CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The population rise has been a global threat to all kinds of resources present on earth.
This increase in population is inversely proportional to the natural resources
especially non-renewable ones. However, 70% of the earth is covered with water, but
the percentage of fresh water is not sufficient for its intakes. Not only human beings,
all living beings are more or less dependent upon fresh water for their basic need.
When talking about fresh water, surface water and groundwater forms the major
source of it. Surface water, due to septic tanks effluents, domestic, industrial and
irrigational wastes dumps on rivers are always contaminated with various toxic
substances. It is not hidden that urban cities wastes are been dumped into major rivers
like Ganga, Yamuna etc. This leaves all the burden to get fresh water into
groundwater.

Groundwater, has played a very crucial role to meet all the needs for country’s
demands for fresh water. It is considered as most dependable source of fresh water.
According to recent study, almost 1/3rd of the global population is dependent upon
groundwater for drinking purposes and their other needs (Nickson et al., 2005). The
water present on surface of the earth is not as important as the one present beneath.
Around 50% of the water used by people in cities comes from groundwater (World
Bank 2008). Sadly, this hidden gem contributes to only 0.63% of the total water on
earth (Water Governance, 2022). According to Water Governance (2022),
groundwater extraction in India for its various purposes is the combined extraction of
USA and China. Most of the Indian states are somewhere under water tense situations.
Unchecked extraction of groundwater as led to little recharge of groundwater without
proper planning and management. At the time of India’s Green Revolution, increase
in crop production was possible by giving low-priced electricity for maximum
extraction of groundwater for irrigation. Cultivated lands which are irrigated by
groundwater produces double number of crops as compared to those which are done by
surface water, as groundwater makes famers more independent when it comes to
watering the field and how much water is needed became their individual choice (The
World Bank, 2012).

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Irrigation in India, alone responsible for 90% usage of groundwater today. Without
proper integrated and complete planning about land and water management, decline
in water table is not an avoidable situation. The discrepancy in withdrawal and supply
of groundwater at regional as well as local level is a major problem in groundwater
management. Poor knowledge of aquifer boundaries in India makes it difficult to
frame groundwater management guidelines to understand nature and behaviour of
water bearing formations. India shows heterogeneity in aquifer litho units which
means it has hard rock terrain, sedimentary rock terrain and alluvial formations which
requires different approach depending upon their extent of weathering at both macro
and micro levels. This will have serious effects on country’s economic growth,
livelihood, water and food security of an individual.

Apart from declining quantity of groundwater, the quality of groundwater has become
a matter of concern in many parts of the country. When going through recent data, a
report from Central Ground Water Board states that around 154 districts from 21 states
of this country has arsenic contaminations in water used for drinking purposes
(CGWB brochure 2019). A lot of people are consuming the contaminated water in
spite of knowing the contamination level as there is no alternate source of water
available. The compromise in quality of groundwater is also due to the reason behind
it is anthropogenic activities widely increasing in places. When it comes to utilising
the natural resource, it comes with a responsibility too of protecting too and we
human beings never fail to utilise the resources but often fail when it comes to
protecting them. The same is with groundwater. The level up to which the quality of
groundwater is degrading by anthropogenic activities is daunting in many ways. The
risk of poor quality of groundwater is getting higher and higher with declining water
table and excessively pumping of groundwater for irrigation purposes without proper
measures for artificial recharge. The surface water pollution is directly related to
groundwater contamination as this polluted surface water is the one that infiltrates into
the ground or may end up causing leaching of soils. In recent study, 12 states in India
have uranium content in groundwater beyond permissible limit (CGWB Year Book
2021). Punjab is worst affected by uranium contamination. This is primarily due to
over exploitation of groundwater.

The term “Water Resource Evaluation” means that continuous determination of the

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area, range, steadiness, quality of water resources and anthropogenic activities that
affect the water quality standards of the area (Young et al., 1994). It is also defined
as “A methodical study of present and future trends of water resources and their
supply, with special investigation of issues, demand, approachability and its
availability” (Batchelor et al). While studying water resources, be it irrigational
problems, measures taken for flood loss mitigation, domestic and industrial demand
of water, urban, suburban and rural drainage systems, conservation of ecosystems
especially aquatic, drought mitigation measures, water resource evaluation plays an
essential tool for management, planning, design, development of consistent source of
water.

Monitoring of quality and quantity of ground and surface water for specific period of
time in a year, like pre-monsoon and post monsoon is a fundamental element of water
resource evaluation. Water is that natural resource which can neither be established not
it can be accessed without proper evaluation of its quality and quantity. This can be
achieved by water resource evaluation technique. Water Resource Evaluation is a
characteristic tool used in study of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)
technique.

Advantages of Water Resource Evaluation Study

 Regulating water resource evaluation study helps to get a detailed and global
knowledge of quantity and quality of drinking and irrigational water resource
in an area.

 A regional level water management is possible only by the proper

understanding and knowledge of water resource of the area.

Disadvantages of Water Resource Evaluation Study

 The basic water resource evaluation study focuses on water management of

regional and local level, without considering ecological recycling (nutrient
cycle) and public health conditions.

 Though water resource evaluation is an ideal tool for water management and
development, but it requires adequate resources and time.

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  The water resource evaluation study cannot be done without any technical
training of man power to have an extensive analysis of the study area.

 It requires an expertise to interpret, represent in required log/ graph, and

analyse the data generated through water resource evaluation study.

Water Resource Evaluation includes Surface water resources and groundwater

resources. Surface water resource includes study and analysis of precipitation and
climate, morphometric analysis of river or stream, ponds and lakes and deforestation
hazards. While, groundwater resource evaluation study includes, geophysical survey,
groundwater quality and management, groundwater movement and direction, nature
and behaviour of water bearing formations.

For sustainable use of water resources and to improve water quality and sanitary
conditions of an area, water resource evaluation is the first step towards it. It is of
more importance when one is conducting resource evaluation study, keeping
extensive and detailed study in mind of both inter and intra annual variability, it is
advisable to know various chemical parameters of water in study area. Only by
having grass root level information of demand of water in study area, and the amount
of supply water bearing formations are getting, it possible to conserve water and to
save it for future generations.

1.1 Selection of Study Area and It’s Significance

The study area is comprised of hard rock terrain and alluvium. The quality of
drinking as well as irrigational water is deteriorated and not up to the drinking and
irrigational water standards and the scarcity is the main problem in Birma river basin.
The reason that led the author to take up Birma river basin is due to regional geology
of the area as well. Birma basin being surrounded by hard rock formations makes it
necessary to study the hydrogeological properties of rock formation and to understand
the movement and direction of groundwater flow. This study was also required to
understand the availability and usage of water resource in hard rock formation in a
given time and space. As river plays their significant role in maintaining ecology of
the area, the forest cover in the study area is less than required, therefore the
hydrological study in Birma river basin was required. A drainage basin is considered

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as natural hydrologic unit, and Birma river basin needed hydrologic study for its
sustainable use of water.

On the basis of the above facts and reasons, the problem entitled “Water Resource
Evaluation using integrated Remote Sensing and GIS techniques of Birma River
Basin, in Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh, India” was considered for the present
research. The present study was made to understand actual water condition and its
contamination and to make little contribution in development and management of
water resources in Birma river basin.

1.2 Objective

The main objectives of the above-mentioned study are

 To understand the drainage basin through morphometric parameters to make

better planning and management of groundwater.
 To understand pattern and behaviour of groundwater under the present
lithology of the area and its influence on groundwater.
 Delineation of groundwater potential zone, to give priority to the specific area
or village for sustainability.
 To perform Geophysical investigation, resistivity survey has been proven with
time and space for groundwater exploration. Resistivity survey is most widely
used globally for subsurface investigation as there is decrease in resistivity
when brackish or saline water is come across becomes apparent during
resistivity survey.
 To perform groundwater quality check for both drinking and irrigational
purposes and compare the results with standards prescribed by the respective
departments. As more than
90% (LULC map of study area) of the study area shows cultivated land,
therefore irrigational water quality check was necessary.
 Water resource evaluation study of both monsoon and non-monsoon period,
recharge rates etc. and to proposed different groundwater management
techniques.

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1.3 Literature Review

1.3.1 Previous work done on Morphometric Analysis of river basin

(Biswas et al., 1999) Studied prioritisation of sub watersheds based upon

morphometric analysis of drainage basin with use of remote sensing and GIS in
Nayagram block of Midnapore district, West Bengal. They analysed sub watersheds
through Sediment Yield Index model with morphometric parameters. The study
revealed erosionally intense areas, flow duration and showed that prioritisation can be
done via morphometric analysis alone and does not require soil maps for the study.

(Chakraborty et al., 2002) Studied morphometric analysis in Birantiya Kalan

watershed, Pali district, Rajasthan. The author generated drainage map through FCC
image of IRS-1A/1B LISS -II and toposheet as a base map. The study revealed that
morphometric parameters is a feasible method to know the hydrological behaviour of
watersheds.

(Nag et al., 2003) Examined the influences of rock type and structures in drainage
network development in hard rock terrain in Purulia district, West Bengal. The
analysed morphometric parameters helped in understanding the behaviour of rock and
the results showed that tectonic disturbances have no influence on drainage network.
The morphometric parameters also helped in identifying the hydro geomorphological
units which further helped in delineating the groundwater prospect zones.

(Raj et al., 2003) Analysed geomorphic indicators in tectonically active areas in

Karjan river basin of Lower Narmada Valley. The author studied lineament trends on
drainage and geomorphological features on the study area. The study revealed that the
quality or smoothness of topography, meandering incision, gorges, all undergoes
subsequent changes due to differential upliftment of trending faults. The author
concluded that the based upon field observations and morphometric parameters, there
is differential upliftment of Karjan basin along trending faults during Holocene.

(Vittala et al., 2004) Worked on morphometric analysis of sub watersheds in the

Pavagada area of Tumkur district, Karnataka using remote sensing and GIS techniques.
They delineated the watersheds into 9 sub watersheds and calculated linear, areal and
relief parameters of drainage basin. Morphometric study of drainage is basically the

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study of geometry of the river basin. The study revealed that morphometric
analysis of river basin can be effectively done with the help of remote sensing and
GIS.

(Suresh et al., 2004) Studied prioritization on sub watersheds and assessment of

surface water potential through morphometric parameters in Tarai. Morphometric
parameters of the study area were used to estimate the sediment production rate.
Sediment production rate is a useful method for soil conservation and for
prioritisation of sub watersheds for planning conservation ways.

(Reddy et al., 2004) Investigated influence of drainage morphometric on landform

characteristic on hard rock terrain made of basalt with the use of remote sensing and
GIS. With the use satellite data and through visual interpretation the author identified
landforms. The author examined morphometric parameters and its impact on
landforms, drainage, water bearing formations, soil and land erosion. Author
concluded in his study that morphometric parameters plays a vital role in
understanding about physical properties of soil, landform characteristics and its
erosional features.

(Chopra et al., 2005) Analysed morphometrically sub watersheds in Gurdaspur

district, Punjab with the use of remote sensing and GIS techniques. In their study, the
morphometric analysis was done to understand the geometry of sub watersheds and
logarithm of number of streams with stream order was done to conclude the study.
Linear, areal and relief parameters were calculated of sub watersheds.

(Ratnam at al., 2005) Studied prioritisation of sub watersheds and check dam
positioning through sediment yield index and morphometric analysis with remote
sensing and GIS techniques in Tarafeni watershed in Midnapur district, West Bengal.
They demarcated the sub watersheds and their prioritisation through weighted factors
was done. Prioritisation of sub watersheds and micro watersheds was done via
sediment yield index. Based upon these analysis check dams positioning was done by
author. The results revealed that SYI model and morphometric analysis gives good
output in watersheds prioritisation.

(Das et al., 2005) Examined drainage morphometry in Raigad district, Maharashtra

using remote sensing and GIS techniques. Remote sensing & GIS techniques were

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applied to extract drainage parameters of fifteen watersheds in Raigad district. The
results of morphometric parameters revealed that study area is not influenced by
structural disturbances and the area rests above permeable and resistant rocks
formation and comes under dense forest cover.

(Singh et al., 2005) Studied prioritization of watersheds based on soil erosion through
morphometric analysis in Muskara Rao river basin, Saharanpur district, Uttar
Pradesh. The author estimated soil loss through MMF model and calculated
morphometric parameters for prioritization of sub watersheds and proposing
required soil conservation methods. The results showed that the area is not under the
influence of structural disturbances and is also under thick forest cover.

(Vijith et al., 2006) Analysed morphometric parameters through GIS of two uplands
sub watersheds of Meenachil river, Kottayam district, Kerela. The author analysed
linear, areal and relief parameters in hard rock terrain and showed dendritic drainage
network. The study revealed that terrain is rugged, high in runoff zone and slope as
well. This GIS based study helped the author in understanding the topography,
infiltration rate, behaviour and nature of bedrock and surface run off rate.

(Thakkar et al., 2007) Evaluated morphometric parameters and prioritize the mini
watersheds in Mohr watershed, Sabarkantha district, Gujarat. The study showed
dendritic drainage basin and revealed strong control over lithology. The prioritization
of mini watersheds was done on the basis of compound values. The mini watershed
with lowest compound parameter is given highest priority as it is more susceptible to
soil erosion and requires an instant soil conservation methods.

(Rudraiah et al., 2008) Studied morphometry of Kagna river basin in Gulbarga

district, Karnataka using remote sensing and GIS techniques. The study revealed that
area has coarse drainage texture and shows that drainage development is of mature
stage. The basin is of low relief with steep ground slopes. The author concluded that
remote sensing and GIS tools is proved to be very fruitful for drainage delineation
and its characteristics.

(Sreedevi et al., 2009) Studied morphometric analysis of watershed using SRTM data
in Wailapalli district, Nalgonda district, Andhra Pradesh. They studied the drainage
morphometry to understand its influence on hydrology of the basin. The results showed

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that the basin area is affected by precipitation and the drainage pattern is affected by
structural disturbances. The study proved to be useful in rainwater harvesting and
water basin management.

(Ahmed et al., 2010) Evaluated morphometric parameters through ASTER and

SRTM dem in Bandihole sub watersheds in Karnataka. The author extracted drainage
parameters via toposheets, ASTER and SRTM dem model and evaluated to make
proper planning and management of drainage basin. The results are concluded in a
way that digital elevation models are more efficient if the cell size is smaller.

(Mallik et al., 2011) Investigated morphometric parameters in Lidder catchment in

Kashmir Valley through GIS. The study revealed that total length and total number of
streams is highest in first order stream and it decreases with the decrease in stream
order. Further it showed that the with increase in drainage density, stream population
also increases.

(Singh et al., 2013) Studied morphometric parameters of Morar river basin, Madhya
Pradesh. The hydrogeological mapping was commenced with the help of
morphometric parameters. The study revealed that study area possess high permeable
soil with very low relief. The author used morphometric parameters to examine
geometry of catchment.

(Sreedevi et al., 2014) Analysed the significance of morphometric analysis to study

groundwater potential zones in a terrain controlled by structurally in Pageru river,
Cuddahpah district, Andhra Pradesh. The morphometric analysis of the study area
revealed that the area is not structurally influenced. The study also used in identifying
artificial zones in Pageru river basin. Analysed morphometric parameters was used to
delineate groundwater potential zones.

(Markose et al., 2014) Quantitatively analysed morphometric parameters of Kali

river basin through azimuth and drainage calculator and remote sensing. The study
revealed heterogeneity in drainage density of river basin and in stream frequency as
well. The analysed linear, areal and relief parameters through GIS and bearing azimuth
drainage calculator is found to be effective as alternate to the digitised map. This
newly formed technique and its application to drainage morphology is effective and
accurate in fluvial geomorphology as well.

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(Das et al., 2016) Evaluated different DEM’s for morphometric analysis in
mountainous terrain in Supin Upper Tons river basin, Uttarakhand. The basin showed
high relief with high drainage density and steep slopes from different digital elevation
models. The author concluded that digital elevation models extracted from toposheets
and ASTER data are turned out to be more accurate and reliable in absolute accuracy.

(Vidya et al., 2022) Morphometrically analysed watersheds in Shiriya river basin,

Kasargod, Kerela for sustainable development via multisensory satellite images. The
findings of this study revealed that Shiriya river basin has dendritic drainage network
with sixth order streams and is not much prone to soil erosion. It also showed
intermediate drainage texture and matured geomorphic cycle. This study is valued for
hydrogeological study of river basin, groundwater modelling and management.

1.3.2 Previous Work Done on Groundwater Potential Zones

(Ganapuram et al., 2009) Studied and mapped groundwater potential zones in Musi
river basin by means of remote sensing and GIS techniques. This study was done by
keeping groundwater availability for irrigational purposes and other agricultural
practices as an objective in mind. The author quantitatively classified groundwater
potential zones through various thematic maps. This study revealed that various
hydro geomorphological units such as valley filled deposits, paleo pediplains
and flood plain deposits are proposed sites for groundwater explorations. The
existence of lineaments features and faults improves the exploration output of these
units.

(Dar et al., 2010) Studied groundwater potential zone mapping in hard rock terrain
through remote sensing and GIS techniques in Mamundiyar basin, Tamil Nadu.
Remotely sensed data were interpreted to make thematic maps in GIS software and
generated groundwater potential maps. Overall results showed that remote sensing
provides an efficient tool for groundwater exploration.

(Gaur et al., 2011) Evaluated groundwater potential zones and modelling for its
management in Bangana river basin, Jaipur, Rajasthan. Thematic maps used as base
maps in layered configuration in GIS software and MODFLOW was used to generate
groundwater flow model. The groundwater flow model was superimposed on potential

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zone map to cress check its accuracy. The obtained result is proved to be fruitful
groundwater development and management plan.

(Magesh et al., 2012) Investigated groundwater potential zones through remote

sensing and GIS techniques along with multi influencing factor in Vaigai river system
in Theni district, Tamil Nadu. Author examined toposheets along with IRS-1C
satellite image to prepare various thematic maps required for generation of
groundwater potential zones. Weightage values and fixed score are given to each
raster form of thematic maps using multi influencing factor. The results of this
research work concludes that this work serves as a base for policy makers of
groundwater management and sustainable use of water resources.

(Agarwal et al., 2013) Delineated groundwater potential zone through analytical

network process and analytical hierarchy process in Unnao district, Uttar Pradesh.
These process are especially used to find weightage of thematic maps and to identify
groundwater potential zones. The identified groundwater potential zones was cross
verified by with well yield data to check the accuracy of results.

(Waikar et al., 2014) Evaluated groundwater potential zones in Parbani district,

Maharashtra through remote sensing and GIS. The author generated various thematic
maps like slope map, lineaments, drainage density, LULC, rainfall for generation of
groundwater potential zones. These potential zones are generated based upon weighted
factors of which thematic maps are based upon. The identification of groundwater
potential zones are very effective in finding areas for groundwater exploration.

(Mallick et al., 2015) Analysed geospatially and geostatiscally groundwater potential

zones in New Delhi, India. Author utilised ten thematic maps and gave them ranks
and weight values based upon Saaty’s scale and the assigned values are normalised
on the basis of eigen vector and analytical hierarchy process and finally zone map
was produced. The result was then correlated by author with pre and post monsoon
groundwater level change. This work serves as a base for groundwater exploration.

(Bathis et al., 2016) Geospatially delineated groundwater potential zones in

Doddahalla watershed, Karnataka. This work evaluated hydrogeological factors to
understand infiltration form and groundwater potential zones. Groundwater potential
zones were demarcated by layering of various thematic maps and these thematic maps

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were prepared by by remote sensing datas, satellite images etc. All the thematic maps
are given weightage values based upon hydrological factors. The author concluded
that this research work can be used for groundwater exploration and rainwater
harvesting management.

(Thapa et al., 2017) Assessed groundwater potential zone using multi- influencing
factor in Birbhum district, West Bengal. Author delineated groundwater potential
zones for monitoring conservation, development and management of groundwater.
Multi- influencing factor technique is used to give weights and ranks to all
parameters used in groundwater potential zone map. The outcome of this study is that
it gives first hand information to the policy makers and local government authorities
to better groundwater management.

(Kumar et al., 2018) Delineated groundwater potential zone via geospatial

technology and analytical hierarchy process in hard rock terrain of Hazaribagh and
Ramgarh district of Jharkhand in mining impacted areas. Author prepared appropriate
thematic maps and given weightage values to depending upon Saaty’s scale and
normalizing it by eigen vector techniques to prepare groundwater potential map. This
study showed satisfying results to study groundwater exploration and other
hydrogeologic conditions in the study area.

(Arulbalaji et al., 2019) Analysed groundwater potential zones through analytical

hierarchy process and GIS in south of Western Ghats, India. To demarcate
groundwater potential zones, the author used twelve thematic map LU/LC, drainage
density, lineament density, rainfall, geology, slope, geomorphology, topographic
wetness index (TWI). The AHP assigns weights to each thematic maps depending
upon their features and water bearing capacity. The obtained results cross verified
with other hydrogeological properties of the area and it showed 85% accurate. The
study concluded with the groundwater potential zone giving perception to the policy
makes for better management and development.

(Saranya et al., 2020) Evaluated groundwater potential zones by using analytical

hierarchy process via remote sensing and GIS in Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu.
Parameters such as slope, rainfall, lineament and drainage density, soil etc. are put in
weighted overlay in GIS domain to generate groundwater potential zones. The result

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obtained were further verified through well yield data and groundwater level change
in pre and post monsoon. They all showed good correlation with each other.
Groundwater recharge plans can be made accordingly as results showed accuracy and
verified also.

(Ruidas et al., 2021) Characterise groundwater potential zones in water deficient hard
rock formations in West Bengal. Author delineated groundwater potential zones
through logistic regression, random forest and support vector machine with other
thematic maps. Multi collinearity analysis was used to avoid any collinearity issues.
The study concluded that this research work can prove to be very useful groundwater
management in hard rock terrain.

(Ghosh et al., 2022) Analysed groundwater potential zones through multi criteria
decision analysis and analytical hierarchy process in Kangsabati river basin,
Midnapore district, West Bengal. With the help of various thematic maps and through
multi criteria decision analysis along with analytical hierarchy process weight values
and ranks are allocated to each thematic maps to generate groundwater potential
zones. This work is very useful in understanding hydro geological conditions of the
area and its water bearing formations.

1.3.3 Previous Work done on Groundwater Level Fluctuations

(Nayak et al., 2015) Examined GIS based groundwater fluctuations mapping in Bina
river basin, Madhya Pradesh. Author measured groundwater levels at random points
and used kriging interpolation to represent spatial distribution of groundwater level.
With this, groundwater fluctuation map was generated of the study area. The study
results suggest that a proper groundwater planning is required as there is decrease in
water level and suggest alternate crop pattern for better management of groundwater.

(Priyanka et al., 2016) Analysed groundwater level fluctuation and total dissolved
solids (TDS) variations in groundwater in Mewat district, Haryana. The study was
done by monitoring pre and post monsoon groundwater level and samples collected to
chemically analyse TDS of groundwater. The results of this study suggests that there
is decline in groundwater level and high salinity is mainly due to over exploitation of
water.

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(Kumar et al., 2018) Studied groundwater level trends via non parametric tests in
alluvial aquifers in Lucknow division, Uttar Pradesh. Author evaluated groundwater
level trend by using Modified Mann Kendall(MMK) along with Sen’s slope estimator
in the study area. The study showed increasing trend in GWL and it also showed that
MMK test is an suitable tool to monitor Groundwater level trends.

(Kochhar et al., 2021) Author studied prediction and forecast of groundwater level in
pre and post monsoon periods via statistical modelling in Punjab. In this study author
inventoried three wells in pre and post monsoon for twenty years and used long short
term memory and multi-layer Perceptron along with statistical model
SARIMA(Seasonal Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average) used for generate
groundwater fluctuations. The study concluded that analysis based on data driven is
much convenient, easier and faster when it come to groundwater fluctuations as
compared to physical model approach.

(Gautam et al., 2022) Studied decadal groundwater level change in Pratapgarh

district in Rajasthan. The pre and post monsoon groundwater level fluctuation were
examined using statistical means of observatory wells. The study revealed the decline
in groundwater level trends and likely to be affected by precipitation. Author
concluded that decline in GW is due to inapt withdrawal of groundwater and this work
can be useful for future management of groundwater recharge in places showing
declining trend.

1.3.4 Previous Work Done on Physico-Chemical Analysis of

Groundwater

(Devi, 2012) Examined physicochemical analysis of groundwater in Cuddalore

district, Tamil Nadu near industrial area. Author collected groundwater and municipal
water samples from seven villages and water quality parameters were analysed and
compared to Indian Standard’s Specifications. The study revealed contaminated
groundwater at few places while rest of the samples were within permissible limits.

(Yadav et al., 2013) Investigate physicochemical analysis of groundwater at selected

sites of Agra city, Uttar Pradesh. The aim of this study to study the groundwater
quality of the area considering the polluted Yamuna river of Agra. The study revealed

14
high TDS, high TH and high Na+ salt. Most of the samples showed exceptionally high
values and none of them were under standards prescribed by WHO(2011) and
BIS(2012). The area need immediate precautionary measures or remedies to prevent
any water prone diseases.

(Chavan et al., 2014) Studied Physicochemical analysis of groundwater in Solapur

city, Maharashtra. Author collected seven samples from the study area and analysed
for their quality check. The analysed sample revealed that all the samples are fit for
human consumption and under permissible limit.

(Gautam et al., 2015) Evaluated groundwater quality in the Chotanagpur plateau

region of Subarnarekha river basin, Jharkhand. The collected samples were analyzed
for physical and chemical parameters and heavy metals. The analysis revealed high
concentration of NO3-, TDS. This study revealed that most of the samples are
contaminated and needs precautionary measured for human consumption.

(Sahoo et al., 2016) Analysed physicochemical analysis of groundwater in and

around Talcher coal field, Angul district, Odisha. The analysed sample showed that
high variations in Na+, TS, Alkalinity, TH, F- concentrations due to improper dumping
of wastes, industrial doings are severe in the area. Proper actions need to be taken at
few places immediately to avoid any water borne diseases.

(Nagarju et al., 2016) Worked on hydrogeochemistry and groundwater quality

assessment in Rapur, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh. Author collected thirty
groundwater samples from wells randomly and analysed physical and chemical
parameters for their aptness in drinking and irrigational purposes. The analysis
revealed that samples passed the quality check and groundwater are fit for human
consumption and for irrigational purposes.

(Mishra et al., 2019) Examined the impact of municipal solid waste landfill leachates
on groundwater quality in Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh. Author performed physico
chemical analysis on groundwater and found that that samples which are from near
landfill sites are high in TDS, TH,EC, NO3- shows high concentration indicating that
GW are significantly due to leaching. The study suggests the need to control landfill
sites for reducing the impact of municipal wastes on groundwater.

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(Vig et al., 2022) Evaluated groundwater quality check for domestic and irrigational
purposes through physical, chemical and irrigational parameters via multiple indexing
approach in Rupnagar, Punjab. The analysis revealed that TH, Ca2+, Mg2+, F- are
above permissible limit. Water Quality Index (WQI) showed that most of the samples
are of poor quality and can cause serious health hazard.

(Goswami et al., 2022) Analysed hydrogeochemistry of groundwater for drinking

and irrigational purposes in Biswanath and Sonitpur district, Assam. The samples
were analysed for physical and chemical parameters and heavy metals. The analysed
result revealed that all groundwater sample are fit for domestic purpose and for
irrigation as well. This study can be used in future research for correlation purpose.

1.3.5 Previous Work Done on Geophysical Investigation For

Groundwater Exploration

(Gowd 2004) Evaluated electrical resistivity surveys to outline groundwater potential

aquifers in Peddavanka watershed in Anantapur district of Andhra Pradesh. Author
conducted 99 vertical electrical resistivity soundings over an area of 398 Km2. Iso
resistivity contour maps were made and interpretated with reference to sub surface
layers thickness. Resistivity results were associated with present lithological
information. From this study, author found that the weathered and fractured portions
in limestone and shale constitute the productive water bearing zones.

(Maiti et al., 2012) Analysed groundwater explorations in hard rock terrain by the
use of artificial neural networks based upon inversion of direct current resistivity data
Tenduli-Vengurla, Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Author used inverse method
of vertical electrical sounding data as it hold especial significance in crystalline hard
rock terrain. This inversion method revealed that top layer is comprised of laterites
followed by mixture of clayey sand and granites as basement rocks. The accessible
area for groundwater exploration is in weathered layer of laterite and clayey sand.

(Kumar et al., 2015) Delineated fracture zone using integrated VLF resistivity and
electromagnetic data for groundwater exploration in Vindhyan fringe belt of Ahraura
region of Mirzapur district of Uttar Pradesh. Author conducted very low frequency
electro magnetic survey along ten traverse profiles and four gradient profiling of
direct current resistivity survey was carried out at the same position of VLF-EM to

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correlate the results. This study resulted in suggesting suitable fracture zones for
groundwater exploration.

(Vasantrao et al., 2017) Worked on detailed study of Wenner and Schlumberger

electrical resistivity method for groundwater exploration in Dhule district of
Maharashtra. With this study, author understood the fact that geophysical method
gives more authentic and better information about subsurface. The author carried out
54 VES covering the entire study area and representing different lithological units.
Author concluded that both Wenner and Schlumberger methods have their own
merits and demerits but Wenner’s inverse method is more handy for interpretation
and calculation while Schlumberger method is more easy but unhandy for application
and is often used in areas of similar geological formation.

(Kannan et al., 2019) demarcated possible zones of groundwater in hard rock terrain
with the help of geophysical and geoinformatics approach in Nagavathi watershed in
Dharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu. Author carried 1D geophysical survey i.e., VES in
some selected location covering entire study area. They carried out 46 VES using
Schlumberger technique using equal grid method. From this study, the author
identified top soil and sub surface layers and bedrock and possible zones for
groundwater exploration.

(Jamal et al., 2020) Evaluated groundwater potential zones through electrical

resistivity in Sangod block of Kota district in Rajasthan. Author caried out 21 VES
data using Schlumberger technique to determine subsurface layers and to delineate
GWPZ. This study reveals five maximum layers and A type VES curves and suggests
loose pocket of sands and fractured to semi fractured zones in the area. These zones
are ideal zones for groundwater exploration.

(Bhatnagar et al., 2022) Delineated favourable aquifers for groundwater

development using schlumberger configuration resistivity techniques in Rajouri
district of J & K. Author investigated characteristics of sub surface layer and
groundwater potential zones by using 30 VES sites to find suitable drilling sites.
Based on resistivity investigation, author concluded that 9 VES sites are appropriate
for tubewell digging while 8 sites are not suitable for because of hard and compact
rock formation.

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1.3.6 Notable Work Done By Geological Survey Of India (GSI) and
Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) in Mahoba and
Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh.

(Basu and Rajan 1973) Carried out detailed survey if geology of the area
around Kabrai and Charkhari in Hamirpur district, Uttar Pradesh. (GSI)

(Shukla and Pati 1999) Carried out specialised thematic mapping of older enclaves
(Migmatites, Gneisses and Supracrustals) within Bundelkhand region, Uttar Pradesh.
(GSI)

(Rai et al., 2014) Worked in ground geophysical mapping in different parts covering
sheet no. 54O/2,3,6,7 &11 in Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. (GSI)

(Singh and Bamniya, 2015) Worked on geochemical mapping of

Bundelkhand Granitoid Complex(BGC) in parts of toposheet nos. 54O/12 and
54O/16. (GSI)

Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) Carried out aquifer mapping

a l o n g w i t h management of groundwater resources in Mahoba and Hamirpur
district, Uttar Pradesh.

1.4 Scope of This Work

As described in the section why this specific site is selected for this work, this
research work can prove to be useful for future management and development of
groundwater in hard rock terrains. Disorganised usage of groundwater without proper
contemplative thought over water table can be can be transformed into organised usage
of groundwater through this study.

This study can also be used as a comparative standard or for trend study of
groundwater quality for drinking and irrigational purposes and can be further used for
mitigation measures of high concentration or ions in groundwater.

GWPZ is an effective tool for analysing exploration sites remotely. This work can
give detailed insight into the topography of the terrain and can save time, costs and
management for groundwater exploration.

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Groundwater fluctuations can be analysed for annually trends through this study.
Nature and amount of recharge, rise in water table, change in water level can be very
effectively analysed through this study.

Assessment of groundwater, draft of groundwater, recharge in monsoon & non

monsoon period and be very well utilised for proper management and planning of
water resources.

Overall, this study can be time, cost, manpower effective, for management of water
resources without giving any labour or huge energy into it.

1.5 Thesis Presentation

In the first chapter one will be introduced with the general outline of the research
topic while giving the current scenario of groundwater condition both nationally and
globally. It also explains briefly the meaning of water resource evaluation, its
advantages and its disadvantages. This chapter deals with telling the readers why this
specific study area was chosen for this research and its objective behind it. It explains
briefly methodology adopted for this work and gives detailed information about
literature review which is considered as a first and prime step of any research and is
discussed thoroughly here. This gives an extensive view about kind of work done in
groundwater management, methods adopted by different authors in research paper,
some published and unpublished reports by government organisation is discussed
under literature review. This chapter also gives information of specific researches
done on groundwater in different terrains in both national and international.

The second chapter deals with general description of the study area. Its physiography,
climate, flora and fauna, vegetation, water and forest resources along with mineral
resources, land resources etc. It also gives readers a brief description of mining,
deforestation and geo-environmental hazards. General introduction of the area which
includes, location of the area, slope of Birma river basin, soil texture, elevation, land
use/land cover(LU/LC), rainfall trends in the part ten years. This chapter gives a
brief view of whole Birma river basin.

The third chapter gives information about material and methodology adopted to
conduct water resource evaluation study of Birma river basin. This includes

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methodology adopted for morphometric analysis, delineation og groundwater
potential zone, groundwater quality analysis, geophysical investigation and
occurrence and movement of groundwater.

The fourth chapter gives detailed description about geology of the area. It will tell
reader the basal constituent of Birma basin and lithology of the basin, time of
formation of rock, mineral constituents of rocks, regional geology of Birma basin, and
some detailed description of structure features of the basin. the regional and local
geology are well represented through map to give holistic view to the reader.

The fifth chapter deals with geomorphology of the basin. It deals with geomorphic
features of Birma basin and agents associated with it. It also give brief description
about morphometric parameters of Birma river basin and its sub-watersheds. It also
explains the prioritisation of sub- watersheds and need for prioritization on Birma
basin. The reader will go through correlation of morphometric parameters and
hypsometric curve to get more description of geomorphology of the area.

The sixth chapter gives comprehensive description of groundwater potential zone

(GWPZ) of Birma basin. It gives view about basin aspects like lineaments and its
significance related to groundwater exploration. GWPZ is extracted from analytical
hierarchy process (AHP) and gives insight into the probable areas for groundwater
exploration areas without field visit. GWPZ map also suggests reader potential
recharge zones and suggests sites for identification of dug wells/ or bore wells.

The seventh chapter deals with pre and post monsoon groundwater fluctuations. It
allows reader to understand pre monsoon groundwater movement and direction and
post monsoon as well. It gives insight view of water table contour map to understand
nature and behaviour of water bearing formation and in knowing better about
groundwater movement trend of ten years through comparative study on ten year data.
This will give view about current water table condition of Birma basin.

The eighth chapter gives the detailed view about geophysical investigation of
groundwater. It allows reader to understand vertical electrical sounding(VES) curve
matching and its interpretation to get comprehensive knowledge groundwater
exploration. This chapter is designed to extract underground information like
identifying GWPZ, rock fractures, lineament features etc. This also suggests that

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various information about water harvesting zones through VES points to know the
development and management of water resource evaluation.

The ninth chapter deals in deeply understanding the hydrogeochemistry of

groundwater and holds a very significant part of this work. This part of thesis is so
well planned to demonstrate dissolution of ions and how they degrade groundwater
quality of both drinking and irrigational water. This chapter is designed to show
spatial and non spatial distribution of ions in Birma river basin. using appropriate
methods required.

The tenth chapter deals with water resource evaluation of Birma river basin. It
suggests the conjunctive use of groundwater and when applied scientifically it
multiplies water resource to its optimum use. It suggests different recharge of
groundwater from various sources in monsoon and non-monsoon season.

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