Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024), 62-76 p-ISSN 2541-1683|e-ISSN 2541-2426

Available online at http://journal.unnes.ac.id/nju/index.php/harmonia

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15294/harmonia.v24i1.44034

Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning

between Indonesia, The Netherlands, and France

Kun Setyaning Astuti1, Marlene Belly2, Ridwan Maulana3, Alice Armini1

Universitas Negeri Yogyakarta, Indonesia

1

2
Ethnomusicology of University of Poitiers, France
3
University of Groningen, Netherlands

Submitted: 2023-04-25. Revised: 2023-09-19. Accepted: 2023-11-01

Abstract

The ‘affective domain’ supports students’ moral development, shaping their character. The re-
search aims to investigate the music learning process in Indonesia, the Netherlands, and France
and determine its contribution to the affective domain. The study adopted a mixed methods
approach with sequential designs. In the first phase, qualitative data were collected through ob-
servations of learning processes as well as through interviews and document analysis. These
qualitative data informed the development and administration of instruments for the second
phase that measured aspects of the music learning process expected to contribute to the affective
domain. Based on the analysis of 74 music learning processes, this research showed differences
between the three countries in song choices and methods for developing the affective domain
through music learning. Song choices in the Netherlands and France were based on the song’s
potential to touch students’ feelings, while those used in Indonesia were selected to build moral
character and foster national pride. In the Indonesian music learning context, persuasion and
intervening were predominant methods – as they were (although to a lesser extent) in France. In
contrast, the Netherlands made greater use of inculcation and, along with France, habituation.

Keywords: affective music domain; habituation-inculcation-model; music learning

How to Cite: Astuti, K. S., Belly, M., Maulana, R., & Armini, A. (2024). Differences in Affective Domain Development
Music Learning between Indonesia, The Netherlands, and France. Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education, 24(1),
62-76

INTRODUCTION for the benefit of humanity. The subject of

history specifically aims to help students
The purpose of education is not only understand the past and its impact on the
to develop students’ intellectual capacities future. This is in line with Chasan (1985)
but also their personalities. The purpose of who mentioned that “as teacher is educa-
school education is to shape learners’ per- ted person have dealt with the relationship
sonalities through the teaching of subjects between moral knowledge and moral acti-
(Mursell, 2007, p.5). By studying mathe- on in the educational sphere”.
matics, for example, students are expected The purpose of learning an art – in-
to improve their reasoning abilities, and cluding music – is for students to sharpen
by studying natural sciences, they are ex- their sense of beauty. Dewantara (in Astu-
pected to be able to use natural resources ti, 2009) said that The students experience


Corresponding author:
E-mail: [email protected]

62
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 63

and appreciate the art while simultaneous- Conklin, 2007). As such, these three do-
ly reflecting on its beauty in their daily li- mains of dimension are key to the forma-
ves. This sense of beauty may soften their tion of students’ personalities. In music
feelings, making them more considerate education, especially in Indonesia, the cog-
towards themselves and others. This is in nitive and psychomotor domains seem to
line with Lehtonen, Juvonen, & Ruismäki develop much faster than the affective do-
(2013), who state that the assignment for main (Astuti et al., 2019), perhaps becau-
arts education is to help students develop se subjects taught in schools place greater
an aesthetic attitude through which they emphasis on intellectual and skill develop-
can see beauty also outside the arts and ment. The affective domain seems to be
understand different artistic ways of ex- less focused on, which can have negative
pression consequences for the development of this
Besides developing the ability to domain over time. Little is known whether
play, learning music can form positive this trend is also visible in other contexts
attitudes. Many countries use music lear- outside Indonesia.
ning to cultivate morals. For example, Based on the problem, the aim of
in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal, school this study was to determine how music
songs have been used to consciously teach learning was used to develop students in
values and character (Treacy & Wester- the affective domain in several countries.
lund, 2019), and in Taman Siswa, Indone- Given that Indonesia’s implementation
sia, traditional Javanese children’s singing of affective domain development is un-
games, dolanan anak, have been used to de- derdeveloped (Astuti et al., 2019), under-
velop children’s cognitive and social skills standing and comparing affective domain
(Wang, 2015). Thus, teachers are expected development of music learning in other
to be able to use music learning to develop educational contexts may provide direc-
students’ personalities. tion for future affective domain develop-
In 1956, Bloom and colleagues ment in Indonesia.
(Bloom, 1971; Simpson, 1971; Krathwol This research was conducted in Indo-
et al., 1964; Krathwol, 2002) developed a nesia, the Netherlands, and France. Indo-
taxonomy of educational learning dimen- nesia was chosen to represent an Eastern
sions that have influenced curriculum and context; furthermore, it is the country in
assessment development and has been which the main author resides. The Net-
used as a benchmark in compiling vario- herlands was chosen because it is a count-
us standards in education (Dettmer, 2005). ry that has a strong egalitarian culture (As-
The taxonomy informs the development tuti et al., 2017), and France was selected
of learning objectives, which are common- because France is often viewed as one of
ly divided into cognitive, psychomotor, the countries that has a high art sense, in-
and affective domains. Based on Simp- cluding in music. Therefore, France can be
son theory, Astuti et al. (2022) developed used as a benchmark for achievement in
a theory of psychomotor of music in eight music teaching. A preliminary observa-
stages: 1) perception, 2) set, 3) imitation, 4) tion showed that the learning process in
guided response (response counseling), 5) France differs from that in other Western
mechanism, 6) complex response, 7) adap- countries like the Netherlands and Nor-
tation, 8) originality. way, which are somewhat akin to Eastern
The Bloom taxonomic theory was re- learning (Astuti et al., 2019).
vised by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001).
One of the revisions reversed Evaluati- Relationship between Affective Domain
on (commonly called ‘C6’) and Synthesis and Morality
(commonly called ‘C5’). In its new position Krathwohl et al. (1964) argued that
at the highest level of the model, Synthe- the affective domain incorporates several
sis was renamed to ‘Create’ (Cochran & phases: receiving, responding, valuing,
64 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

conceptualizing (organizing), and interna- the statement, wisdom, as a moral charac-

lizing. The first level of affective taxonomy teristic, is obtained from brain work and
is receiving. At this level, a person receives heart. It can be seen that morality is con-
new information, accepting or complying nected with Krathwohl’s affective phase,
with a provision or policy. Receiving is being especially the third, fourth, and fifth pha-
aware of, or sensitive to, the existence of ses. A person’s ability to make decisions
specific ideas, material, or phenomena and for the greater good, consider collective
being willing to tolerate them. Examples interests, and behave well are examples of
include: to differentiate, to accept, to listen the affective domain’s ability at that phase.
(for), and to respond to. The second phase
is responding, the level at which someone Dimension of Moral Development
actively responds to a stimulus, such as Morality ‘is a set of norms, ideals,
doing a task, answering a question, or ha- and dispositions governing conduct and
ving an opinion. The third phase is valuing. thought that claims authority’ (Morris,
At this stage, a person is able to make the 2000). Thus, moral existence can appear in
right decision when faced with different or various forms. Kohlberg (in Dawson, 2002,
conflicting values. For example, a person p.58) states that there are three levels of
must decide whether to attend lectures or moral development, namely pre-conven-
an audition when the schedules of the two tional, conventional, and post-conventio-
collide. The fourth phase is conceptualizing nal. At the pre-conventional level, there
(organizing), the level at which a person are two stages. The first stage is a moral at-
initiates a movement that influences or titude adopted to avoid punishment, and
mobilizes others to follow. For example, the second stage is based on the hope of
someone brings together a group of people getting a reward. The conventional level
to create a charitable organization, organi- also has two stages, namely, the stage of
ze a seminar, or form a music group. The meeting others’ expectations and the sta-
fifth phase, which is the highest level in the ge of fulfilling duties and upholding laws.
affective taxonomic hierarchy, is internali- The post-conventional level also consists
zing. This happens when student’s beha- of two stages: the first stage is adherence
vior becomes consistent and predictable, to the social contract or utility and indivi-
as if it stems from their character or lifesty- dual rights. The second stage is complian-
le (Qomari, 2015). ce with universal ethical principles. Mo-
Gronlund (in Olatunji, 2013, p. 98) ex- rals can also have a religious dimension
plains that ‘as affective results from simple (Ginanjar, 2001, p.14); for example, when
to complex, they increasingly become in- someone works hard, not because this is
ternalized and integrated with behavior to required by their company but because of
form complex value systems and patterns their devotion to God.
of behavior.’ Qomari (2015) also observed Sincerity stems from pragmatism
that the affective domain may involve and social relations as well as from religio-
using a sense (e.g., touch, taste) and that us awareness. An inventory of character
the target of the affective domain includes education values such
​​ as honesty, since-
perseverance, accuracy, and the ability rity, empathy, and justice can be grouped
to solve logical and systematic problems. according to these dimensions. For examp-
This domain is reflected in behaviors rela- le, kindness in a person can arise due to the
ted to emotions, such as feelings, values, emergence of either pragmatism, social re-
interests, caring, motivation, and attitudes. lations, or religious awareness. The kind-
Dryden (in Kushartanti, 2004, p.9) ness that arises from pragmatism is due
mentioned that one of the basic laws of the mainly to reward-seeking, especially at the
brain is that the brain and heart try to be pre-conventional level. However, kind-
close. If the brain is trained continuously, ness may also arise from the awareness of
it will become wiser and calmer. Based on universal values at the post-conventional
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 65

level. The kindness that arises from social ter education method, Yumpi (2013) pro-
relations is primarily caused by the increa- posed an intervention model to enter the
sing awareness that doing something good environment and perform the expected
will bring a positive response from the behaviour. Attaran (2015) noted that Imam
surrounding environment. On the other al-Ghazali, the highly influential 11th-cen-
hand, if it arises from religious awareness, tury Islamic scholar, equated moral educa-
kindness is primarily motivated, at the tion with habituation.
conventional level, by submission to God By integrating Rest, Thoma & Be-
and a belief that God always sees and wat- beau (1999) methods of moral education
ches, even though God is unseen. This is in and Krathwohl’s taxonomy, it can be seen
line with the concept of ikhsan. Kuliyatuin that persuasion is a method of character
(2020) states that the meaning of ihsana is development in which students (as sub-
to worship God as if you see Him, then if jects of teachers’ moral character develop-
you do not see Him, then indeed, He sees. ment activity) are at the receiving level of
Kohlberg does not include the re- Krathwohl’s taxonomy. With the interven-
ligious landscape in his theory of moral tion method, students are encouraged to
development. However, given that peop- respond to the teacher’s stimulus, so they
le may do good without any pragmatic or are, in this case, at the ‘responding’ level.
social purpose, religious faith is included In the inculcation or understanding met-
in this research as an additional landsca- hod described by Kirschenbaum, students
pe that needs to be considered. This me- are invited to participate in discussions so
ans that moral education may be based not that moral values are embedded through
only on pragmatism and social relations, the process of understanding. When as-
but on the relationship between humans sociated with the Krathwohl affective do-
and God, particularly for religious people. main, this method can be categorized at
the valuing level. The modeling method is
Methods of Moral Development at the organizational level, and the habitu-
Adopting a neo-Kohlbergian appro- ation method is at the internalization level.
ach, Rest, Thoma and Bebeau (1999) pro- The relationship between affective,
posed a four-component model of moral moral, and the methods of developing mo-
functioning that embraces different as- rals is as in Figure 1.
pects of morality, including moral sensi-
tivity, judgment, motivation, and perso-
nality. According to Narvaez and Vaidich
(2008), this model attempts to integrate the
affective domain, cognitive domain, and
the motivation for human morality. Kir-
schenbaum (Narvaez and Vaidich, 2008)
lists 100 moral development methods, in-
cluding inculcation, modeling, facilitati-
on, and developing the skills required for
adapting to change. In contrast to indoct-
Figure 1. Method of Moral Development
rination, inculcation is characterized by
expressing beliefs with reason, treating ot-
Developing Affective Domain Through
hers fairly, and valuing different opinions.
Music
Meanwhile (Zuchdi, 201048) states that
In music, three actors are involved:
modeling is a method of moral education
composers, music players (they are both
by giving examples. Facilitation is a met-
call musicians), and listeners. These three
hod of character education related to the
elements are together called the musical
development of moral judgment.
stage. In the affective domain, composers
Regarding implementing the charac-
66 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

and music players can be in the phase of To investigate how the affective do-
organizing and internalizing, while the lis- main was developed through music lear-
teners can be in the receiving and respon- ning in three countries – Indonesia, the
ding positions. The stages of receiving and Netherlands, and France – this research
responding can be further broken down used a sequential mixed model design
into different phases. For example, a liste- (Day, Sammons, and Gu, 2008), combi-
ner may actively listen to music, carefully ning qualitative and quantitative methods.
paying attention to the melody and har- Qualitative methods used were observa-
monization, capturing the messages being tions of music learning classes, interviews
conveyed. This is in contrast to those who with stakeholders and document analysis.
passively listen to music. The survey was conducted quantitatively
In general, the affective domain in during observations of music learning ses-
music can be divided into two. The first sions.
relates to musical elements, such as the
musical expression imbued by the player Procedure
to create, for example, a melancholic am- Spreadly (in Garrido, 2017) states that
biance. The second relates to a general af- the qualitative technique used here was
fective dimension linked to teaching mo- ethnography (Spreadly, 2017), including
rals, including discipline, tolerance, and qualitative data collection, analysis, and
cooperation. All of these values have broa- inference, followed by another qualitative
der relevance than the field of music alone; data collection. The researcher observed
hence, the moral learning taking place in music learning classes at kindergarten and
music education has a broader application. tertiary levels in Indonesia, the Nether-
There are two affective domains in lands, and France. These observations ai-
music activities. The first is the affective med to obtain general descriptions of the
domain related to the core elements of mu- implementation of the music learning pro-
sic. Kamien (2008) stated that the core is cess in these various contexts.
rhythm, melody, harmony, scale, musical In Indonesia, the observations were
texture, musical form, and style, besides carried out in the provinces of Yogyakarta
technique, because it influences musical and Central Java. In the Netherlands, ob-
style. servations were carried out in the cities of
The second affective domain is asso- Utrecht and Den Haag. In France, the ob-
ciated with the development of character servation was carried out in the Province
or morals. This is consistent with Perez- of Poitiers.
Moreno and Carrilo’s observation (2020) More in-depth information related
that music education has two major the- to the factors underlying the learning pro-
mes: the first examines the impact of mu- cess, such as values, philosophies, para-
sic education on the discipline itself, and digms, objectives, models, materials, and
the second considers its effects beyond the methods, was obtained through interviews
discipline, such as on music’s capacity to with lecturers, teachers, school principals,
shape a student’s character. education experts, policymakers, and ot-
Based on this duality of the affecti- her stakeholders. These findings were then
ve domain, this study classifies the deve- compared with the gathered through do-
lopment of the affective domain into two cumentation, including the data from cur-
types: affect that is developed by the ma- ricula, books, handbooks, learning guides,
terial substance of music and affect that is and government policies related to educa-
developed by the music learning process. tion in each country.
Based on the qualitative data ana-
METHOD lysis, the researchers developed two re-
search instruments to collect quantitative
Research Design data to measure the characteristics of the
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 67

music used in learning and the affective ment using three independent raters.
development methods used. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.574, in-
dicating sufficient reliability. The corrected
Research Instruments item-total correlations for the indicators of
The research develops two instru- the affective level exceeded 0.3, indicating
ments of research. The first instrument was that the construct validity of the research
an observation sheet containing indicators instrument was good.
to measure musical elements in a song. Furthermore, researchers returned to
These indicators were rhythm, melody, the field to measure, using the instruments
and harmony, broken down into 15 sub- developed, characteristic of the musical
indicators: rhythm, meter, accent, scale, material and the methods used in develo-
variation, contrast, repetition, consonance, ping students’ affective domain. Observa-
triad, dissonance, technique, expression, tions were made of 18 learning processes
climax, tempo, and feeling. The scoring in Indonesia, 46 in the Netherlands, and 8
used a Likert scale with a range of scores in France.
between 1 and 5 for each sub-indicator.
Score 1 = a very slow rhythm, and score 5 The Unit Analysis
= a very fast one. The unit analysis of the research is
Three raters used the instrument to music teaching and learning at the class-
measure musical elements based on the room level. The sample in this study was
observation sheets developed to determi- drawn from the population of music teach-
ne the first instrument’s reliability. The ing and learning (kindergarten to univer-
instrument reliability was measured using sity level) in the three countries. National
Cronbach’s alpha (Pallant, 2013), and a education policies in each country ensure
coefficient of 0.72 was obtained, indicating uniformity in the learning process across
a high level of reliability. Construct validi- each country, so it can be expected that
ty was measured by calculating corrected each sample site within a country shares
item-total correlations for each item in values, ideologies, philosophies, paradig-
the instrument, exceeding the recommen- ms, principles, systems and learning mo-
ded level of 0.30 (Pallant, 2013). Based on dels.
these criteria, the instrument is deemed
sufficiently reliable and could be used to Sampling
measure the music’s characteristics in the In Indonesia, the are nine sites cho-
song used. sen from the Region of Central Java and
The second instrument measured the Special Region of Yogyakarta. They are
the five affective development methods: two state elementary schools in the Cities of
persuasion, intervention, inculcation, mo- Temanggung and Yogyakarta; three junior
deling, and habituation. The researchers high schools in Temanggung, Wonosari,
measured the length of time each of the- and Yogyakarta; three senior high schools
se five methods was used during a music in the Cities of Sleman and Wonosari, and
learning session. Each country’s primary a university in Yogyakarta city. Meanw-
affective development method was deter- hile, in the Netherlands, six research si-
mined by identifying the method with the tes from kindergarten to Universities in
highest proportion of learning time from Utrecht and The Haag were chosen.). In
all observations conducted in each count- France, University Conservatorium and
ry. The mean for each country was ob- Elementary school in the Province of Poi-
tained by adding the duration (in minutes) tiers were chosen as the research sites.
of the implementation and dividing it by Research participants were selected
the number of sessions in that country. based on their involvement and influen-
Instrument reliability and validity ce on the learning process. In the Nether-
tests were conducted for the second instru- lands, interviews were conducted with 11
68 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

lecturers at educational universities and RESULT AND DISCUSSION

art higher education institutions, three
university leaders in Utrecht and Lei- Based on the interviews with poli-
den, three policymakers, and ten teach- cymakers in the Netherlands regarding
ers and principals of primary and secon- general education, the Dutch government
dary schools. In France, interviews were started to reform the education curriculum
conducted with two policymakers, a vice in the Netherlands approximately 50 years
chancellor, a director of music education, ago by inviting experts in different fields
two lecturers, librarians, and teachers in and all elements of society with the aim
the Province of Poitiers. Meanwhile, in In- of creating a positive learning atmosphere
donesia, interviews were conducted with for the development of intellectuals, skills,
30 lecturers and art teachers as well as with knowledge, and behaviours of the Dutch
three policymakers. students and society. As a result, the Net-
herlands has developed rapidly and achie-
Analysis ved success. In this country, the teaching
This research involved qualitative of theoretical and practical matters are gi-
and quantitative analysis. In the Nether- ven simultaneously to help students gain
lands, qualitative document analyses were comprehensive skills. Furthermore, the
carried out on curricula, handbooks, and interview data also reveal that teachers
learning guides from kindergarten, prima- and lecturers feel they are free to use any
ry, secondary, for tertiary education. The learning method as long as the learning
analyses were focused on their education objectives are achieved. The formation of
system, learning models and learning eva- attitudes, especially in terms of tolerance,
luations. The same kind of analyses were respect for others, and courtesy, is the fo-
also done in Indonesia. Meanwhile, in cus of the learning process in the Nether-
France, document analyses were carried lands. Furthermore, attitude formation is
out on past musical documents and books. considered the responsibility of all parties,
Regarding quantitative analysis, the data including the community.
were analysed with descriptive statistics The data from the interviews with
to see the difference in the development of policymakers, schools, teachers, and ot-
affective aspects in the three countries. her stakeholders in Indonesia show that
An eclectic approach was employed national character building becomes the
to examine disparities in the development main focus of the learning process. Eve-
of the affective domain in the music educa- ry learning process has to be designed to
tion process across Indonesia, the Nether- help students achieve four competencies,
lands, and France. This approach draws namely knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
from Positivism, Realism, and Phenome- religiosity.
nology. The research data gathered encom- Meanwhile, interviews with lectu-
passes a wide range of educational levels, rers in France indicate that learning music
spanning from elementary to university is not associated with morals. However, in
settings, and includes findings from ob- its implementation, there is a moral lear-
servations and interviews conducted in ning process that is manifested in the te-
various regions, both domestically and in- aching of discipline in playing music.
ternationally. Positivism and Realism were
used for collecting empirical facts and The Focus of Music Education in Indone-
identifying patterns, while phenomenolo- sia, the Netherlands, and France
gy was employed to reveal the underlying Based on the qualitative data ana-
significance of observed phenomena by lysis (classroom observations, interviews
distinguishing essential sensory facts from with education experts and parents, do-
exemplars. cument analysis), the objectives of each
country’s music education in the affective
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 69

domain were determined. The results of sight into the changing seasons.
the analysis of data from the observations, Significantly, the process of learning
interviews, and documents showed that, music in Indonesia was always associated
although the implementation of music with moral formation, as seen from the
learning in each province in each country chosen songs’ subject matter and the lear-
had its particular characteristics, for the af- ning processes conducted. Affective de-
fective domain, these similarities and dif- velopment had not only pragmatic and
ferences lay in the methods of developing social relations purposes but also a religio-
the affective domain and in the methods of us purpose. This was also clearly seen in
choosing the song. the curriculum, lesson plans, and learning
In Indonesia, emphasis was placed processes. The songs used as teaching ma-
on the relationship among students in terials were mostly traditional songs such
groups and their social environment. In as Suwe Ora Jamu, Prau Layar, and Bun-
the Netherlands, music education aims to go Jeumpa, and Indonesian patriotic songs
develop students’ ability to communicate such as Syukur, Tanah Airku, and Rayuan
ideas, opinions and express themselves Pulau Kelapa.
through music. In France, the aim of music In the Netherlands, affective deve-
education was the mastery of basic musical lopment does not seem to relate to reli-
abilities such as singing, listening, playing, gious faith but rather to pragmatism and
and inventing, through which students human relations. Values fostered during
were encouraged to express themselves music education sessions in the Nether-
freely. lands were democratic attitudes, discipli-
Fundamental differences were found ne, and human values. In the French con-
between the focus of learning in the three text, music learning does not seem to relate
countries. In the Netherlands, music les- to moral development but to affective de-
sons emphasized creativity development; velopment that emphasizes accuracy and
students were encouraged to develop their discipline.
musicality and improvisation abilities furt-
her. In Indonesia and France, students fo- The Use of the Element of Music’ Songs
cused on mastering the material and deve- in the Process of Learning Music
loping the ability to sing or play songs. The quantitative data analysis sho-
wed that the three countries used different
Characteristics of Songs Taught in Indo- music materials and effective development
nesia, the Netherlands, and France methods. The use of songs in the process
The songs chosen to develop the of learning music in Indonesia, the Nether-
ability of students in the Netherlands and lands, and France is as follows.
France were those that could touch the One of the aims of the research is to
students’ feelings and were generally in a find the truth. However, each paradigm
minor key. In France, one song used Sans has different perspectives on the truth.
Verser De Larmers (Astuti, 2024). In the Williams (as cited in Bourchet, 2006) pre-
Netherlands, songs used were Dofta Dof- sents five theories of truth: coherence,
ta Vit Syrén and Aase’s Death. Researcher correspondence, performative, pragmatic,
found a student from the Netherlands cho- and propositional. Additionally, Muhadjir
se Verses De Larmers (France’song) too, to (1998) introduces another concept of truth,
present conducting ability. There were, known as paradigmatic or constructive.
however, differences in how these mate- This perspective stems from facts that ma-
rials were treated. In France, songs were nifest varying dimensions depending on
seen as material to be mastered. In cont- different paradigms. According to Muhad-
rast, in the Netherlands, songs were used jir (1998), within the positivistic paradigm,
to master other skills, such as sign langu- facts are understood as experiences that
age and improvisation, and provide in- can be apprehended through the five sen-
70 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

Table 1. The use of the element music’s songs in the process of learning music in Indonesia, the
Netherlands, and France.
The use of musical N
Country Mean
elements (Frequency of Music Teaching and learning)
Rhythm Indonesia 3.278 18
The Netherlands 3.146 48
France 3.000 8
Meter Indonesia 3.17 18
The Netherlands 3.33 48
France 3.00 8
Accent Indonesia 3.72 18
The Netherlands 4.21 48
France 3.88 8
Scale Indonesia 3.61 18
The Netherlands 3.23 48
France 2.13 8
Variation Indonesia 2.89 18
The Netherlands 3.21 48
France 3.63 8
Contrast Indonesia 2.78 18
The Netherlands 4.27 48
France 3.63 8
Repetition Indonesia 2.89 18
The Netherlands 4.17 48
France 3.88 8
Consonance Indonesia 3.61 18
The Netherlands 4.10 48
France 3.50 8
Triad Indonesia 3.00 18
The Netherlands 3.79 48
France 3.63 8
Dissonance Indonesia 3.72 18
The Netherlands 3.77 48
France 4.00 8
Technique Indonesia 2.22 18
The Netherlands 4.38 48
France 4.38 8
Expression Indonesia 2.39 18
The Netherlands 4.65 48
France 4.63 8
Climax Indonesia 1.89 18
The Netherlands 4.60 48
France 4.63 8
Tempo Indonesia 1.83 18
The Netherlands 4.31 48
France 3.88 8
Feeling Indonesia 3.17 18
The Netherlands 4.44 48
France 4.15 8
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 71

ses. The Realism paradigm, on the other viors’ (also known as ‘domains’), children
hand, views facts as having inherent pat- learn that music comprises sound (high/
terns. In contrast, phenomenology regards low, loud/soft, short/long, or different
facts as essential substances distinct from timbres), which has been put into a certain
specific examples and endeavors to derive shape (by repeating or contrasting musical
meaning from these fundamental compo- elements) and which ultimately takes on
nents. meaning (Muziek - SLO, 2019).
Songs chosen in Indonesia, the Net- The Netherlands and France paid
herlands, and France had similarities in close attention to the techniques for play-
musical elements, especially in terms of ing music; teachers and lecturers pre-
rhythm and meter. The Netherlands used sented materials requiring high musical
songs that were more likely to use the ele- skill levels. Musical expression in singing
ment’ accent’ than Indonesia or France. and music appreciation was strongly en-
This might be because the “accent” is couraged in the Netherlands. Songs were
a crucial element for the Dutch. When rese- played so that the song’s message and at-
archers communicated with the Dutch wit- mosphere – whether happy or sad – were
hout emphasizing or placing strong stress felt by the listener. Joyful songs were per-
on specific parts, the Dutch did not seem formed cheerfully, and the class atmosphe-
to understand the meaning. They grasped re became increasingly vibrant. Converse-
it only when words were pronounced with ly, sad songs were played with relevant
a strong emphasis on particular parts. The feelings, and the students became silent
significance of accents for the Dutch is furt- and emotional. Similarly, in France, songs
her emphasized by Van Bezooijen and Yts- were sung with full expression so that the
ma (1999), who noted that the Dutch nation students could feel the songs taught by the
has distinct accents in their language, and lecturers and teachers.
each region has its own unique accent. As In the Netherlands, despite advan-
they pointed out, “the speakers from the ced technology, the music education pro-
south (Limburg and West-Flanders) were cess still places a strong emphasis on live
perceived to have significantly stronger accompaniment. Teachers who are capable
and more homogeneous accents than the of providing live musical accompaniment
speakers from the north (Groningen and teach music by playing it live. For them,
Friesland) and the west (Zuid-Holland).” creating live music establishes a more in-
This underscores the importance of ac- tense emotional connection compared to
cents for the Dutch people. MIDI accompaniments. They can convey
The use of music in the learning pro- emotions through dynamics, tempo, and
cess in Indonesia, when examined from their variations. Haack and Silverman
the perspective of musical scales, revea- (2017) found that participants in both simp-
led that major keys were more prevalent le and complex accompaniment conditions
compared to France and the Netherlands, consistently had more favorable mood
where minor keys were preferred. In the outcomes than participants in the control
Netherlands, melodies exhibited greater group. Furthermore, based on researcher’s
diversity, contrast, and repetition than observation by accompanying live, teach-
in France, with the difference being even ers can follow the rhythm of the students
more pronounced than in Indonesia. Ad- while singing. If a student makes a mistake
ditionally, the Netherlands showed more in singing, the teacher can immediately ad-
variation in their use of harmony. Disso- just, avoiding the need to start over from
nance in the form of augmented and dimi- the beginning.
nished triads was commonly incorporated
into the selected songs. This aligns with Affective development methods in the
the curriculum of the Dutch government, process of learning music in the three
which states that through ‘musical beha- countries
72 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

As stated before, the affective do- through the use of music materials rather
main in music is divided into relates to than by other means. Countries differed,
musical elements and relates to a general however, in the effective development
affective dimension linked to the teaching method used. The persuasion method
of morals. Table 2 presents the results of was more widely used in Indonesia than
the statistical analysis which addressed in France and the Netherlands. In the Net-
methods of affective development. In the herlands specifically, this method was ra-
first line of the table, the variables’ music rely used. Intervention methods were also
and non-music refers to whether the af- more widely used in Indonesia than in
fective domain was cultivated by music or the Netherlands and France; the Nether-
in some other way. If music was not used, lands used the inculcation method more
a score of 1 was given, and if music was frequently than France and Indonesia. All
used, a score of 2 was given. The scoring countries used modeling in almost equal
of indicators for affective domain methods proportions. Habituation was used more
is presented in the other rows of the tab- frequently in France and the Netherlands
le, based on duration in minutes. Affec- than in Indonesia.
tive development methods in the process Based on these data, it is clear that
of learning music in the three countries as the development of the affective domain
follows. in Indonesia generally used the methods
It can be seen from Table 2 that in of persuasion and intervention; teachers
Indonesia, the Netherlands, and France, played a greater role in directly providing
affective development was mainly taught information to students in Indonesia than

Table 2. Affective development methods in the process of learning music in Indonesia, the
Netherlands, and France
The Methods of Af- N
Country Mean
fective Development (frequency of Music Teaching and learning)
Music and non-music Indonesia 1.50 18
The Netherlands 1.50 48
France 1.50 8
Persuasion Indonesia 27.22 18
The Netherlands 1.10 48
France 15.00 8
Intervening Indonesia 28.50 18
The Netherlands 3.31 48
France 10.00 8
Inculcation Indonesia 4.44 18
The Netherlands 18.13 48
France 3a.75 8
Modelling Indonesia 7.00 18
The Netherlands 7.65 48
France 8.75 8
Habituation Indonesia 14.94 18
The Netherlands 44.81 48
France 60.00 8
Religious & Pragma- Indonesia 2.00 18
tism The Netherlands 1.00 48
France 1.00 8
Kun Setyaning Astuti et al., Differences in Affective Domain Development Music Learning 73

in other countries. In contrast, the Nether- to develop the affective domain. In the Net-
lands used various habituation methods to herlands, students could make decisions
develop the affective domains in the lear- based on their understanding; they were
ning process, and inculcation was strong- not required to follow or agree on a par-
ly emphasized as well; teachers aimed to ticular decision. Thus, in the learning pro-
help students understand the importan- cess, class discussions between students
ce of a concept, skill, or behavior. This is and teachers and among students always
consistent with Dutch cultural values of occurred naturally – even very young
egalitarianism and democracy. Persuasion children could develop an argument. This
and habituation methods were prominent supports Moon’s (2009) observation that
features of affective development in the character education in the Western world
French context in which training and prac- includes the teaching of rationality, justi-
tice were used more often than methods ce, and openness, while in Eastern nations,
of inculcation. This is in line with French character education upholds the values of
education programs, which emphasize the filial piety and obedience to leaders. This
preservation of classical and traditional is confirmed by Astuti (2009), who found
arts. that character education differed between
Students at one of the conservatories the Netherlands and Indonesia. In the Net-
in France were being trained to become herlands, character development empha-
professional musicians. In Indonesia, in sized critical thinking, objectivity, and
contrast, music learning in schools did not democracy and was not always associated
aim to help students become artists but rat- with religious values. In contrast, charac-
her to help them learn aesthetic values. In ter education in Indonesia emphasized
various curriculum developments, there compliance with rules and acceptance of
has always been a view that turning stu- cultural norms, which were always asso-
dents into artists is not the purpose of arts ciated with religious norms.
education. Although France is part of the Wes-
Another difference between affective tern world, it is noteworthy that persu-
domain development in Indonesia and the asion was a prominent affective domain
other two countries was that, in Indonesia, education method in that context. By ob-
affective development was linked to reli- serving the learning process, it was clear
gious values. This is shown, for example, that little discussion was held between te-
in the practice of beginning each lesson achers and students; the relationship ten-
with prayer.There are similarities between ded to be one-way. The relationship bet-
the Netherlands and France in the music ween teachers and students in France had
chosen as teaching materials. Both count- more in common with those in Indonesia
ries were adamant that music needed to than in the Netherlands.
touch the students’ feelings, enabling stu-
dents to get to know and enjoy the beau- CONCLUSION
ty of the songs and feel the atmosphere
produced by the songs, hoping that they The learning process is intended
would learn to appreciate them more. In to shape students’ character and values
Indonesia, song choice was not based on through the affective development pro-
whether a song could touch students’ fee- cess in the subject matter being taught and
lings but on national interest – folk or tra- through the teaching process. In music
ditional songs were chosen to foster a love learning, affective domain development
for the motherland or to increase a sense of can be implemented through music ma-
national pride. terials and teaching processes. Indonesia,
This study indicates that Indonesia, the Netherlands, and France emphasized
the Netherlands, and France differed in using music materials – in preference to
how the music learning process was used non-music materials – to develop the af-
74 Harmonia: Journal of Arts Research and Education 24 (1) (2024): 62-76

fective domain during music learning. and Prof. Dr. Tri Hartiti Retnowati, M.Pd.
The Netherlands and France used songs as well as the teachers in Yogyakarta and
that could touch students’ feelings more Central Java, Indonesia, and all those who
frequently than Indonesia, which empha- have provided significant support.
sized songs that fostered national interest.
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