption curve.

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From the curve:

1. Area under the curve = Total water consumption /day.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑣𝑒 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 /𝑑𝑎𝑦

2. Average rate water consumption (Qav., m3/hr)= 24
= 24
, m3/hr

3. Total daily water consumption, city (Q, m3/sec)=Amount of water per capita(qav) X Population of Community (capita).

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑸𝒂𝒗 ,𝒎𝟑 /𝒅𝒂𝒚)

❖ Average annual per capita w.c (qav) = , (L/c/day).
𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒄)

𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒖𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝑸𝒂𝒗 ,𝒎𝟑 /𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓)

❖ Average annual per capita w.c (qav) = , (L/c/day).
𝑷𝒐𝒑𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑿 𝟑𝟔𝟓

4. Per capita water consumption(qav): It is the average quantity of water required by person in a day.
The unit is (litres per capita per day or L/c/d,)

Water Quantity Estimation

The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the water supply scheme has to be
designed require the following data:

• P =Future population at the end of the design period, (capita or c).

• qav = Average annual water consumption per capita (L/c/day).

• Qav = Average water consumption of city or area under study, (m 3/sec).

Qav = = P X qav , Take care of units, m3/sec

Example:

Determine the average water consumption in the city if the population in the city is 16,650,000 capita
and total water required is 1825 x106 m3/year.
Solution:
1825 X 106 𝑋 1000
− Average w.c = 16.65 X 106 𝑋 365 = 300 l/c/day.

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CHAPTER (3): SOURCES OF WATER

SUPPLY

3.1. Sources of water supply:

The sources of water which is available for water supply on the earth is classified into:
1) Surface sources. 2) Ground sources.

1- Surface water sources:

• Surface water is the water flows over the surface of the earth. Such as (Ponds and lakes; Streams
and rivers; Storage reservoirs; and Oceans “not used for water supply”).
• The quantity of surface water depends on amount of rainfall, which it is not uniform throughout the
year.
• The surface water contains large amount of impurities (suspended or dissolved).
• The surface water must be used after purification.

2- Ground sources:

• The water which gets stored in the ground water reservoirs through infiltration is known as
underground water. Such as (Springs, Infiltration wells; and Wells and Tube-wells).
• This water is generally pure, because it undergoes natural filtration during the percolation through
the soil pores.
• They are rich in dissolved salts, minerals, gases etc.

Wells: A well is defined as a deep artificial hole or pit made in the ground for the purpose of tapping
water which extend from the surface of the ground down into the water bearing strata. The water
bearing strata is termed as the aquifer. It is the main source of water supply.
The water is drawn by a pump, or using containers such as buckets, that are raised mechanically
or by hand.

• Aquifer, typically consist of gravel, sand, sandstone or

fractured rock, like limestone. These materials are
permeable because they have layer connected spaces that
allow water to flow through. There are two types of
aquifers, confined and unconfined, as shown in fig (3.3).

Fig. (3.3). Aquifers and wells.

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• Water bearing strata: An aquifer holding water is known as water bearing stratum. These are natural
storage reservoirs of water under the ground from which water can be withdrawn. The top of water layer
in these reservoirs is known as water table or (W.T) which is subjected to variations throughout the
year.

3.2. Choice of source of w/s :

It depends on the following factors:

1. Location of source: It should be near to the consumer’s area or town as far as possible. They may be
either surface or ground sources.

2. Quantity of water available:

• It should have sufficient quantity of water to meet the demand for that design period. Two or
more sources can be joined for required quantity.
• If possible, there should be sufficient supply for future extension of project.

3. Quality of water: The water should be safe and less quantity of impurity, and free from pathogenic
bacteria, germs and pollution.

4. Cost of the entire scheme:

• It should be able to supply water of good quality and quantity at the less cost.
• Lesser the impurities, lesser the treatment and cost are reduced.

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CHAPTER (4): QUALITY OF WATER

4.1. Water Quality

Water absolutely pure is not found in nature. Water picks up different types of materials as it passes
through the hydrological cycle. These particles make the water not pure and are called impurities. Water
quality deals with the type and quantity (amount) of impurities existing.

Objectives of studying water quality

1. Determine the degree of pollution.

2. Determine the design steps of water treatment process (drinking water, industrial water, swimming
ponds).
3. Assessment of treatment units.

4.2. Definition of Types of Water

• Potable water: Water safe to drink, pleasant in taste and usable for various purposes. This quality
is considered according to the WHO.

• Wholesome water: The water which is not harmful for human beings is called wholesome water.
It is neither chemically pure nor contains harmful matters to human health. Requirements of or
wholesome water:
1. It should be free from bacteria which may cause disease.
2. It should be colorless and sparkling which may be accepted by the public.
3. It should be tasty, odor – free and cool.
4. It should not corrode pipes.
5. It should be free from all objectionable matter.

• Polluted water: The water which consists of undesirable substances which make it unfit for
drinking and domestic uses.

• Contaminated water: Contamination means water contains harmful matter, like microorganisms,
chemicals, industrial or other wastes, large numbers of pathogens that cause diseases. It is always
be polluted but the polluted water may not be contaminated.

4.3. Quality of raw water depend on

1. Suspended solids.
2. Organic matter.
3. Micro-organisms.
4. Bacteria (pathogenic).
5. Alge.

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4.4. Impurities in water

Impurities in water is divided into:
1- Suspended impurities.
2- Colloidal impurities.
3- Dissolved impurities

4.5. Water analysis:

Laboratory tests are very important to evaluate water quality. These tests are can be divided into
the following:

− Physical tests: Color, Turbidity, Odor, Temperature, taste, Electrical Conductivity of a water sample.
− Chemical tests: Total solids, pH value, acidity, alkalinity, hardness, chlorides, sulphates, Iron,
nitrogen compound.

− Biological tests: Different type of microorganisms present in water.

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CHAPTER (5): PUMPS AND PUMPING

STATION

5.1. Pumps
It is a device which converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. It lifts water from a lower
level to a higher level and discharges it at higher elevation or higher pressure. The process of using a
pump is known as the pumping.

5.2. Necessity of Pumping

1. To lift water from the lakes, reservoir, or river to the treatment plant.
2. To force water from treatment plant to the distribution system and to elevated storage tanks.
3. Booster pumps may be needed to keep the pressure at desirable levels.
4. To raise the water from wells into the collection basin

5.3. Types of pumps

Pumps can be classified on the basis of the following:
a) Based on mechanical principles of operation:
1. Displacement pumps (Reciprocating pumps, Rotary pumps).
2. Centrifugal pumps.
3. Air lift pumps.
4. Miscellaneous pumps.
b) Based on the type of power required:
1. Electrically driven pumps
2. Gasoline engine pumps
3. Diesel engine pumps
4. Steam engine pumps
c) Based on the type of service:
1. Low lift pumps.
2. High lift pumps.
3. Deep well pumps.
4. Booster pumps.
5. Stand-by pumps.

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5.4. Total lift of pump

Total Dynamic Head (𝑯𝑻 ) or total lift against which the pump should work when water is being
pumped, includes: suction head (hs), delivery head (hd) and the total loss of head due to friction, entrance,
exits…etc. in suction and rising mains, as shown in Fig (5.1)

- Suction Head (hs): It is the difference in elevation between the

Rising
suction liquid level and the center-line of the pump. main

- Discharge Head(hd): It is the difference in elevation between the

center-line of the pump and point of discharged water surface in the hd
Pump
tank.
- Static Head (Hs): It is sum of suction head and discharge head.
Suction
- Friction head (hf): head of water must be supplied to overcome pipe
friction losses by flow of fluid. hs

- Minor head loss (hm): head of water must be added to loss of head
through fitting and valves. well

Fig (5.1). Total lift of pump.

Therefore, the total head or total lift : HT =Hs + HL

5.5. Horse- power of pump

The horse-power required for the pumps is worked out as follows:

Let, W = γ x Q = weight of water in kg/sec.

𝑾 ×𝑯𝑻 𝜸 ×𝑸 ×𝑯𝑻
− Then, Water Horse Power (W.H.P) = = ,
𝟕𝟓 𝟕𝟓
This is known as the water horse-power or W.H.P and brake horse-power or B.H.P is obtained by
dividing W.H.P with the efficiency of pump and motor.

𝜸 ×𝑸 ×𝑯𝑻
− Then, B.H.P = ,
𝟕𝟓𝛈𝟏 𝛈𝟐

Where,

− HP = total horse power of the pumps.

− γ = water density (1000 kg/m3).
− Head on pumps: Htotal = total head on the pump, HT = Hstatic + HLosses
− Hstatic = hs + hd
▪ Hstatic = total static head or difference in level between the lowest water level in the well and
full supply level of the tank.
− HLossesc = hmajor losses + hminor losses

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𝒇′ 𝐋 𝐯 𝟐 𝑳 𝒗𝟐
− hmajor losses = hfriction (hf) = head lost in friction. = = 4f . 𝟐𝒈 , m. (Darcy weibach)
𝟐𝒈 ɸ ɸ
𝑣2
− Hminor losses = hm = 𝐾𝑚 2𝑔 = 10 : 20 % of hfriction

− ƒ = Coefficient of friction.
− L = Length of pipe, m.
− V = velocity of flow, m/sec.
− g = Acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec2.
− d= ɸ = Diameter of pipe in, m.
− Q = Discharge, m3/sec.
− K = head loss coefficient.
− 𝜂1 = pump efficiency (70: 80%).
− 𝜂2 = motor efficiency (80: 90%).
− If not mentioned 𝜼𝟏 x 𝜼𝟐 = η = 0.6
𝝅𝒅𝟐 ∗𝑽 𝟒𝑸
− Then, Q = A*V = , OR , v =
𝟒 𝝅𝒅𝟐

5.6. Economical pumping mains diameter

For pumping a particular fixed discharge of water, it can be pumped through bigger diameter
pipe at low velocity or through lesser diameter pipe at very high velocity. But if the diameter of the pipe
is increased it will lead to the higher cost of the pipe line. On the other hand, if the diameter of the pipe
is reduced, the increased velocity will lead to higher frictional head loss and will require more horse-
power for the required pumping, thereby increasing the cost of pumping.
For obtaining the optimum efficiency, it is utmost necessary to design the diameter of the
pumping main, which will be overall most economical in initial cost as well as maintenance cost for
pumping the required quantity of water.
Following formula given by Lea is commonly used in determining the diameter of the pumping
mains:
D = 0.97 to 1.22√𝑸
Where
D: Economical diameter of pipe (m).
Q: Required discharge of water to be pumped in (m3/sec).
The above formula gives the optimum velocity of water flow between (0.8 to 1.35 m/sec).

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Example 4.1
A centrifugal is required to lift 2.5 m 3/sec of water to a height of 7 meter. Assuming total loss of
head in pipes as 0.3 m, calculate the minimum horse power of driving engine to run the pump if its
efficiency is 70%.

− Given data:
Q= 2.5 m3/sec, HT =7m +head loss = 7+0.3=7.3 m., ɳ=70%.

− Required:

- B.H.P of the pump=?

Solution:

- Total head against which pump has to lift the water = 7 +0.3 =7.3 m.
γ×Q ×H 1000 ×2.5 ×7.3
- W.H.P =
75 ×ɳ
=
75
= 243.3 HP.

γ ×Q ×H 243.3
- H.P =
75 ×ɳ
= 0.7
= 347.62 H. P = 348 H.P. Ans.

Example 4.2
Water has to be supplied to a town with one 100,000 population at the rate of 150 litres/capita/day
from a river 2000 m away. The difference in elevation between the lowest water level is the sump and
reservoir is 36 m. If the demand has to be supplied in 8 hours, determine the size of the main and the
B.H.P. of the pumps required. Assume maximum demand as 1.5 times the average demand. Assume f
= 0.0075 velocity in the pipe 2.4 m/sec and efficiency of pump 80%.

− Given data:
- Population of the town = 1× 105, Per capita demand = 150 liter/day., Qmax.demand = 1.5 Qav,
f = 0.0075, v = 2.4 m/sec, Efficiency of pump = 80%

− Required:
- Diameter of the pipe (d)
- B.H.P. of the pump.

Solution:

- As the full demand is to be supplied through pumps in 8 hours

1× 105 ×150 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠/𝑑𝑎𝑦
Therefore, the average demand of the town, Qav = = 0.5208 m3/sec.
103 ×8 ×60×60

- Maximum daily demand, Qmax,demand = 1.5 Qav = 1.5 × 0.5208 = 0.781 m3/sec.
- The maximum velocity in the pipe is given as 2.4 m/sec, cross-section area of the pipe required is

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𝑄 0.781 𝑚3/𝑠𝑒𝑐
A= = = 0.325 m2.
𝑣 2.4 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

4 ×𝐴 4 ×0.325
The diameter of the pipe, d = √ =√ = 0.643 m, say 65 cm
𝜋 𝜋

- The total lift is given as 36 m.

𝟒𝒇× 𝐋 𝐯 𝟐 = 𝟒×𝟎.𝟎𝟎𝟕𝟓× 𝟐𝟎𝟎𝟎×(𝟐.𝟒)𝟐
Friction loss of head in the pipe, hf = = 27.099 m.
𝟐𝒈 𝒅 𝟐×𝟗.𝟖𝟏× 𝟎.𝟔𝟓

Net total lift against which has to lift water, HT = 36 + 27.099 = 63.099 m.
γ ×Q ×H 1000 ×0.781 ×63.099
- B.H.P. of the pump =
75 ×ɳ
= 75 ×0.8
= 821.345 = 822 H.P. Ans.

Example 4.3
From a clear water reservoir 3.0 m deep and maximum water level at 30 m, water is pumped to an
elevated reservoir at 75 at the constant rate of 9,00,000 litres/hour. The distance is 1500 m. Give the
economic diameter of the rising main and the water horse power of the pump. Neglect minor losses and
take f = 0.01.

Solution:
9× 105
- Required discharge of the pump = 9× 105 litres/hours =
60 ×60 ×103
= 0.25 m3/sec.

- Using Lea’s formula for the economical diameter of the rising mains,

Deco.= 1.22√𝑄 = 1.22√0.25= 0.61 m.

𝑄 0.25
- Velocity in the pipe =
𝐴
=𝜋
(0.61)2
= 0.855 m/sec.
4

- Head against which pump has to lift the water = (75 -30 + 3) = 48 m.
- 𝟒𝒇× 𝐋 𝐯 𝟐
Friction losses in the pipe, hf = ,(where, d =D =0.61)
𝟐𝒈 𝒅
4×0.01× 1500×(0.855)2
= = 3.665 m.
2×9.81× 0.61

- Now the total head against which the pump has to work= HT= (48 + 3.66) = 51.665 m.
γ ×Q ×H 1000 ×0.25 ×51.665
- Water Horse power of the pump (W.H.P) =
75
= 75
= 172.22 =173 H.P.
Ans.

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CHAPTER (6): TREATMENT OF WATER

(Purification works)

6.1. Water Purification works

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemical, biological contaminations,
suspended solids and gases from contaminated water.

6.2. Objectives of water treatment

1. To remove pathogenic organism.

2. To remove unpleasant taste and odor.
3. To remove color and turbidity.
4. To remove dissolved minerals.
5. To remove harmful chemicals.
6. To remove hardness.
7. To make water potable.

The degree of treatment depends on:

1- Characteristics and quality of the available water.
2- Quality requirements for the intended use after treatment.

6.3. Treatment Processes

Water treatment plants (WTP) consists of many units which are designed to remove the impurities
of different types and sizes. The most common type of these plants is the conventional treatment plant,
which consists of:

1. Intake, (low pump station).

2. Screen (Coarse and fine),
3. Coagulation and flocculation, (Chemical Process)
4. Sedimentation, (Physical Process)
5. Filtration, (Clean Water)
6. Disinfection, (clean and safe water)
7. Storage water with high pump station (Enough Flow and Pressure).

Fig (6.1). shows the layout of conventional water treatment plant.

Distribution Storag
e
Fig. (6.1). layout of conventional water treatment plant (WTP).

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6.4. Functions of Water Treatment Units (impurities removal):

The typical functions of each unit operations are given in the following table:

Unit treatment Function (impurity removal)

To remove floating matter (bushes, dead animals, leaves, branches
Screening
of tress)
Plain sedimentation Suspended impurities as silt, clay, sand etc.
Coagulation (mixing) To mix the coagulant with the raw water.
To give the time needed to the reaction between water and chemical
Flocculation
to be done,
Secondary sedimentation To remove suspended impurities and fine suspended matter
▪ To remove remaining colloidal matter, taste, odor, color, iron and
Filtration manganese.
▪ Remove of 90% of bacteria.
Aeration and chemical use Dissolved gases, tastes and odors.
Softening Hardness.
Disinfection To remove all bacteria especially pathogenic.

➢ Treatment Process

1. Screens:
Definition: The screen is a device with openings uniform in size. It is placed across the flow to
retain floating particles. It serves as a protective unit.
Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, microstrainer, depending on the size of material
removed. Screens may be located at the intake structure, raw water pump station, or water treatment
plant, as shown in Fig (6.2).

Fig (6.2). Screening chamber.

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2. Sedimentation
A. Plain sedimentation:
When the impurities are separated from suspending fluid by action of natural forces alone i.e. by
gravitation and natural aggregation of the settling particles, the operation is called plain sedimentation.

Type of sedimentation tanks:

1. Shape: rectangular, circular, as shown in Fig (6.4).

2. Direction of flow: horizontal, vertical.
3. Plain sedimentation, sedimentation with coagulation (chemical).

The sedimentation is affected by:

1. Velocity of flowing water.

2. Viscosity of water.
3. Size, shape and specific gravity of particles.
4. Detention time.
5. Inlet and outlet arrangements.

B. Sedimentation with coagulation:

By addition of certain chemicals these matters are coagulated into larger once which possess higher
hydraulic settling velocity. Detention time (2-3) hr.

➢ Coagulation:
Definition: Adding a chemical substance doesn’t affect the chemical and physical characteristics of
water to react with the natural alkalinity of water forming gelatinous hydracids. Detention time from
(20-60) sec.
▪ Type of coagulants
1. Aluminum sulphate or Alum [Al2(SO4)3 .18 H2O].
− Easy to use.
− Cheap.
− Available.
2. Sodium Aluminate [Na2 Al2 O3].
3. Ferric coagulants.
4. Chlorinate copper.

▪ Purpose of coagulation:
1- Reduce of detention time.
2- Increase filtration rate.
3- Increase sedimentation efficiency (85-95%).
4- Improve water quality.

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➢ Flocculation:

Definition: The Attraction of small suspended solids to the surface of the gelatinous hydracids forming
Flocs. So that, causes the particles to increase in mass and settle at a fast rate. Given enough time for
the result of action (flocs) to grow and collect very fine particles. Detention time: from (20-40) min.as
shown in Fig (6.3).

Fig. (6.3). Section plan in flocculation tank (water moves horizontally).

Fig. (6.4). Rectangular and circular tanks.

3. Filtration:
Is the separation of non-settleable solids from water by passing it through a porous media (as
sand or other granular materials), this process is known as filtration. Filtration also removes from water
color taste, odor, iron, manganese and micro-organisms such as bacteria, as shown in Fig (6.5).

Fig. (6.5). Filtration tank.

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4. Aeration:
It is the process of bringing the water in intimate contact with air while doing so; the water
absorbs oxygen from the air. The carbon dioxide gas is also removed up to 70% and up to certain
extent bacteria are also killed.

5. Hardness:
Hard water: The water containing sulfates, chlorides and bicarbonate of calcium and magnesium
dissolved in it. These materials react with soap, causing a precipitation which appears as a foam or lather
on the water surface.

Type of hardness:

1) Temporary hardness: Is also known as the carbonate hardness (CH) it is due to the presence of
(HCO−
3 ) of calcium and magnesium. It can be removed by boiling or by adding lime to the water.

2) Permanent hardness: Is also Known as the non- carbonate hardness (NCH) and it is due to the
presence of sulphates(𝑆𝑂42−) chlorides( Cl−) and nitrates (𝑁𝑂3−) of calcium and magnesium. It cannot
be removed by simple boiling the water. It requires special treatment of water softening

6. Softening (hardness removal):

The removal or reduction of hardness from the water is known as water softening.
Methods of water softening

1. Removal of temporary hardness:

Temporary hardness are: Mg(HCO3)2 and Ca(HCO3)2 .

If the water contains temporary hardness, it can be removed by the following methods:
1- By boiling.
2- By addition of lime [Ca(OH)2] water.

2. Removal of permanent hardness:

Permanent hardness are:
-Magnesium sulphates MgSO4
-Calcium sulphates CaSO4
-Magnesium chlorides MgCl2
-Calcium chlorides CaCl2
Its removal is difficult and required special methods and equipment for its removal. The following
are the common methods adopted for the removal of permanent hardness from water.

1- Lim-soda process.
2- Base-Exchange process.
3- Demineralization process

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7. Disinfection:
The filtered water may normally contain some harmful disease producing bacteria in it. These
bacteria must be killed in order to make the water safe for drinking. The process of killing these bacteria
is known as Disinfection or Sterilization, or, is the killing of microorganisms causing diseases.

Methods of disinfection
1. Treatment with chlorine (Chlorination).
2. Treatment with Ozone (Ozonation, O3).
3. Treatment with Ultraviolet Light (UV).
4. Boiling of water.

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CHAPTER (7): DISTRUBUTION SYSTEM

7.1. Distribution system

To deliver water to consumer with appropriate quality, quantity and pressure by means of a
network of distribution system, which consists of:
− Pipes.
− Storage reservoirs
− Pumps.
− Other related accessories as (meters, valves, hydrants, etc.)

❖ Purpose of distribution system

1. Distribute potable water for consumption all over the served city in required quantities, pressure
and quality.
2. Save water for firefighting at high rate.

7.2. Methods of distribution system

Depending upon the topography of the country, any one of the following three methods may be
adopted for the distribution of water.
1. Gravity system.
2. Pumping system.
3. Combined system (Gravity and pumping system).

1- Gravity system
▪ The water is conveyed through pipes by gravity only.
▪ The source of water supply is situated at a higher level than that of distribution areas, so that the
desired pressure can be maintained. Fig. (7.1)

2- Pumping system
▪ Used:
− The source of water supply is lower than the distribution area.
− The source cannot maintain minimum pressure required.
▪ Pumps are used to developed the necessary head (pressure) to distribute water to the consumer and
storage reservoirs. Fig. (7.1)

3- Combined system (Gravity and pumping system)

▪ Both pumps and storage reservoirs are used.

▪ The treated water is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir. The excess water during
low consumption remains in the elevated reservoir and it is supplied during the peak period. Fig. (7.1)

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Gravity system. Pumping system.

Combined system.
Fig (8.1). Methods of distribution system.

7.3. Planning of water distribution systems

There are four main methods of laying distribution pipes, as shown in Fig (8.2):
1- Branching system (Tree or dead end).
2- Grid-iron system.
3- Circular or ring system.
4- Radial system.

Grid-iron system. Grid-iron systems

Circle system. Radial system.

Fig. (8.2) Planning of water distribution system.

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7.4. Design of distribution system.

1) Design procedure:
1. The layouts of the distribution pipes are prepared and the position of valves, fire hydraulic, etc.
is also marked on it.
2. The reduced levels (RL) of the town at various points are marked on the plan.
3. The total population to be served with the pipe line is marked on the plan.
4. The minimum water pressures required at the tail (lower) end and near the highest buildings of
the city are determined and noted on the plan.

2) Hydraulic design of pressure pipes:

▪ Design criteria:
𝜋𝐷2 𝑉
− Q=AxV=
4

− Velocity (V): (0.6 -1.5) m/sec

− V  0.6 m/sec to prevent sedimentation.
− V  1.5 m/sec to prevent non scouring and high head loss.

ℎ𝐿
− Hydraulic gradient: slope of H.G.L (energy line) = S = (1-3 m/Km).
𝐿

▪ Methods of calculating of head losses in pipes:

4𝑓 𝐿 𝑉 2
1- Darcy-Weisbach-Formula hL= 2𝑔𝐷

Where:

hf : losses of head due to friction, m.

L: length of pipe, m.
f: friction factor, dimension less.
D: dimeter of the pipes, m.
V: mean velocity of flow through the pipe, m/sec.
g: acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/sec2.

2- Hazen-William’s formula

V= 0.85 CH R0.63 S0.54 OR V= 0.355 CH D0.63 S0.54

Where:
V: velocity of flow, m/sec.
CH : Hazen-william coefficient (100-150), can be taken from the table (8.1).
𝐷
R: hydraulic radius= R = 4

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𝜋𝐷 2 𝑉
As the discharge (Q) flowing in the pipe is filling, (Q= ). By applying the velocity according
4
to the Hazen – William’s formula, then the discharge is written as:

𝐷 𝜋𝐷2 OR Q= 0.278 CH D2.63 S0.54

Q= 0.85 CH ( 4 )0.63 S0.54 x 4

Table (8.1). Value of CH

Material of the pipe Value of CH
Cast Iron - new 130
5 years 120
10 years 110
20 years 90 -100
30 years 75 - 90
Concrete 120 – 140
PVC 150
Asbestos cement 120 - 140

Example 7.1
Find the head losses due to friction for a pipe with length of 1500 m and diameter of 400 mm if
the velocity of the flow equal 1 m/sec, using:
1- Darcy-weisbach eq. (4f=0.025)
2- Hazen-william (c=100).

Given data: L= 1500 m, D = 400 mm = 0.4 m, v = 1m/sec.

Required: Head losses by
− Darcy-weisbach eq. (4f=0.025)
− Hazen-william (C=100).
Solution:
4𝑓 𝐿 𝑉 2 0.025 𝑥 1500 𝑥 (1)2
1- Darcy-weisbach = hL= = =4.778 m.
2𝑔𝐷 2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.4

2- Hazen-william = V= 0.355 CH D0.63 S0.54 1m/sec = 0.355 x 100 x (0.4)0.63S0.54

0.54 1 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
S= √(0.355 𝑥 100 (0.4)0.63 = 3.922 x10-3

ℎ𝐿
S= hL = S x L = 3.922 x10-3 x 1500 m = 5.88 m
𝐿

 hL = 5.88 m Ans.

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Example 7.2
Water is to be supplied to a town of 2 x105 population from a source 1.5 km away. Per capita
demand of the town is 180 l/c/day. If the town is situated at a higher level than the source and the
difference in elevation between the lowest water in the source to the point of inlet at the water works is
27 m. Determine the size of the rising main and B. H.P. of the pump. Assume the following data:

− The value of CH = 110,

− The pump works for 18 hours,
− Velocity through the pressure pipe = 1.25 m/sec.
− Efficiency of pump = 70 %.

Given data: P= 2 x 105, L = 1.5 km= 1.5 x 103 m, qav= 180 l/c/day.
The pump work for 18 hours.
Required: - Draising main =?
H.P =?
Solution
2𝑥105 𝑐𝑎𝑝.𝑥 180 𝑙/𝑐/𝑑𝑎𝑦
− Quantity of water required by town = = 0.556 m3/sec.
103 𝑥18 𝑥60 𝑥 60
𝜋𝐷2 𝑉 4𝑄 4 𝑥 0.556
− Diameter of raising main Q= D =√𝜋 𝑉 =√ 𝜋 𝑥 1.25 =0.753 m ,D = 0.8 m. Ans.
4
𝑄 4 𝑥𝑄 4 𝑥 0.556
− Check for velocity = V = = = = 1.11 m/sec. V = 1.11m /sec.
𝐴 𝜋 𝑥𝐷2 𝜋 𝑥(0.8)2

− Loss of head by Hazen-william V = 0.355 CH D0.63 S0.54

0.54 1.11 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

1.11 m/sec = 0.355 x 110 x (0.8)0.63 x S0.54 S= √(0.355 𝑥 110 (0.8)0.63 = 1.75 x10-3

ℎ𝐿
− S= hL = S x L = 1.75 x10-3 x 1.5 x 1000 = 2.62 m,  hL = 2.62 m.
𝐿

− Head loss in raising main = = 2.62 m

− Total head lift by pump = Hs + HL = 27 m +2.62 m = 29.62 m.

γ ×Q ×H 1000 ×0.556 ×29.62

− B.H.P = = = 313.7 HP B.H.P = 313.7 HP Ans.
75 75 x 0.7

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Environmental Engineering-II
Sanitary Engineering
B3A/B3AE

Eng. Amani Sadaqa

2022-2023
 PART -II
SNITARY ENGINEERING
Chapter-1: Introduction
Chapter-2: Collection and Conveyance of Refuse
Chapter-3: Pumping of Sewage
Chapter-4: Quantity of Sanitary sewage and Storm water
Chapter-5: Design of sewer
Chapter-6: Characteristics of Sewage
Chapter-7: Treatment of Water
LECTURES IN SANITARY ENGINEERING Eng. Amani H. Sadaqa

CHAPTER (1): PART- 2- SANITARY

ENGINERRING ‫ــــ‬INTRODUCTION

1.1. Sanitary Engineering:

It is defined as the branch of public health engineering deals with the collection, conveyance,
treatment and safe disposal off wastes for preventing the communicable diseases.

1.2. Objectives of Sanitary Engineering:

1- To maintain the environment and to prevent the effect of sewage to public health in general.
2- To prevent the effect of disposal of sewage on land or nearby water bodies from pollution.
3- To prevent the environment from mosquitoes, flies, bacteria etc.
4- To dispose the human excreta to a safe place before it starts decomposition.

1.3. Definitions of some common terms, used in sanitary engineering

▪ Sewers: Sewers are underground pipes which carry the sewage to a point of disposal. There are different
types of sewers according to its location as the following:
− House sewer: is a pipe conveying sewage from the plumbing system of a single building to a
common sewer or point of immediate disposal
− Lateral Sewer: The sewer collecting the sewage directly from the building and discharging to
the branch sewer is called lateral sewer.
− Sub-main or Branch Sewers: is a one which collects the sewage from lateral sewers and
discharges into main sewer.
− Main Sewers: is a one which collects the sewage from two or more sub-main sewers.

− Trunk Sewers: is a one which collects the waste water or sewage from two or more main sewers.

− Combined Sewer: A sewer carries domestic sewage and storm water is called combined sewer.

Fig. 1. Classification of sewers. 28

LECTURES IN SANITARY ENGINEERING Eng. Amani H. Sadaqa

▪ Sewage: The liquid waste generated from various activities: residential, industrial, commercial and
public areas, due to the consumption of potable water.

▪ Storm Water: It is the surface runoff obtained during and after the rainfall which enters sewers
through inlet.

▪ Sanitary Sewage:

− It is the sewage which includes liquid wastes of domestic and industrial places, and being extremely
foul it should be carried through underground conduits.

▪ Sullage: It is the waste water coming from bathrooms and kitchens without human excreta.

▪ Manhole: An opening by which a man may enter or leave a drain, a sewer or other closed
structure for inspection, cleaning and other maintenance operation fitted with a suitable cover. It
uses to interconnected two or more sewers.

▪ Garbage: It consists of solid or semi solid wastes, food end products such as vegetables, waste
meat, and peelings of fruits etc.
▪ Rubbish: It includes various types of solid waste such as paper, broken furniture, pottery, waste
building material, leaves, etc.

1.4 Sanitary Works

Sanitary Engineering starts at the point where water supply engineering ends. All the taps,
fixtures or appurtenance that receive water for the use, discharge into the wastewater systems. Sanitary
engineering starts with the collecting system and ends with the disposal of wastes.

Sanitary works can be classified into:

1. Collection works,
2. Treatment works, and
3. Disposal work.

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CHAPTER (2): COLLECTION AND

CONVEYANCE OF REFUSE

2.1 Methods of collection

There are two systems for collection, conveyance and disposal of wastewater are:
1. Conservancy System,
2. Water-Carriage System.

1. Water-Carriage System: In this system, the water is used as medium to convey the sewage to
the point of its treatment or final disposal, therefore it is called Water-Carriage System. In this
system the excremental matters are mixed up in large quantity of water and taken out from the city
through properly designed sewerage systems.

The sewage so formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9% of water and the remaining 0.1%
of solid matters. All these so solids remain in suspension in the sewage and don’t change the specific
gravity of the water, therefore all the hydraulic formulae can be directly used in the designed of sewage
systems and the treatment plants.

2.2 Sewerage Systems

The entire system of collection of sewage and conveyance of sewage to treatment unit by using
sewers is called sewerage system.
The sewerage systems are classified as follows:
1. Combined system.
2. Separated system.
3. Partially separated system.

1. Combined system: When only one set of sewers is laid, carrying both the sanitary sewage and storm
water, it is called combined system.

2. Separate system: In this system two sets of sewers are laid. The sanitary sewage is carried through
sanitary sewers while the storm sewage is carried through storm sewers. The sewage is carried to
the treatment plant and storm water is disposed of to the river.

3. Partially separate system: A portion of storm water is allowed to enter in the sewers carrying
sewage, and the remaining storm water flows in separate set of sewers, it is called partially separate
system.

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CHAPTER (3): PUMPING OF SEWAGE

3.1 Necessity of pumping

Sewage is required to be pumped because of any of the following reasons:

1. When basements are provided in the buildings, the sewage is pumped to the sewer line.
2. To lift the sewage of low-lying area or depression and throw it into the sewer at higher level.
3. To lift the sewage in flat areas at certain intervals to avoid expansive excavation and to lay sewer at
reasonable depth below ground level.
4. If a ridge intervenes, sometimes it is economical to pump the sewage, instead of providing a tunnel.
5. To lift the sewage from outfall sewer to treatment works or natural steam or river, if the outfall
sewer is at low level.

3.2 Problems in sewage pumping

The sewage pumping is not simple similar to the water pumping due to the following reasons:

1. Sewage has foul characteristics.

2. Sewage content a lot of suspended and floating matters.
3. Corrosion and erosion of parts of the pumps due organic and inorganic waste.
4. Sewage contains diseases bacteria which may causes health hazard to the workers.
5. Variation in sewage quantity.
6. Flooding in case of pumping failure.

3.3 Pumping Stations

This station is to lift the level of the flowing wastewater in the sewer system from low elevations to
adequate heights.. The station should be provided with good ventilation. The capacity of P.S is
determined by the present and future sewage flows based on a designed period of 15 years. A brief
description of some requirements for constructing and designing of P/S is given below:
1) Location:
(a) The topographic condition of the city should be thoroughly studied to locate the best site of
pumping station.
(b)If the quantity of sewage is very large, the site should be near the point of disposal or at such place
where during emergencies, the sewage can be directly disposed off.
(c) Provision should be made to pump all the sewage which will be received during worst conditions of
rains.

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2) Type of pumping stations: Pumping stations are provided with two separate wells, wet wells
for receiving the incoming sewage and dry wells for installing the pumps. The wet and dry well may
be of any of the following types:
− Circular with central dry well and peripheral wet well.
− Rectangular with dry and wet wells adjacent to each other.
− Circular with a dividing wall to separate the dry and wet well.

3) Elements of pumping station: It includes the following component:

− Grit channel.
− Screen, coarse and fine.
− Sump well or wet well.
− Pump room or dry well.
− Motor room.
− Inlet, and Rising mains to an outlet.
− Emergency exit pipe.
− Pumps.
− Automatic starter.
− Other accessories such as starters, pipes, valves, floating-switch arrangements, flow recorders,
emergency overflows, ventilation arrangements etc. installed in motor room. Fig. (3.1) shows a
typical sewage pumping station.

A grit chamber must be provided before the pump, to remove the grit, sand gravel etc., so that
they may not cause damage to the pumping machinery, Coarse floating matters should also be
removed by screens before the pumping.
Reflux-valve or non-return valve should be provided at the beginning of rising mains to
prevent the backflow of sewage when pumps are stopped.
Gate valves, in sewer line gate valve should be provided for closing the sections during repairs.

Rising
main

Fig. (3.1). A typical sewage pumping station.

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4) Pumps for sewage pumping: Pumps should be self-priming type; they can be classified as:

− Centrifugal pumps.
− Reciprocating pumps
− Pneumatic ejector, and
− Air lift pumps.
Generally centrifugal pumps are most suitable for pumping large quantity of sewage, also
these pumps can be easily installed in sumps, and can easily transport the suspended matter present in
the sewage. While Pneumatic ejectors are used for pumping or lifting small quantities of sewage.
The pneumatic ejectors can be provided under the following situations:

1. For lifting the sewage from the basement of large buildings upto the street sewer.
2. When the sewage from low-lying areas is to be lifted up to main sewer and the construction of
pumping station is not economical.
3. When centrifugal pump may be clog due to small quantity of sewage.

5) Power for pumps: Following machines are used to create power for the working of pumps:

1. Steam engine,
2. Diesel engine,
3. Gasoline engine,
4. Electric motor.

6) Power of the driving unit

The power of the driving units to be installed on the sewage pumping station depends on the
following:
1. The maximum total head under which pumping is to be done including loss of heads, H T.
2. The maximum pumping rate or discharge of pumping, Q.
3. The efficiency of the pumps, 𝜂𝑝 .
4. The efficiency of the driving unit, 𝜂𝑚 .
5. The factor of safety required for operating stand by pumps in case of emergency.

4𝑓.𝐿𝑉 2
The loss of head due to friction is determined by hydraulic formula: 𝐻𝑓 = 2𝑔𝑑

𝑤.𝑄 .𝐻𝑇
The B.H.P of the driving unit is directly calculated by the formula. B.H.P =75𝜂
𝑝 𝜂𝑚
Where, Q = Discharge in m3/sec.,
w = Density of water in kg/m3,
HT = Total water head in m, HT =Hstatic +Hfriction + Hminor +Hresidual
Hstatic =The differences between the static levels of the liquid in the suction sump, i.e., the wet
well and the highest point on the discharge side makes static head.
Hresidual = Residual pressure at the end (main sewage P/S).
𝜂𝑝 = Efficiency of the pump,
𝜂𝑚 = Efficiency of the driving engine of motor.
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LECTURES IN SANITARY ENGINEERING Eng. Amani H. Sadaqa

Notes:

1. Total pumping capacity of the pumping station must be equal to the peak sewage flow, Qpeak.

2. The volume of wet well is given by: V= Q. T

Where, V = Effective volume of wet well, m3.

T = Time for one pump cycle, minutes.
Q = Pumping rate, m3/min.
The value of ‘T’ is related to the number of starts per, the value of ‘T’ in design should be taken
between (5 – 20 min), it should not be greater than 30 min.to avoid septic conditions.
Cycle time = 5 - 10 min for small pumps;
= 15 – 20 min for large pumps.
3. The effective depth of sewage in the wet well is 1.5 – 3 m.
4. The velocity of flow in the rising main should be between (0.6 – 1.5) m/sec. As the same time
2m/sec should be avoided.
5. Stand-by pump must be provided at P.S, usually more than one pump is installed (provided 3 pumps
for small capacity P/S and 5 pumps for large P/S, including standby).
6. The pump shall be fitted with an automatic on/off level control.

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Problem 3.1:

1) A town with a population of 40,000 has a water supply of 150 liter/head day. The system of sewage
is separate and the sub-soil condition are fairly dry, surface drainage being provided. The sewage enters
the pumping station through the low-level sewer at R.L.45 and leaves through the high-level sewer at
R.L. 54,
Making suitable assumptions, calculate
a) Size of the rising main,
b) Size of the pump and
c) B.H.P. of the pump required.
d) Draw a net sketch for the pumping station showing a sectional elevation.
In solving the problem, assume the following assumptions:
− D.W.F is 80 % of water supply per capita
− Swage pumps are capable of handling upto 6 times the D.W.F.
− Length of the rising main =150 m.
− Rising main also drains the sump.
− Depth of the sump well = 3 m.
− Velocity in the rising main = 1.2 m/sec.
− Minimum time of pumps running continuously = 15 minutes.
− Loss of head in bents, etc. 0.3 m.
− Pump efficiency = 60 %.
− Three pumps work, out of which any two will take the maximum discharge, the third acting as a
standby.

Solution
1. Complete design for sewage pump station
a. Design flow:
0.8 𝑥 40𝑥 103 𝑥 150
− D.W.F, Qavg. = 80 % x Pop. x Rw/s = = 0.0555 m3/sec.
103 𝑥24 𝑥60 𝑥60

 Max. Flow, Qpeak = 6 x 0.0555 m3/sec. = 0.333 m3/sec.

Qpeak =0.333 m3/sec. Ans.

b. Design of rising main

− Peak flow, Qpeak = V x A, and velocity of the flow, V = 1.2 m/sec.
𝑄 0.333 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐.
 Cross-sectional area of the rising main, A = = = 0.278 m2.
𝑉 1.2 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐

𝜋𝐷2 4 𝑥 0.278 m2
A= D=√ = 0.56 m = 0.6 m
4 𝜋

Provide rising main diameter, Dcom. = 0.6 m = 600 mm.

𝑄𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 0.333
− Check for velocity actual, Vact = = 𝜋(0.6)2 = 1.18 m/sec. OK.
𝐴
4
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c. Design of sump well

Net storage of the sump, V total = [(Max.quantity of sewage collected in 15 min) + (Quantity of sewage
in the rising main)]
Vtotal = [ (Qpeak x T) + (Arising main x Length of rising main)] =
𝜋0.62
= [(0.333 m3/sec. x 15 x 60 sec.) +( ( )x 150)] = [300 m3 + 42.41 m3 ]= 342.411 say 342
4

m3.

Vtotal =342 m3.

Adopting 3 N0s. sumps, two taking the maximum flow, and the third acting as a standby.
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 342
Net storage of one sump, Vone sump = = = 171 m
3.
2 2
Providing sump well of circular section,
𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 171
Cross-section of sump, Awet = = = 57 m2.
𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑓. 3

4 𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 4 𝑥 57𝑚2
Hence diameter of sump, Dsump = √ =√ = 8.52 m = 8.50 m. Ans.
𝜋 𝜋

d. Pump requirements
− No. of pumps = 2 working pumps + one stand-by pump
𝑉𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 342
− Each pump has to fill, Qp = = = 0.19 m3/sec.
2𝑥𝑇 2 𝑥 15 𝑥 60

− Total head against which the sump will work, HTotal= Hstatic + Hfriction + Hminer losses

4𝑓.𝐿 𝑣 4 𝑥 0.01 𝑥 150𝑚 𝑥 (1.18)2

Hf =
2𝑔𝑑
= 2 𝑥 9.81 𝑥 0.6
= 0.71 m,

Total lift of sewage, HT= (54 - 45 + 3) m +0.71 m + 0.30m =13.01 m.

𝑤.𝑄 .𝐻 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 𝑥 0.191 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 13.01𝑚

B.H.P = = = 54.931= 55 B.H. P. Ans.
75𝜂𝑝 𝜂𝑚 75 𝑥 0.6

2. Section Elevation 54.0

G.L
9m
Inlet sewer, I L Wet well Force main φ = 600

Depth from ground = 2m

Depth of excavation 45.0
HWL

Effective depth 42.0

Total depth 3m
Low water Level, LWL
41.50
Sump invert level 0.5 m

8.50 m

Depth from ground = 2 m + Total depth = 2m + 3m +0.5 m = 5.50 m

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Problem 3.2:

Design a sump well of a pumping station to lift the sewage of a district of 10,000 persons with a water
supply of 135 liter/c/day. The sewage system is separated. Assume that:

− The flow of sewage is equivalent to water supply.

− The peak flow = 2.
− Velocity in the main = 1 m/sec.
− The sump well fills every 10 minutes.
− Length of the raising main = 100 m.
− Depth of height of the sump well = 2.5 m.

Solution
- Complete design for sewage pump station
1) Design flow:
10𝑥 103 𝑥 130
− Qw/s = P X qav = = 0.0156 m3/sec.
103 𝑥24 𝑥60 𝑥60

− Peak flow of sewage, Qpeak = 2 x Qsanitary = 2 x 0.0156 = 0.0313 m3/sec.

2) Design of rising main G.L

L= 100
Wet well m
Peak flow, Qpeak = V x A, and velocity of the flow, Raising main φ = 200 mm
Qpeak
V2 = A X L
V = 1.2 m/sec.
𝑄 HWL
 Cross-sectional area of the rising main, A = = V1 = Q x T
𝑉
VT = 21.86 m3 2.5 m
0.0313 𝑚3 /𝑠𝑒𝑐. 2
= 0.0312 m , Low water Level
1 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 LWL

𝜋𝐷2 4 𝑥 0.278 m2 3.50 m

A= D=√ = 0.199m = 0.2 m
4 𝜋

3) Design of sump well

Net storage of the sump, V total = [(max. quantity of sewage collected in 10 min) + (Quantity of sewage
in the rising main)]
Vtotal = [ (Qpeak x T) + (Arising main x Length of rising main)] =
𝜋0.22
= [(0.0313 m3/sec. x 10 x 60 sec.) +( ( )x 100)] =[18.75 m3 + 3.14 m3 ]= 21.86 say 22 m3.
4

Vtotal =22m3.
𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑉𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 22
Cross-section of sump, Awet = = = = 8.8 m2.
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑓. 2.5

4 𝑥 𝐴𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝 4 𝑥 8.8 𝑚2
Hence diameter of sump, Dsump = √ =√ = 3.35m = 3.50 m. Ans.
𝜋 𝜋

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CHAPTER (4): QUANTITY OF

SANITARY SEWAGE AND STORM
WATER

4.1 Necessity of quantity of sanitary sewage

The determination of sanitary sewage is necessary because of the following factors which
depend on this:

1. To design the sewerage schemes and sewage treatment works.

2. The size, shape and depth of sewers depend on quantity of sewage.
3. The size of pumping station depends on the quantity of sewage.

4.2 Factor affecting the quantity of sanitary sewage flow:

1. Rate of water supply.

2. Population.
3. Type of area served as residential, industrial or commercial.
4. Infiltration and exfiltration.

1) Rate of water supply: The rate of sewage may be (70-80) % of water supply due to various reasons
such as consumption, evaporation, use in industries etc. This may be change daily, seasonal and also
standard of living of people.

2) Population: As the population increase the quantity of sewage also increase because the consumption
of water is more.

3) Type of area served: The quantity of sewage depends upon the type of area as residential, industrial
or commercial.

4) Infiltration and exfiltration:

− Infiltration is the leakage of water from the ground surrounding the sewer. The quantity of water
increased through infiltration depend on (length of sewer, size of sewer, sub-soil water head, and nature
and type of soil).
− Exfiltration is the leakage of sewage from the sewer into the ground surrounding the sewer.

4.3 Storm sewage

When rain falls over the ground surface, a part of it percolates into the ground, a part is evaporated
in the atmosphere and the remaining part overflows as storm or flood water runoff. The quantity of storm
water reaching the sewers or drains is called storm sewage.

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➢ Factor affecting the quantity of storm water flow:

1. Catchment areas.
2. Intensity and duration of rainfall.
3. Nature of the soil and its degree of porosity.
4. Atmosphere temperature, wind and humidity.

Estimation of quantity of storm water: There are two methods, which are:
1. Rational method.
2. Empirical Method.

➢ Design of sewers

1) Rational method: The quantity of storm water (QStorm) is determined by the following:

𝐶𝐼𝐴
Qstorm = 360 , m3/sec

According to this method, the run off Qstorn depends on the following factors,
, m3/sec (drainage)area (A), in hectares.
➢ Catchment
➢ Intensity of rainfall (I), in mm/hour
➢ Impermeability factor or Run-off co-efficient (C).(fraction).

2) Empirical method: L-Loy-Davies formula which is general in use, which is

250
Qstorm= 9
CRA , lit/sec

Where, Q: quantity of storm in lit/sec.

A: area, in hectare.
R: average of storm rainfall in cm/hr.
C: coefficient of runoff.

− Run-off co-efficient (C): Is a fraction of the rain that appears as runoff that enters the sewer is known
as runoff coefficient.

The whole quantity of rain water that fall over ground does not reach the sewer lines or drains. A
portion of it percolates in the ground, a portion evaporates, a portion is stored in ponds and ditches, and
only the remaining portion of rain water reaches the drains and the sewer.
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− Over-all run-off coefficient (C): As every locality consists of different types of surface areas,
therefore, for calculating the overall runoff coefficient the following formula is used:

𝐶1 𝐴1 𝐶2+ 𝐴2 +⋯.+ 𝐶𝑛 𝐴𝑛 ∑ 𝐴𝐶
Runoff coefficient ‘Coverall” = =
𝐴1 +𝐴2 +⋯+ 𝐴𝑛 ∑𝐴

Where:

A1, A2,….are the different type of area and C1, C2, C3… are their runoff coefficients respectively.

Intensity of runoff (R): When rainfall records are not available, the intensity of rainfall is obtained by
applying suitable empirical formula. “General formula” can be used for this purpose,

25.4 𝑎
I= , mm/hour
𝑡𝑐 +𝑏

Where, R: Intensity of rainfall in mm/hour,

𝑡𝑐 : Duration of storm in minutes,

According to ministry of Health, USA, the value of constant a and b are as follows:

• When 𝑡𝑐 is 5-20 minutes, a=30, and b=10,

• When 𝑡𝑐 is 20-100 minutes, a=40, and b=20.

Time of concentration (𝒕𝒄 ): It is defined as the total time required by the flow to reach to the
maximum limit. It consists of:

𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑓

➢ Inlet time (𝒕𝒊 ): The time taken by the storm water to reach the uppermost inlet of the sewer line is
known as the inlet time or entry.

➢ Flow time (𝒕𝒇 ): The time taken by the storm water to flow down the sewer upto a particular point of
consideration is known as time of flow.

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Problem 4.1:
The catchment area of a city is 200 hectares. Assuming that the surface on which the rain falls is
classified as follows:

Type of surface % Area Runoff coefficient (C))

Roofs 20 0.9
Pavements of yards 15 0.80
Lawns, gardens 30 0.15
Macadamised roads 20 0.40
Vacant plots 15 0.10

Calculate the impervious factor. If the maximum intensity of rainfall is 40 mm/hour, Calculate the
quantity of storm water which will reach sewer lines.
Solution
➢ Given data: A= 200 hectares, I= 40 mm/hr. ∑ 𝐴 = 100%, therefore, served area = total area.
Therefore,
𝐶1 𝐴1 +𝐶2 𝐴2 ….+ 𝐶𝑛 𝐴𝑛
• Impervious factor or overall runoff coefficient “C = 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +⋯+ 𝐴𝑛
0.2𝑋0.9+0.15𝑋0.8+0.3𝑋0.15+0.2𝑋0.4+0.15𝑋0.10
Coverall= ( ) = 0.44
0.2+0.15+0.3+0.2+0.15

𝐶𝐼𝐴 0.44𝑋40𝑚𝑚/ℎ𝑟 𝑋200 ℎ𝑒𝑐𝑡.

• Quantity of storm water, Qstorm water == == = 9.78 m3/sec.
360 360

Problem 4.1:

A catchment’s area of a city is 300 hectares and the maximum intensity of rainfall is 45 mm/hr.
density of population 350 person/hectare and rate of water supply is 250 lit/cap day. Calculate the
quantity of sanitary sewage for:

1) Separate system.
2) Partially separate system.

If the area of paved yard is 15 % and its coefficient of runoff is 0.8, and the area of roof is 2o %
and its coefficient of runoff is 0.9. Assume the peak flow is 2.

Solution
➢ A=300 hectares, I= 45mm/hr, P=350 p/h = 350 × 300= 105x03 person, Rw/s= 250 lit/cap/day.

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Different area A Area% Runoff coefficient, C A.C

paved yard 15 % 0.8 0.12
roof area 20 % 0.9 0.18
Sum Ʃ A = 35 % = 0.35 0.3

Ʃ𝐴𝐶 0.12+0.18 0.3

− Therefore, Coverall = = = = 0.857
Ʃ𝐴 0.35 0.35

𝐶𝐼𝐴 0.857 𝑥 45 𝑥 0.35 𝑥 300

− Qstorm =360 = = 11.25 m3/sec.
360

105 𝑥 10 3 𝑥 250
− Qsanitary = P x qav = = 0.304 m3/sec.
103 𝑥24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60

− Qmax = 2 x Qsanitary = 2 x 0.304 = 0.608 m3/sec.

− Therefore, the quantity of sanitary sewage for:

1) Separate system:

− Qstorm = 11.25 m3/sec.,

− Qsanitary= 0.304 m3/sec.

2) Partially separate system:

− Qpartially s.s = Qstorm + Qsanitary = 11.25 + 0.608 = 11.86 m3/sec.

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CHAPTER (5): DESIGN OF SEWERS

2.1. General
After the determination of the quantity of sewage, variation in its quantity, the next step is to
design the sewer section, which will be economic in construction as well as can take the required
discharge of the sewage at self-cleansing velocity. The design of sewer pipes are different than the design
of water supply pipes.

➢ Difference between design of sewer pipes and water supply pipes are:
1) In water supply pipes, the water flows in pipes under pressure, whereas in sewer pipes, sewage flows
under gravitational force only.
2) Water supply pipes carry pure water, sewer pipes have solids particles (organic/inorganic), which
may settle in the pipe. It can cause corrosion of the pipe material.
3) In sewer pipes, chance of clogging, so design for self-cleansing velocity.
4) Water supply pipes are flowing full under pressure, whereas sewers are designed to run partial full
2 3
(running half-full, full, or full) at maximum discharge, depended on the sewer size. Sewers are
3𝑟𝑑 4𝑡ℎ

open channels (partially full of sewage) due to the following:

− The difference in sewage discharge during the day.
− To prevent anaerobic digestion in sewers.

2.2. Factors affecting in the design of sewers

The following factors must be considered during design of sewers:
1) Design period
2) Population estimation
3) Dimeters
4) Sewer gradient

5) Velocity: (minimum and maximum velocities)

The lowest velocity in the sewer lines should be equal to the self-cleansing velocity, so the
suspension and floating solids should flow with the sewage.

Self-cleansing velocity is: Velocity at which no accumulation remains in the sewers.

The maximum velocity of flow is also to be taken into consideration. If the velocity of flow exceeds
a certain limit, the particles of solid matter start to damage, the inside smooth surface of sewers, or a
scouring action take place. The maximum permissible velocity at which no such scouring action will
occur is known as non- scouring velocity.
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Hydraulic formulae for determining flow velocity

The velocity of flow in a sewer line is determined by the following formulae:

• Manning formula: is a simple formula for open channel flow and much used in practice.

1
V = 𝑛 𝑅 2/3 𝑆1/2 𝝅𝑫
𝝅𝑫 𝟒
𝟖
Where, V = velocity of flow, m/sec, πD
𝝅𝑫
N = Roughness coefficient, 𝟐
𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝟒 ⁄ 𝑫
R = Hydraulic mean depth, R = 𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = πD = 𝟒
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟 ℎ
S = Slope or Hydraulic gradient of the sewer = =
𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙

• Chezy’s formula

V =C √𝑚𝑖

Where, V = velocity of flow, m/sec,

𝝅𝑫𝟐
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝟒 ⁄ 𝑫
m = Hydraulic mean depth, m = 𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 = πD = 𝟒
𝑓𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑤𝑒𝑟
i = Slope or Hydraulic gradient of the sewer = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
C = Chezy’s constant

• Hazen and Williams’ formula:

V = 0.85 C 𝑚0.63 𝑖 0.54

Where V, m and are as above and C is a coefficient. This formula is mainly used for flow under
pressure. The values of C are given in table (4.1) below
Table (4.1) : Value of C in Hazen William’s Formula
Material of the sewer Value of C
Brick sewer 275
Vitrified clay sewer 110
Cast iron sewer(old) 100
Cast iron sewer(new) 130

❖ The section of sewer can be determined by the general formula:

Q = VA Where, Q = Discharge, in m3/sec, A= Area, in m2.

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2.3. Design procedure

1. Design flow: Calculate average sewage flow “Qav= P x qav

Qmax = Qdesign = P.F x Qav

2. Design equation: Manning formula is used for sewer flowing under gravity.

3. Velocity of flow: The velocity of flow should fall between self-cleansing and non-scouring
velocities.

− Minimum self-cleansing velocity = 0.6 m/sec.

− Maximum non- scouring velocity: 1.5 m/sec.

4. The section of sewer: Using Q = AV, for the calculation diameter design.

Example 5.1

Calculate the velocity, discharge for a stoneware sewer running full. The diameter of sewer is 150
mm and it is laid at a gradient of 1 in 60. Assume n = 0.013 in Manning’s formula.
Solution
1
➢ Given data: S= 60 , D = 150 mm (the sewage in a sewer is running full), n = 0.013.

➢ Required: velocity of flow in sewer Vfull =?, Qfull =?

𝟏
 Therefore, by using Manning formula V = 𝒏 X 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝐷 𝜋𝐷2
R= = = (for pipe running full) Awet= ,
4
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑤𝑒𝑡 4 D Pwet =πD

1 0.15 2/3 1
Vfull = 0.013 x ( ) x (60)1/2 = 1.113 m/sec.
4

𝜋𝐷2 𝜋𝑋 0.152
Qfull = AV = 4
x Vfull = 4
x 1.113 = 0.02 m3/sec

The discharge through this sewer is running full = 0.02 m3/sec or 20 l/sec.

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Example 5.2
Calculate the velocity of the flow in a sewer of diameter 1.20 m. The sewer is laid at a gradient
of 1 in 400, what will be the discharge through this sewer when running one-half full. Assume n =
0.012 in Manning’s formula.
Solution
1 𝑑
➢ Given data: S = 400 , D = 1.20 m, = 0.5 (sewer running one-half full), n = 0.012.
𝐷
➢ Required: velocity of flow in sewer Vfull =?, Qactual =? (for sewer running one-half full)
𝟏
Therefore, by using Manning formula V = 𝒏 x 𝑹𝟐/𝟑 𝑺𝟏/𝟐
1 𝜋𝐷 2
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝐴𝑤𝑒𝑡 𝐷 Awet=2 ,
4
R= = = (for sewer running one-half) 𝜋𝐷
𝑊𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑃𝑤𝑒𝑡 4 Pwet =
2
1 1.2 2/3 1
Vfull = 0.012 x (
4
) x (400)1/2 = 1.867 m/sec.

𝑄𝑓𝑢𝑙𝑙 1 1 𝜋𝐷2 1 𝜋𝑋 1.22

Qactual = = AV = 2 x xV=2x x 1.867 = 1.06 m3/sec.
2 2 4 4

The discharge through this sewer is running one- half full = 1.06 m3 /sec.
Example 5.3
Design the section of a combined circular sewer from the following data:
− Area to be served = 150 hectares.
− Population of the locality = 50,000
− Rate of w/s = 270 lit/cap/day.
− Maximum discharge as 1.5 times the average.
− Impermeability factor = 0.45
− Intensity of rainfall = 21.714mm/hr.
− Maximum permissible velocity = 3.2 m/sec.
− Assume suitably any data not given.

➢ Required: Diameter of combined sewer = ?

Solution:
50,000 𝑥 270
− Quantity of wastewater = (Sanitary sewage) Qav = = 156.25 liter/sec.
24 𝑥 60 𝑥 60
1.5 𝑥 156.25
− Maximum discharge Qsanitary_max = = 0.324 m3/sec
1000

− Storm water: Using rational formula: Qstorm =

𝐶𝐼𝐴
360
=
0.45 𝑥 21.714 𝑥 150
360
= 4.07 m3/sec.
 combined sewer, Q combined = Qsanitary_max + Qstorm = 0.324 m3/sec + 4.07 m3/sec. = 4.394 m3/sec.
𝑸𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒅 𝟒.𝟑𝟗𝟒
− Now, Q = V x A A= = = 1.37 m2
𝑽 𝟑.𝟐
𝜋𝐷2 4𝐴 4 𝑥 1.37
− A= D=√𝜋 =√ = 1.32 m
4 𝜋

Provide a circular sewer of diameter 1.5m for combined sewer.

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Example 5.4

A combined sewer of circular section is to be laid to serve a particular area. Calculate its size from
the following data.
− Area to be served = 100 hect.,
− Population = 90,000,
− Assuming, maximum discharge as 2 times the average.
− Maximum velocity of flow = 3 m/sec
− Time of entry = 3 minutes
− Time of flow =17 minutes,
− Rate of water supply = 240 l/c.day,
− Impermeable factor = 0.50,
− Assume additional data, where necessary.

Solution
➢ Given data: A = 100 hect., P = 90000, V = 3 m/sec, 𝑡𝑖 = 3 minutes, 𝑡𝑓 = 17 minutes, Rw/s = 240l/sec.
C = 0.50, P.F = 2
Therefore,
• Sanitary discharge,
90000 𝑋240
− Average discharge per second, Qaverage = P x Rws = = 250 l/sec.
24 𝑋 60 𝑋60

− Maximum discharge, Qsanitary,max. = Peak factor x Qav. = 2 x250 l/sec. = 500 l/sec.

• Storm water
− Time of concentration =𝑡𝑐 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡𝑓 = 3+17 =20 minutes, a =30, b = 10,
25.4 𝑎 25.4 𝑋 30
I= = = 25.4 mm/hr
𝑡𝑐 +𝑏 20+10
𝑄𝐼𝐴 0.5 𝑋 25.4 𝑋 100
− Qstorm = = = 3.528 m3/sec
360 360

• Combined discharge = (500 + 3.528 x103) l/sec = 4028 l/sec = 4.028 m3/sec.

Now, assuming the sewer to run full at the time of max. flow, Q =AV
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑏. 4.028 𝜋𝐷2 4 𝑋 4.028
− A= = = D =√ = 1.308 m
𝑉 3 4 3𝜋

− Provided a circular sewer of diameter 1.5 m for combined sewer.

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CHAPTER (6): CHARACTERISTICS OF

SEWAGE

6.1. Composition of sewage

Sewage is a dilute mixture of the various types of wastes from the residential, public and
industrial places. The characteristic and composition of sewage mainly depend on this source. The
domestic sewage may contain:

− A small percentage of solids i.e 0.1%. while remaining 99.9% is water.

− Organic and inorganic matters in suspended and soluble form and living micro-organisms such as
bacteria, virus, protozoa, algae, fungi etc. Some of these are pathogens and are harmful to the human
and animal life.

Importance of measuring quality of sewage:

• To help on the design and operation of wastewater treatment plant (WWTP).
• To evaluate performance of wastewater treatment plant.
• To assess suitability of wastewater for disposal or reuse.

6.2. Characteristics of sewage

It can be classified as:
1. Physical characteristics,
2. Chemica characteristics,
3. Biological characteristics.

6.3. Decomposition of sewage

− Types of bacteria:
There are two types of bacteria which act in decomposition of sewage:
1. Aerobic bacteria (uses oxygen), and
2. Anaerobic bacteria (active in the absence of oxygen).
− Swage contains:
1. About 0.8 % of oxygen which is necessary for the various types of organisms.
2. Food materials present in sewage encourage the growth of some living organisms.
− Activity of bacteria:
1. Aerobic action: In the beginning when some oxygen is present in the sewage, the aerobic action
takes place by the aerobic bacteria whose respiratory activities decrease the quantity of dissolved
oxygen. (The organisms are utilizing the oxygen).

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2. Anaerobic action: When the quantity of oxygen is exhausted, the sewage becomes stale, the
anaerobic action starts in which anaerobic bacteria starts drawing oxygen contained in organic matter.
At this stage, the putrefaction takes place and foul gases such as hydrogen sulphide H2S, odor
of various offensive substances along with methane CH4 and CO2 starts coming from the septic sewage.
Therefore, the sewage must reach the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP)before it becomes
septic.

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CHAPTER (7): WASTEWATER TREATMENT

7.1.Concept of treatment
Wastewater treatment is a process to treat sewage or wastewater to remove suspended solid
contaminants and convert them into an effluent that can be discharged back to the environment with
acceptable impact.

− Purpose of wastewater treatment plant

1. Convert the harmful components in raw wastewater into a harmless final effluent that can be
discharged into the Environment or Re-used.
2. To safety dispose of the solids (sludge) produced in the process.

7.2.Location of wastewater treatment plant

1. Should be located as near to the point of disposal as possible.
2. Should be located on the downstream side of the city and sufficiently away from the water intake
works.
3. The plants should not be much far away from the town to reduce the length of sewer line, hence
reduce the cost.
4. Should not be close to the town that it may pollute the general atmosphere by smell and fly nuisance.

7.3. Methods of treatment

There are three main methods of the treatment process:
1) Physical processes.
2) Chemical processes:
3) Biological processes:

A typical w/w treatment plant comprise units from physical and biological or chemical processes in
various combination depending upon the treatment system selected. Such plants are normally designed
to remove floating materials and organic and inorganic solids from domestic w/w. Fig. (7.1), shows a
process flow diagram of a typical conventional w/w treatment plant.

7.4. Stages of Treatment Systems

Stages of w/w treatment are:
1. Preliminary treatment system (physical process).
2. Primary treatment system (physical process).
3. Secondary treatment system (biological process)
4. Tertiary treatment system (chemical process).
Fig. (7.1). Shows stages of treatment systems.

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Fig. (7.1). Stages of treatment systems.

1. Preliminary treatment: Physical treatment provides for the removal of large debris and heavy
solids of various shapes, sizes and densities contained in the wastewater flow. It involves:

1) Screening
2) Grit chamber:
3) Oil and grease traps (Skimming).

2. Primary treatment:
3. Secondary treatment: Biological treatment

It is a biological process that removes the colloidal and dissolved organic matter of sewage through
the action of microbes which can consume and degrade the organic matter converting it to carbon
dioxide (CO2), water (H2O), and energy for their own growth and reproduction.

❖ Biological Treatment of waste water:

Biological treatment of waste water can be done by the following treatments of sewage:
1. Activated sludge process.
2. Oxidation ponds (Stabilization ponds), as shown in Fig (8.1)

➢ Oxidation or stabilization ponds:

− An artificial pond, large area with shallow depth.

− Typically, 1-2 m deep.
− Designed to treated wastewater through sunlight, bacteria and algae.
− Treatment occurs due to dual action of bacteria and algae.
− Type of oxidation ponds: Aerobic ponds, anaerobic ponds and facultative ponds.
− The decomposition taking place near the surface is aerobic, while that near the bottom is
anaerobic.
− Ponds, having a mix of aerobic and anaerobic conditions are called facultative ponds,

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➢ Mechanism of purification

− In the ponds the sewage can be retained for sufficient time to satisfy the B.O.D removal.
− The changes in the character of the sewage or waste water occur due to the dual action of aerobic
bacteria and algae.
− The aerobic bacteria use oxygen of the atmosphere, whereas the algae are active in the sunlight.
− This combined action may call ''bacterial –algal symbiosis" where the aerobic bacteria and alga
live and work together for their mutual benefit.
− Due to the dual process of photosynthesis acting on the sewage, it breaks up the carbon dioxide
produced during the carbon cycle from the carbohydrates present in the sewage. This carbon is
used in the further production of carbohydrates and release of oxygen into the water.
− The surface area of the pond should be kept shallow, so that sunlight and oxygen may reach at
every point of the sewage.
− Depending upon the intensity of sunlight and the temperature, the detention period of 10-35 days
is provided. But in cold countries higher detention period say up to 45 days may have to be
provided.

Fig (8.1). Oxidation or stabilization ponds.

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Assignment
Q1. Select the correct answer:
1. Which one of the following practices, causes reduction in the per capita demand?
(a) Good water quality (b) metering system
(c) Modern living (d) None of these

2. The suitable method for forecasting population for a young and rapid developing city is:
(a) Arithmetic increase method (b) geometric increase method
(c) Comparative graphical method (d) None of these

3. The earth’s water circulatory system is known as:

(a) Water cycle (b) precipitation cycle
(c) Hydrological cycle (d) None of these

4. Ground water is usually free from:

(a) Suspended impurities (b) dissolved impurities
(c) Both a and b (d) None of these

5. The devices which are installed for draining water from different water sources, are called:
(a) filters (b) intakes
(c) outlets (d) inlets

6. High lift pumps are generally required to feed water into the:
(a) Treatment plant (b) distribution system
(c) Both of them a and b (d) None of these

7. Low lift pumps are generally required to feed water into the:
(a) Treatment plant (b) distribution system
(c) Both of them a and b (d) None of these

8. The most commonly adopted pumps in w/s are:

(a) Centrifugal pump (b) reciprocating pumps
(c) Hydraulic rams (d) None of these

9. Contaminated water contains:

(a) pathogens (b) undesirable suspended matter
(c) Dissolved salts (d) None of these

10. The liquid waste of kitchen, bathroom and wash basin is known as:
(a) Sewage. (b) Sullage.
(c) Liquid waste. (d) Surface water.

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11. Disinfection of water helps in:

(a) Removing turbidity (b) removing of hardness
(c) Killing pathogenic bacteria. (d) Complete sterilization.

12. Surface water is obtained from:

(a) springs (b) well
(c) rain (d) artesian well

13. Manholes are constructed on sewer line for following objective:

(a) For inspection of sewer line.
(b) For cleaning and maintenances of the sewer line.
(c) To permit the entry of man inside the sewer.
(d) All the above.

14. The approximate % of water and solids in sewage respectively is:

(a) 90 %, 1%. (b) 90%, 10%.
(c) 99.9%, 0.1%. (d) 95%, 5%.

15. Partially separate system of sewerage system is used to collect:

(a) Industrial sewage and storm water.
(b) Domestic sewage and a portion of surface drainage from paved yards and roof houses.
(c) Domestic and Industrial sewage.
(d) Domestic sewage and storm water.

16. For the design of sewers. The % of sewage discharge, is assumed as:
(a) 25-30% of water from water works.
(b) 70-80% of water supplied from water works.
(c) 100% of water supplied from water works.
(d) None of these.

17. The quantity of liquid waste flowing in sewer line during the period of rainfall is called:
(a) Industrial waste. (b) Storm sewage.
(c) Sanitary sewage. (d) All of these.

18. The intensity of rainfall is expressed in:

(a) mm/minute. (b) mm/hour.
(c) mm/day. (d) None of these.

19. A sewer should have:

(a) Non-scouring velocity (b) Self-cleansing velocity.
(c) Both a and b (d) none of these.

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20. Self-cleansing velocity is:

(a) Velocity at dry weather flow. (b) Velocity of water at flushing.
(c) Velocity at which no accumulation remains in the (d) Velocity of water in a pressure filter.
sewers.

21. The pump, which permits the sewage solids to pass out with liquid sewage, without clogging the
pump is a:
(a) Reciprocating pump. (b) Centrifugal pump.
(c) Pneumatic ejector. (d) none of these.

22. Total solids in w/w consists of:

(a) Suspended solids and dissolved solids.
(b) Suspended, dissolved and colloidal solids.
(c) Suspended solids and Colloidal solids.
(d) Colloidal solids, dissolved solids.

23. During preliminary treatment of sewage:

(a) Oil and greases are removed by skimming tanks.
(b) Floating materials are removed by screening.
(c) Grit and sand are removed by grit chambers.
(d) All of the above are correct.

24. During treatment of water the sedimentation process is done:

(a) After filtration (b) After chlorination
(c) with filtration (d) Before filtration.

25. When the RL. of the source of water is at lower level than the RL. of the treatment plant, water is
generally supplied:
(a) By gravitational method (b) By pumping method
(c) Both by (a) and (b) (d) all of these.

26. The process of killing pathogenic bacteria from water is called:

(a) sedimentation (b) Filtration
(c) Coagulation (d) Disinfection

27. The most commonly used disinfection for drinking water throughout the world is:
(a) Alum (b) Nitrogen
(c) Lime (d) Chlorine

28. The water from kitchens, bathrooms, wash basins is called:

(a) Sullage (b) Sewage
(c) Raw sewage (d) None of these

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29. The quantity of liquid waste which flows from sewers during rainy season is called:
(a) Storm sewage (b) Dry weather flow
(c) Sanitary sewage (d) Industrial sewage.

Q2. Match the following:

1) Disinfection a) Dissolved gases, tastes and odors

2) Screening b) Hardness
3) Filtration c) Killing of pathogenic bacteria by chemical
4) Aeration d) To remove bacteria and colloidal matter
5) Softening e) To remove floating matter
6) Precipitation f) To remove suspended impurities as silt, clay, sand etc.
7) Infiltration g) Rainfall
8) Percolation h) Entrance of rain water or melted snow into the ground.
i) Movement of water after entrance into the ground.

Q3. What is meant by water supply system? What are the objectives of water supply system?
Q4. Define per capita demand? How it is estimated?
Q5. What are the various types of water demand? What are the factors affecting the per capita
demand (water consumption)?
Q6. What are the various sources of water used in water supply schemes? Explain any one of them?
Q7. Define the wholesome water? What are the requirements of wholesome water?
Q8. What are the factors affecting quantity of sanitary sewage? Explain any one of them?

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