COURSE CODE: CEC 202

COURSE TITLE: WATER SUPPLY AND SANITARY ENGINEERING

WATER DEMAND ESTIMATIONS

The design and execution of any water supply scheme requires an estimate of the total amount of
water required by the community. The quantity of water required for municipal uses for which the
water supply scheme has to be designed requires following data:
1. Water consumption rate (Per Capita Demand in liters per day)
2. Population to be served.
Water Consumption Rate
It is very difficult to precisely assess the quantity of water demanded by the public, since there are
many variable factors affecting water consumption. The various types of water demands, which a
city may have, may be broken into following classes:
Water Consumption for Various Purposes:
Types of Consumption Normal Range Average PERCENTAGE (%)
(lit/capita/day)
Domestic Consumption 65-300 160 35
like drinking, cooking,
washing etc.
Industrial and 45-450 135 30
Commercial
Demand factories,
malls, markets
Public Demands 20-90 45 10
including Fire
protection, hospitals,
gardening, jails, schools
etc.
Losses and waste 45-150 62 25
through leaky joints,
open tap, unauthorized
tapping
Total 175-990 402 100

Quantity = Per capita demand x Population (Per day)

Quantity = Per capita demand x Population x 365 (Per year)
Q = P x q x 365

where Q = Total Annual Quantity of water requires in liters

p = population
q = consumption rate per capita

In Nigeria, 120 lit/Cap/day is used for urban cities, 60 lit/Cap/day for Semi-urban centers and 20
lit/Cap/day for rural areas

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 Factors Affecting Per Capita Demand:
a. Size of the city: Per capita demand for big cities is generally large as compared to that for smaller
towns as big cities have skewered houses.
b. Presence of industries.
c. Climatic conditions.
d. Habits of people and their economic status.
e. Quality of water: If water is aesthetically & medically safe, the consumption will increase as
people will not resort to private wells, etc.
f. public services such as fire service, hospitals, jails and so on
g. Efficiency of water works administration: Leaks in water mains and services; and unauthorized
use of water can be kept to a minimum by surveys.
h. Cost of water.
i. Policy of metering and charging method: Water tax is charged in two different ways: on the
basis of meter reading and on the basis of certain fixed monthly rate.
j. Availability of supplementary sources
k. Distribution pressure

Fluctuations in Rate of Demand

If the average demand is supplied at all the times, it will not be sufficient to meet the fluctuations.
The fluctuations arise from:
I. Seasonal variation: The demand peaks during summer. Fire break outs are generally more
in summer, increasing demand. So, there is seasonal variation.
II. Daily variation: depends on the activity, People draw out more water on Saturdays,
Sundays and Festival days, thus increasing demand on these days.
III. Hourly variations: are very important as they have a wide range. During active household
working hours i.e. from six to ten in the morning and four to eight in the evening, the bulk
of the daily requirement is taken. During other hours the requirement is negligible.
Moreover, if a fire breaks out, a huge quantity of water is required to be supplied during
short duration, necessitating the need for a maximum rate of hourly supply.
So, an adequate quantity of water must be available to meet the peak demand. To meet all the
fluctuations, the supply pipes, service reservoirs and distribution pipes must be properly
proportioned. The water is supplied by pumping directly and the pumps and distribution system
must be designed to meet the peak demand. The effect of monthly variation influences the design
of storage reservoirs and the hourly variations influences the design of pumps and service
reservoirs.
Design Periods & Population Forecast
This quantity should be worked out with due provision for the estimated requirements of the future.
The future period for which a provision is made in the water supply scheme is known as the design
period.
Design period is estimated based on the following:
• Useful life of the component, considering obsolescence, wear, tear, etc. Expandability
aspect.
• Anticipated rate of growth of population, including industrial, commercial developments
& migration.
• Available resources.
• Performance of the system during initial period.

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Population Forecasting Methods
Two types of population estimate is needed for operation and design of water system and water
treatment works
i. Short term estimate in the range of 1-10 years
ii. Long term estimate of 10 – 50 years
The methods used to make these 2 kind of forecasting differ appreciably. Both mathematical and
graphical methods can be used in estimating future population. Usually the computation is based
on past population or census record of the area. The various methods adopted for estimating future
populations are given below. The particular method to be adopted for a particular city depends
largely on the factors discussed in the methods, and the selection is left to the discretion of the
designer.
1. Arithmetic Increase Method
2. Geometric Increase Method
3. Incremental Increase Method
4. Decreasing Rate of Growth Method
5. Simple Graphical Method
6. Comparative Graphical Method
7. Ratio Method
8. Logistic Curve Method
Population Forecast by Different Methods

1. Problem: Predict the population for the years 2021, 2031, and 2041 from the following
census figures of a town by different methods.
YEAR 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 1991 2001 2011
POPULATION 60 65 63 72 79 89 97 120

Solution:
Year POPPULATION INCREAMENT INCREAMENTAL PERCENTAGE
PER DECADE INCREASE INCREMENT PER
DECADE
1941 60 - - -
1951 65 +5 - (5/60) × 100 = + 8.33
1961 63 -2 -3 (-2/65) ×100 = -3.07
1971 72 +9 +7 (9/63) × 100 = +14.28
1981 79 +7 -2 (7/72) × 100 = + 9.72
1991 89 +10 +3 (10/79) ×100= + 12.66
2001 97 +8 -2 (8/89) × 100 = +8.98
2011 120 +23 +15 (23/97) × 100 = +23.71
NET 60 18 74.61
VALUE
AVERAGE 60/7 = 8.57 18/6 =3.0 74.61/7 = 10.66
Table 1

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NOTE: + = increase; - = decrease
Arithmetical Progression Method:
Pn = P + ni
Pn = population after n year or decade
P = present population
I= average population increase per decade

Therefore, from the table 1 above, the Average increases per decade i = 8.57
Now, Population for the years,
P2021= population 2011 + ni, here n=1 decade
= 120 + 8.57 = 128.57

P2031= population 2011 + ni, here n=2 decade

= 120 + 2 x 8.57 = 137.14

P2041= population 2011 + ni, here; n=3 decade

= 120 + 3 x 8.57 = 145.71

Geometric Progression Method:

P n = P (1+i/100) n
Here, i= Average percentage increase per decade

Therefore from the table 1 above, Average percentage increase per decade = 10.66

Population for 2021 = Population 2011 x (1+i/100) n

= 120 x (1+10.66/100), i = 10.66, n = 1
= 120 x 110.66/100 = 132.8

Population for 2031 = Population 2011 x (1+i/100) n

= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 2, i = 10.66, n = 2
= 120 x 1.2245 = 146.95

Population for 2041 = Population 2011 x (1+i/100) n

= 120 x (1+10.66/100) 3, i = 10.66, n = 3
= 120 x 1.355 = 162.60

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
1. Determine the future population of dan Bushiya settlement In Kaduna state in the year 2030
and 2040 using both arithmetic and geometric method

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 Year 1990 2000 2010 2020
population 62 74 85 100

2. A census of Rigasa community is given in the table below, estimate the future population
of the community in the year 2025 and 2035 using geometric method for proper design and
water supply to the area.
Year 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 2015
population 40 44 60 75 98 124 159

3. Estimate the future population of a satellite town in the year 2027 given the fallowing data
using Arithmetic method of estimation
Year 1947 1957 1967 1987 1997 2007
population 8 12 17 20 24 31

SOURCES OF WATER
Raw Water Source
The various sources of water can be classified into two categories:
1. Surface sources, such as
a. Ponds and lakes;
b. Streams and rivers;
c. Storage reservoirs; and
d. Oceans, generally not used for water supplies, at present.

2. Sub-surface sources or underground sources, such as

a. Springs;
b. Infiltration wells; and
c. Wells and Tube-wells.
Intake Structure
The basic function of the intake structure is to help in safely withdrawing water from the
source over predetermined pool levels and then to discharge this water through the intake
pipe up to water treatment plant.
Factors Governing Location of Intake
1) As far as possible, the site should be near the treatment plant so that the cost of conveying
water to the city is less.
2) The intake must be located in the purer zone of the source to draw best quality water from
the source, thereby reducing load on the treatment plant.
3) The intake must never be located at the downstream or in the vicinity of the point of
disposal of wastewater.
4) The site should be such as to permit greater withdrawal of water, if required at a future
date.
5) The intake must be located at a place from where it can draw water even during the driest
period of the year.
6) The intake site should remain easily accessible during floods and should not get flooded.
Moreover, the flood waters should not be concentrated in the vicinity of the intake

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WATER QUALITY
Raw water quality varies depending on its source and location and therefore, raw water
must be tested to know the level of treatment that will be required. The types of treatment
required for different sources are given in the following table:

Source Treatment required

1. Ground water and spring water fairly No treatment or Chlorination

free from contamination
2. Ground water with chemicals, minerals Aeration, coagulation (if necessary),
and gases filtration and disinfection

3. Lakes, surface water reservoirs with less Disinfection

amount of pollution

4. Other surface waters such as rivers, Complete treatment

canals and impounded reservoirs with a
considerable amount of pollution

The raw or treated water is analyzed by testing its physical, chemical and bacteriological
characteristics. Water quality requirements should be agreed with the water quality standards,
which are put down by the governmental agency and represent the legislation requirements. In
general, there are three types of standards: in-stream, potable water, and wastewater effluent, each
type has its own criteria by using the same methods of measurement. The World Health
Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for drinking water that all countries are
recommended to meet.
Parameters of Water Quality
There are three types of water quality parameters physical, chemical, and biological

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS
Turbidity
This is the cloudiness of water. It is a measure of the ability of light to pass through water. It
is caused by suspended material such as clay, silt, organic material, plankton, and other particulate
materials in water. Turbidity in drinking water is esthetically unacceptable, which makes the water
look unappetizing. The impact of turbidity can be summarized in the following points:
1. It can increase the cost of water treatment for various uses
2. The particulates can provide hiding places for harmful microorganisms and thereby shield
them from the disinfection process
3. Suspended materials can clog or damage fish gills, decreasing its resistance to diseases,
reducing its growth rates, affecting egg and larval maturing, and affecting the efficiency of fish
catching method
4. Suspended particles provide adsorption media for heavy metals such as mercury, chromium,
lead, cadmium, and many hazardous organic pollutants such as polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and many pesticides
5. Decrease the concentration of DO by increasing the temperature of the water

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 Temperature
Palatability, viscosity, solubility, odors, and chemical reactions are influenced by temperature.
Thereby, the sedimentation and chlorination processes and biological oxygen demand (BOD) are
temperature dependent. It also affects the biosorption process of the dissolved heavy metals in
water. Most people find water at temperatures of 10–15°C most palatable.

Color
Materials decayed from organic matter, namely, vegetation and inorganic matter such as soil,
stones, and rocks impart color to water, which is objectionable for esthetic reasons, not for health
reasons.
The color of a water sample can be reported as follows:
• Apparent color is the entire water sample color and consists of both dissolved and
suspended components color.
• True color is measured after filtering the water sample to remove all suspended material.
This color is due to dissolve materials
Color is graded on scale of 0 (clear) to 70 color units. Pure water is colorless, which is equivalent
to 0 color units.
Taste and odor
Taste and odor in water can be caused by foreign matter such as organic materials, inorganic
compounds, or dissolved gasses. These materials may come from natural, domestic, or agricultural
source. The unit of odor or taste is expressed in terms of a threshold number as follows:
Solids
Solids occur in water either in solution or in suspension [If the filtered portion of the water sample
is placed in a small dish and then evaporated, the solids as a residue. This material is usually called
total dissolved solids or TDS
Total solid (TS) = Total dissolved solid (TDS) + Total suspended solid (TSS)
Water can be classified by the amount of TDS per liter as follows:
I.freshwater: <1500 mg/L TDS;
II.brackish water: 1500–5000 mg/L TDS;
III.saline water: >5000 mg/L TDS.
These measures are helpful to the operators of the wastewater treatment plant because they roughly
approximate the amount of organic matter existing in the total solids of wastewater, activated
sludge, and industrial wastes
Electrical Conductivity (EC)
The electrical conductivity (EC) of water is a measure of the ability of a solution to carry or conduct
an electrical current. Since the electrical current is carried by ions in solution, the conductivity
increases as the concentration of ions increases. Therefore, it is one of the main parameters used
to determine the suitability of water for irrigation and firefighting.
Pure water is not a good conductor of electricity. Typical conductivity of water is as follows:
Ultra-pure water: 5.5 × 10−6 S/m;
Drinking water: 0.005–0.05 S/m;
Seawater: 5 S/m.

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CHEMICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY
pH
This is one of the most important parameters of water quality. It is a dimensionless number
indicating the strength of an acidic or a basic solution. Actually, pH of water is a measure of how
acidic/basic water is. Acidic water contains extra hydrogen ions (H+) and basic water contains
extra hydroxyl (OH−) ions.
pH ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral. pH of less than 7 indicates acidity, whereas a pH of
greater than 7 indicates a base solution. Pure water is neutral, with a pH close to 7.0 at 25°C.
Normal rainfall has a pH of approximately 5.6 (slightly acidic) owing to atmospheric carbon
dioxide gas. Safe ranges of pH for drinking water are from 6.5 to 8.5 for domestic use and living
organisms need.
Excessively high and low pHs can be detrimental for the use of water. A high pH makes the taste
bitter and decreases the effectiveness of the chlorine disinfection, thereby causing the need for
additional chlorine. The amount of oxygen in water increases as pH rises. Low-pH water will
corrode or dissolve metals and other substances.
Chloride
Chloride occurs naturally in groundwater, streams, and lakes, but the presence of relatively high
chloride concentration in freshwater (about 250 mg/L or more) may indicate wastewater pollution.
Chlorides may enter surface water from several sources. Chloride ions Cl− in drinking water do
not cause any harmful effects on public health, but high concentrations can cause an unpleasant
salty taste for most people
Sulfate
Sulfate ions (SO42−) occur in natural water and in wastewater. The high concentration of sulfate
in natural water is usually caused by leaching of natural deposits of sodium sulfate (Glauber’s salt)
or magnesium sulfate (Epson salt). If high concentrations are consumed in drinking water, there
may be objectionable tastes or unwanted laxative effects, but there is no significant danger to
public health.
Nitrogen
There are four forms of nitrogen in water and wastewater: organic nitrogen, ammonia nitrogen,
nitrite nitrogen, and nitrate nitrogen. If water is contaminated with sewage, most of the nitrogen
is in the forms of organic and ammonia, which are transformed by microbes to form nitrites and
nitrates. Nitrogen in the nitrate form is a basic nutrient to the growth of plants and can be a growth-
limiting nutrient facto.
A high concentration of nitrate in surface water can stimulate the rapid growth of the algae which
degrades the water quality. Nitrates can enter the groundwater from chemical fertilizers used in
the agricultural areas. Excessive nitrate concentration (more than 10 mg/L) in drinking water
causes an immediate and severe health threat to infants. The nitrate ions react with blood
hemoglobin, thereby reducing the blood’s ability to hold oxygen which leads to a disease called
blue baby.
Fluoride
A moderate amount of fluoride ions (F−) in drinking water contributes to good dental health. About
1.0 mg/L is effective in preventing tooth decay, particularly in children. Excessive amounts of
fluoride cause discolored teeth, a condition known as dental fluorosis. The maximum allowable
levels of fluoride in public water supplies depend on local climate [In the warmer regions of the
country, the maximum allowable concentration of fluoride for potable water is 1.4 mg/L; in colder
climates, up to 2.4 mg/L is allowed.

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Copper and zinc
Copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) are nontoxic if found in small concentrations. Actually, they are both
essential and beneficial for human health and growth of plants and animals. They can cause
undesirable tastes in drinking water. At high concentrations, zinc imparts a milky appearance to
the water.

Hardness
Hardness is a term used to express the properties of highly mineralized waters. The dissolved
minerals in water cause problems such as scale deposits in hot water pipes and difficulty in
producing lather with soap.
Calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) ions cause the greatest portion of hardness in naturally
deposits. Generally, groundwater is harder than surface water. There are two types of hardness:
• Temporary hardness which is due to carbonates and bicarbonates and can be removed by
boiling, and
• Permanent hardness which is remaining after boiling is caused mainly by sulfates and
chlorides.
Water with more than 300 mg/L of hardness is generally considered to be hard, and more than
150 mg/L of hardness is noticed by most people, and water with less than 75 mg/L is considered
to be soft.
Water classification Total hardness concentration as mg/L as CaCO3
• Soft water <50 mg/L as CaCO3
• Moderately hard 50–150 mg/L as CaCO3
• Hard water 150–300 mg/L as CaCO3
• Very hard >300 mg/L as CaCO3

Dissolved oxygen
Dissolved oxygen (DO) is considered to be one of the most important parameters of water quality
in streams, rivers, and lakes. It is a key test of water pollution. The higher the concentration of
dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality.
Oxygen is slightly soluble in water and very sensitive to temperature. For example, the saturation
concentration at 20°C is about 9 mg/L and at 0°C is 14.6 mg/L.
The actual amount of dissolved oxygen varies depending on pressure, temperature, and salinity
of the water. Dissolved oxygen has no direct effect on public health, but drinking water with very
little or no oxygen tastes unpalatable to some people.
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Bacteria and other microorganisms use organic substances for food. As they metabolize organic
material, they consume oxygen. The organics are broken down into simpler compounds, such as
CO2 and H2O, and the microbes use the energy released for growth and reproduction.
When this process occurs in water, the oxygen consumed is the DO in the water. If oxygen is not
continuously replaced by natural or artificial means in the water, the DO concentration will reduce
as the microbes decompose the organic materials. This need for oxygen is called the biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD). The more organic material there is in the water, the higher the BOD used
by the microbes will be. BOD is used as a measure of the power of sewage; strong sewage has a
high BOD and weak sewage has low BOD. .

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Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
The chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a parameter that measures all organics: the biodegradable
and the non-biodegradable substances. It is a chemical test using strong oxidizing chemicals
(potassium dichromate), sulfuric acid, and heat, and the result can be available in just 2 h. COD
values are always higher than BOD values for the same sample.

BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY

One of the most helpful indicators of water quality may be the presence or lack of living organisms.
Biologists can survey fish and insect life of natural waters and assess the water quality on the basis
of a computed species diversity index (SDI) hence, a water body with a large number of well-
balanced species is regarded as a healthy system. Bacterial examination of water is very important,
since it indicates the degree of pollution. Water polluted by sewage contain one or more species
of disease producing pathogenic bacteria. Pathogenic organisms cause water borne diseases, and
many non-pathogenic bacteria such as E.coli, a member of coliform group, also live in the
intestinal tract of human beings. Coliform itself is not a harmful group but it has more resistance
to adverse condition than any other group. So, if it is ensured to minimize the number of coliforms,
the harmful species will be very less. So, coliform group serves as indicator of contamination of
water with sewage and presence of pathogens.
Bacteria
Bacteria are single-celled plants because of their cell structure. Under favorable conditions of food
supply, temperature, and pH, bacteria can reproduce so rapidly that a bacterial culture may contain
20 million cells per milliliter after just 1 day. Bacteria that require oxygen for their metabolism are
called aerobic bacteria, while those live only in an oxygen-free environment are called anaerobic
bacteria. Some species called facultative bacteria can live in either the absence or the presence of
oxygen. At low temperatures, bacteria grow and reproduce slowly. As the temperature increases,
the rate of growth and reproduction doubles in every additional 10°C (up to the optimum
temperature for the species). A lot of dangerous waterborne diseases are caused by bacteria,
namely, typhoid and paratyphoid fever, leptospirosis, tularemia, shigellosis, and cholera.
Algae
Algae are microscopic plants, which contain photosynthetic pigments, such as chlorophyll. They
are also important for wastewater treatment in stabilization ponds. Algae are primarily nuisance
organisms in the water supply because of the taste and odor problems they create. Certain species
of algae cause serious environmental and public health problems; for example, blue-green algae
can kill cattle and other domestic animals if the animals drink water containing those species.
Viruses
Viruses are the smallest biological structures known to contain all genetic information necessary
for their own reproduction. They can only be seen by a powerful electronic microscope. Viruses
are parasites that need a host to live. They can pass through filters that do not permit the passage
of bacteria. Waterborne viral pathogens are known to cause infectious hepatitis and poliomyelitis.
Most of the waterborne viruses can be deactivated by the disinfection process conducted in the
water treatment plant.
Indicator organisms
A very important biological indicator of water and pollution is the group of bacteria called
coliforms. Pathogenic coliforms always exist in the intestinal system of humans, and millions are
excreted with body wastes. Consequently, water that has been recently contaminated with sewage
will always contain coliforms.

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A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is Escherichia coli or E. coli. Even if
the water is only slightly polluted, they are very likely to be found. There are roughly 3 million of
E. coli bacteria in 100 mL volume of untreated sewage. Coliform bacteria are aggressive organisms
and survive in the water longer than most pathogens.

ASSIGNMENT
The World Health Organization (WHO) has established minimum standards for domestic water
and waste water before discharge to the environment that all countries are recommended to meet.
Write a note on Nigerian standards for drinking water quality set by Federal Ministry of Water
Resources and standards for waste water before discharge to the environment set by NESREA.
Note; Hand writing and not more than 3 pages

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