Practical Economic Geology

Practical Economic
Geology
Geol 4122
Mineral definition, identification and classification
Minerals
 What are minerals ?
 What is the difference between minerals and rocks?
 How are minerals made?
 How do we identify minerals?
 What are minerals used for ?
Definition of a Mineral
A mineral is a naturally occurring homogeneous solid with a definite (but not generally fixed) chemical
composition and a highly ordered atomic arrangement, usually formed by an inorganic process.
 Naturally Occurring - Means it forms by itself in nature. Human made minerals are
referred to as synthetic minerals.
 Homogeneous - means that it is a compound that contains the same chemical composition
throughout, and cannot by physically separated into more than 1 chemical compound.
 Solid - means that it not a gas, liquid (except mercury)
 Definite chemical composition - means that the chemical composition can be expressed by a
chemical formula. Examples:
 Quartz has the chemical formula SiO2. Whenever we find quartz it consists of Si and O in a ratio
of 1 Si to 2 O atoms.
• Olivine is an example of a mineral that does not have a fixed chemical composition. In nature we find
that Mg and Fe atoms have the same size and charge and therefore can easily substitute for one
another in a mineral. Thus, olivine can have the chemical formula Mg2SiO4 or Fe2SiO4 or anything in
between.
 Highly ordered atomic arrangement - means that the atoms in a mineral are arranged in an ordered
geometric pattern. This ordered arrangement of atoms is called a crystal structure, and thus all
minerals are crystals
 Usually formed by an inorganic process - are not formed by organic process
Polymorphism: This phenomenon occurs whenever a given chemical compound exists in more than one
structural form or atomic arrangement. Two minerals having the same chemical composition but
different structures are known as polymorphs.
Isomorphism: is the process of substitution of one cation (or anion) for another in a mineral.
What is the difference between minerals and rocks?

A mineral is a naturally-occurring inorganic (there are some exceptions to this) crystalline solid
(though mercury is regarded as a mineral) with a specific chemical composition and a
characteristic internal regular geometric arrangement of atoms, sometimes expressed as natural
crystal faces.
A rock is an aggregate of one (such as quartzite) or more (such as granite) mineral particles formed
through either crystallisation of molten magma (igneous rocks), settling of particles (sedimentary
rocks), or reheating and pressure applied to pre-existing rocks (metamorphic rocks), with no set
chemical composition or atomic structure.
Mineraloid is a mineral-like substance that does not demonstrate crystallinity. Mineraloids possess
chemical compositions that vary beyond the generally accepted ranges for specific minerals. For
example, obsidian is an amorphous glass and not a crystal. Jet is a dense form of coal. Opal is
another mineraloid due to its non-crystal nature.
What are minerals used for?

Minerals are used for many purposes:
• Agriculture - fertilisers (superphosphate, limestone, dolomite)
• Automotive industries - steel, high temperature ceramics (spark plugs, cylinder heads), sulphur (used
in vulcanising of rubber), lead and antimony (batteries) etc.
• Building materials - cement (from calcite), bricks (from clay and shale), glass (from quartz sand),
plaster (from gypsum)
• Chemical industries - manufacture of paints, paper, ceramics, glass
• Cooking (salt, baking powder)
• Currency - coinage (copper, bronze, nickel, silver, gold)
• Electronics, copper electrical wiring, computers, space industry - gold, silver, copper, silicon,
uncommon metals (gallium, tantalum, tungsten), special glasses and ceramics
• Jewellery and decorative items (gemstones, gold, silver, platinum)
• Metallurgy and metal smelting - iron, steel, copper, bronze, brass, lead, zinc, gold, silver, aluminium,
special metal alloys etc.
• Plumbing - copper, lead (in the past)
• Surgery, medicines, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics (titanium, tantalum and stainless steel implants),
dietary supplements (zinc and iron tablets), talcum powder (from talc) and many others.
Identification of minerals
Minerals have distinct chemical, physical, electrical and thermal properties which can be used
for their identification. Because the physical properties of minerals are the easiest to study,
we will focus on them. Note that each mineral will have a set of physical properties, but that
only some of these will be diagnostic or useful for the identification of that mineral.
Physical properties of minerals (Mineral properties in hand specimen)
Crystal shape and habit (form)

This is the three-dimensional shape of an individual crystal.
Crystals that commonly develop prism faces are said to have a prismatic or columnar habit.
Crystals that grow in fine needles are acicular; crystals growing flat plates are tabular. Crystals
forming radiating sprays of needles or fibers are stellate. Crystals forming parallel fibers are
fibrous, and crystals forming branching, tree-like growths are dendritic.
General habit may be:
 equidimensional (or equant): cubic, equant polyhedral, spherical, equant anhedral.
 inequidimensional: prismatic, platy, tabular, lamellar, bladed, columnar, acicular or fibrous.
 Dendritic crystals: consist of a regular array of fibres sharing a common orientation.
 Euhedral: well-developed crystals with most crystal faces shown.
 Subhedral: Partially-developed crystals with some crystal faces shown.
 Anhedral: irregularly-formed minerals with no crystal faces shown.
Cleavage : It is the tendency of a mineral to break or split along preferred plane of weakness caused by
the development of planar fabric as a result of deformation. The cleavage can also be described in terms
of its quality, i.e., if it cleaves along perfect planes it is said to be perfect, and if it cleaves along poorly
defined planes it is said to be poor.
Parting: Parting is also a plane of weakness in the crystal structure, but it is along planes that are
weakened by some applied force.
Fracture: If the mineral contains no planes of weakness, it will break along random directions called
fracture. Several different kinds of fracture patterns are observed.
• Conchoidal fracture - breaks along smooth curved surfaces.
• Fibrous and splintery - similar to the way wood breaks.
• Hackly - jagged fractures with sharp edges.
Uneven or Irregular - rough irregular surfaces
Hardness: Hardness is determined by scratching the mineral with a mineral or substance of known
hardness.
Hardness is determined on the basis of Moh's relative scale of hardness exhibited by some common
minerals. These minerals are listed below, along with the hardness of some common objects.
Hardness
Mineral Common Objects
1 Talc
2 Gypsum Fingernail (2+)
3 Calcite Copper Penny (3+)
4 Fluorite
Steel knife blade (5+), Window glass
5 Apatite
(5.5)
6 Orthoclase Steel file
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
Tenacity: Tenacity is the resistance of a mineral to breaking, crushing, or bending. Tenacity can
be described by the following terms.
- Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.
- Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.
- Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.
- Ductile - bends easily and does not return to its original shape.
- Flexible - bends somewhat and does not return to its original shape.
- Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.
Durability
- The two most familiar qualities of durability -- hardness and toughness -- are often
misunderstood.
- Hardness is resistance to scratching or piercing.
- Toughness is resistance to breakage.

- The combination of the two largely defines the durability of a mineral
- Diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material and is also quite tough; however, it can
be broken by a hard blow.
- Jadeite and nephrite (the jades) are much softer and relatively easy to scratch but are
perhaps the toughest gem materials
Color: Color is sometimes an extremely diagnostic property of a mineral, for example olivine
and epidote are almost always green in color. But, for some minerals it is not at all diagnostic
because minerals can take on a variety of colors. For example quartz can be clear, white, black,
pink, blue, or purple.
Streak: Streak is the color produced by a fine powder of the mineral when scratched on a
streak plate. Often it is different than the color of the mineral in non- powdered form. Hematite
has a black colour but a reddish brown streak.
Luster and transparency: The way a mineral transmits or reflects light is a diagnostic property.
The transparency may be either opaque, translucent, or transparent. This reflectance property is
called luster. Native metals and many sulfides are opaque and reflect most of the light hitting their
surfaces and have a metallic luster. Other opaque or nearly opaque oxides may appear dull, or
resinous. Transparent minerals with a high index of refraction such as diamond appear brilliant and
are said to have an adamantine luster, whereas those with a lower index of refraction such as
quartz or calcite appear glassy and are said to have a vitreous luster.
Electrical conductivity
Minerals can conduct electrical currents to differing degrees (e.g. metallic elements are good conductors
whereas silicates are very poor conductors). Some non-conducting minerals can conduct electrical
currents well when they are subjected to directional mechanical stresses such as compression
(piezoelectricity) or thermal stresses (pyroelectricity). Quartz and tourmaline are good examples of this.
Magnetism: Some minerals can be strongly attracted (ferromagnetic), slightly attracted
(paramagnetic) or repelled (diamagnetic) by magnetic forces. The most common strongly magnetic
minerals are magnetite and pyrrhotite.
Classification of minerals (Chemical properties of minerals)
Many minerals contain elements that can be freely exchanged with other elements of similar
properties. This is called ionic substitution. These elements can occur as either major
elements in the mineral structure, or as trace elements in tiny amounts. (e.g. the mineral
sphalerite (Zn, Fe)S can contain highly variable concentrations of both Zn (zinc) and Fe (iron)
and also commonly contains trace amounts of Cd (cadmium).
Minerals are listed in groups by mineral name, chemical composition and crystal system.
Species marked * are more common within each group.
Native Elements and Alloys
The first group of minerals is the native elements, and as pure elements, these minerals contain no anion or
poly-anion. Native elements such as gold (Au), silver (Ag), copper (Cu), and platinum (Pt) are metals, graphite is
a semi-metal, and diamond (C) is an insulator.
Examples of native elements
 Copper* Cu (cub)
 Silver* Ag (cub)
 Gold* Au (cub)
 Mercury Hg (hex)
 Iron Fe (cub)
 Nickel-iron alloy (Ni, Fe) (cub)
 Platinum Pt (cub)
 Diamond C (cub)
 Graphite* C (hex)
 Sulfur* S (orth)
 Arsenic As (hex)
 Antimony Sb (hex)
 Bismuth* Bi (hex)
Sulfides (also includes Selenides, Tellurides, Bismuthinides and Antimonides)
The sulfides contain sulfur (S) as the major "anion". Although sulfides should not be considered ionic,
the sulfide minerals rarely contain oxygen, so these minerals form a chemically distinct group. Examples
are pyrite (FeS2), sphalerite (ZnS), and galena (PbS). Minerals containing the elements As, Se, and Te as
"anions" are also included in this group.
Examples of sulfides
 Pyrite* FeS2 (cub)
 Marcasite* FeS2 (orth)
 Pyrrhotite* Fe1-XS (hex)
 Arsenopyrite* FeAsS (mon)
 Chalcopyrite* CuFeS2(tet)
 Chalcocite Cu2S (orth)
 Bornite Cu5FeS4(cub)
 Covellite CuS (hex)
 Galena* PbS (cub)
Sphalerite* (Zn,Fe)S (cub) Sulfosalts
Pentlandite* (Fe, Ni)9S8(cub) Bournonite PbCuSbS3(orth)
Millerite* NiS (hex) Pyrargyrite Ag3SbS3(hex)
Molybdenite* MoS2(hex) Tetrahedrite* (Cu,Fe,Ag,Zn)12Sb4S13(cub)
Stibnite* Sb2S3(orth)
Bismuthinite* Bi2S3(orth)
Cinnabar HgS (hex)
Realgar AsS (mon)
Orpiment As2S3(mon)
Acanthite Ag2S (mon
Oxides
The oxide minerals contain various cations (not associated with a polyanion) and oxygen.
Examples of oxide minerals
 Cuprite Cu2O (cub)

 Magnetite* Fe3O4(cub)
 Spinel* MgAl2O4(cub)
 Hematite* Fe2O3(hex)
 Iimenite* FeTiO3(hex)
 Rutile* TiO2(tet)
 Cassiterite* SnO2(tet)
 Chromite* FeCr2O4(cub)
 Pyrolusite* MnO2(tet)
 Hausmannite Mn3O4(tet)
 Cryptomelane K(Mn4+, Mn2+)8O16(mon)
 Corundum* Al2O3(hex)
 Uraninite* UO2(cub)
 Columbite-Tantalite Group (Fe, Mn)(Nb,Ta)O6(orth)
Mineral definition, identification and
classification
Carbonates
The carbonates contain CO32- as the dominant
polyanion in which C4+ is surrounded by three O2-
anions in a planar triangular arrangement.
Dolomite Group
There are three structural types of carbonates:
Calcite Group  Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2
 Calcite CaCO3  Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2
 Magnesite MgCO3
 Siderite FeCO3
 Rhodochrosite MnCO3
 Smithsonite ZnCO3
Aragonite group
 Aragonite CaCO3
 Witherite BaCO3
 Strontianite SrCO3
 Cerussite PbCO3
Hydroxides
These minerals contain the polyanion OH- as the dominant anionic species.
 Brucite Mg(OH)2(hex)
 Goethite* FeO(OH) (orth)
 Manganite* MnO(OH) (mon)
Halides
The halides contain the halogen elements (F, Cl, Br, and I) as the dominant anion. These minerals are
ionically bonded and typically contain cations of alkali and alkaline earth ele ments (Na, K, and Ca). Familiar
examples are halite (NaCl) (rock salt) and fluorite (CaF2).
 Halite NaCl (cub)
 Sylvite KCl (cub)
 Fluorite CaF2(cub)
Nitrates - uncommon
Niter KNO3
Iodates - rare
Borates
The borates contain triangular BO33- or tetrahedral BO45-, and commonly both coordination's may occur in
the same mineral.
 Borax Na2B4O7.10H2O(mon)
 Ulexite NaCaB5O9.8H2O(tric)
 Colemanite Ca2B6O11.5H2O(mon)
Sulfates
These minerals contain SO42- as the major polyanion in which S6+ is surrounded by four oxygen atoms in a
tetrahedron. Note that this group is distinct from sulfides which contain no O.
 Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O(mon)
 Anhydrite CaSO4(orth)
 Barite BaSO4(orth)
 Anglesite* PbSO4(orth)
 Glauberite Na2Ca(SO4)2 (mon)
 Celestite SrSO4(orth)
 Chalcanthite* CuSO4.5H2O(tric)
 Epsomite MgSO4.7H2O(orth)
 Alunite K2Al6(SO4)4(OH)12(hex)
 Jarosite* (K,Ag,NH4, H3O1+, Na)2Fe6(SO4)4OH12(hex
 Copiapite Fe2+Fe3+4(SO4)6(OH)2.2OH2O(tric)
 Halotrichite Fe2+Al2(SO4)4.22H2O(mon)
 Melanterite Fe2+SO4.7H2O(mon
Chromates
Crocoite PbCrO4 (mon)
Phosphates
The phosphates contain tetrahedral PO43- groups as the dominant polyanion. A common example is apatite
(Ca5(PO4)3(OH)) a principal component of bones and teeth. The other trivalent tetrahedral polyanions, arsenate
AsO43-, and vanadate VO43- are structurally and chemically similar and are included in this group.
 Apatite (Ca,Sr,Pb,Na,K)(PO4)3(F,Cl,OH) (hex)
 Monazite (Ce,La,Nd,Th)PO4(mon)
 Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4)3Cl (hex)
 Variscite AlPO4.2H2O(orth)
 Vivianite Fe3(PO4)2.8H2O(mon)
 Wavellite Al3(PO4) 2 (OH)3.5H2O(orth)
 Turquoise CuAl6(PO4)4(OH)8.5H2O(tric)
 Torbernite Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2.8-12H2O(tet)
 Autunite Ca(UO2)2(PO4)2.10-12H2O(tet)
Arsenates - possessing the (AsO4)3− anion group
 Scorodite FeAsO4.2H2O(orth)
 Mimetite Pb5(AsO4)3Cl (mon)
 Olivenite Cu2(AsO4)(OH) (orth)
 Adamite Zn2(AsO4)(OH) (orth)
 Antimonates - uncommon
 Bindheimite Pb2Sb2O6(O,OH) (cub)
Vanadates are those minerals containing the orthovanadate (VO43−), pyrovanadate (V2O74−)
 Vanadinite Pb5(VO4)3Cl (hex)
 Descloisite PbZn(VO4)(OH) (orth)
Molybdates and Tungstates
 Scheelite CaWO4(tet)
 Wolframite (Fe,Mn)WO4(mon)
 Wulfenite PbMoO4(tet)
Silicates
Silicates are minerals with silicon and oxygen linked together as a major component, and can be classified
according to the way in which other atoms present are linked to these silicon and oxygen atoms.
Olivine Group
"Olivine" refers to a solid solution series in which Fe2+ and Mg2+ ions substitute for each other as cations linking
individual SiO4 tetrahedra.
The end member components are
• Fayalite Fe2SiO4
• Forsterite Mg2SiO4
Pyroxene Group
General formula is ABZ2O6
Where: A = (Ca, Fe2+, Li, Mg, Mn2+, Na, Zn); B = (Al, Cr3+, Fe2+, Fe3+, Mg, Mn2+, Sc, Ti, V3+) and Z = (Al, Si)
Most common members are:
Diopside (CaMgSi2O6(mon)
Augite (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al,Ti)(Si,Al)2O6(mon)
Enstatite (Mg2Si2O6(orth)
Hedenbergite (CaFe2+Si2O6(mon)
Jediete ( NaAlSi2O6 )
Amphibole Group
General formula is: AB2C5T8O22X2
Where A = (Na,K); B = (Ca,Na,Fe,Mg,Mn,Li,Zn,Ni,Co)
C = (Mg,Fe,Al,Ti Mn,Cr,Li,Zr Zn,Ni,Co)
T = (Si,Al,Ti)
X = (OH,F,Cl,O)
 Actinolite Ca2(Mg,Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2(mon)
 Ferrohornblende Ca2Fe2+4(Al,Fe3+)Si7AlO22(OH)2(mon)
 Pargasite NaCa2(Mg4Al)Si6Al2O22(OH)2(mon)
 Tremolite Ca2Mg5Si8O22(OH)2(mon)
Feldspar group
General Formula is XZ4O8 Where: X = (Ba,Ca,K,Na,NH4,Sr) and Z = (Al,B,Si)
 Albite NaAlSi3O8(tric)
 Anorthite CaAl2Si2O8(tric)
 Microcline KAlSi3O8(tric)
 Orthoclase KAlSi3O8(mon)
Mica group
These have a general formula of: IM2-3T4O10A2
Where: I = (K, Na,Ca,Cs,NH4,Rb,Ba); M = (Li,Fe2+,Fe3+,Mg,Al,Ti,Mn2+,Mn3+,Zn,Cr,V);
T = (Al, Fe3+,Si,Be,B); A = (F,OH,Cl,O)
Muscovite KAl2AlSi3O10(OH)2(mon)
Biotite (Mg,Fe)3 (Al Si3 O10) (OH)2 (mon)
Quartz - SiO2
Varieties are classified by different colours, due to impurities. These include
Milky Quartz White. Massive. The white colour is due to minute fluid inclusions trapped within the crystal
that disperse the light. Vein quartz.
Amethyst Violet. The colour results from minute inclusions of ferric iron (Fe3+).
Rose Quartz Pink. Coloured by small amounts of Mn, or sometimes Ti or Li.
Smoky Quartz Smoky brown to black. Frequently as crystals. The colour is due to radiation damage to the
crystal lattice caused by radioactive decay of elements within adjacent minerals.
Citrine Light yellow. Resembles topaz. Coloured by colloidal ferric hydroxides.
Cryptocrystalline Quartz (Chalcedony) - SiO2
Cryptocrystalline Quartz (Chalcedony) - SiO2
Distinguished from quartz by its duller, waxy lustre.
Varieties distinguished by colour. Varieties include:
Chalcedony- Translucent and waxy. White-grey to bluish grey. Chalcedony is also a general term applied to
all cryptocrystalline quartz.
Agate - Alternating coloured bands. Typically blue, red, yellow, white.
Moss agate - A variety of chalcedony (not agate!) with impurities (often Mn-oxide, sometimes hornblende)
forming a moss-like pattern.
Chrysoprase - Apple green. Coloured by Ni impurities.
Bloodstone - green Chalcedony containing red spots of jasper.
Onyx - alternating layers of Chalcedony of different colors or porosities arranged in parallel planes.
Jasper - Red. Brownish red colour due to included haematite.
Flint - Dark brown to black siliceous nodules, usually found in chalk.
Chert - Lighter coloured bedded deposits similar to flint.
Silicified Wood - Formed when circulating water dissolves the organic constituents and replaces them with
chalcedony.
Garnet
General formula is: A3B2(SiO4)3, Where: A = (Ca,Fe2+, Mg, Mn2+) and B = (Al,Cr3+, Fe3+, Mn3+,Si,Ti,V3+,Zr)
Distinguishing feature- isotropic character, high relief, grain shape, hardness and crystal form
There are six end member garnet compositions, but the various substitutions are very complicated. The six
end members are
 Almandine Fe3Al2(SiO4)3(cub) Name X Y Association
Almandine Fe Al Common garnet in schists and rarely in granites.
 Andradite Ca3Fe2(SiO4)3(cub)
Pyrope Mg Al Ultrabasic igneous rocks, eclogites.
 Grossular Ca3Al2(SiO4)3(cub) Spessartine Mn Al Metamorphosed Mn-rich rocks, pegmatites.
 Pyrope Mg3Al2(SiO4)3(cub) Thermal and regional metamorphism of impure
Grossular Ca Al
 Spessartine Mn3Al2(SiO4)3(cub) limestones.
Thermal metamorphism of impure calcareous
 Uvarovite Ca3Cr2(Si04)3(cub) Andradite Ca Fe
sediments, skarns.
Uvarovite Ca Cr In serpentinites associated with chromite.
Tourmaline
Tourmaline - Na(Mg,Fe,Mn,Li,Al)3Al6Si6O18(BO3)3(OH)4 is hexagonal (3m) and is commonly found as well-formed
prismatic crystals, with a rounded triangular cross section perpendicular to the c crystallographic axis.
Tourmaline is a common mineral in pegmatites (SiO2 - rich igneous rocks with large grain size), where it is
associated with quartz and alkali feldspar. It is also found in metasomatized rocks of all types, where it is
precipitated from a Boron and Silica - rich fluid phase.
Zeolite group
A large group of generally hydrous alumino-silicates which contain open cavities in their structure.
 Analcime NaAlSi2O6.H2O(cub, tet, hex, orth, tric, mon)
 Chabazite (Ca0.5,Na,K)4Al4Si8O24.12H2O(hex)
 Heulandite (Ca0.5,Sr0.5,Ba0.5,Mg0.5,Na,K)Al9Si27O72.24H2O(mon)
 Laumontite Ca4 Al8Si16O48.18H2O(mon)
 Mesolite Na16Ca16Al48Si72O240.64H2O(orth)
 Natrolite Na2Al2Si3O10.2H2O(orth)
 Phillipsite (K,Na,Ca0.5,Ba0.5)4-7Al4-7Si12-9O32.12H2O(mon)
 Stilbite (Ca0.5,Na,K)9Al9Si27O72.28H2O(mon)
 Thomsonite Ca2NaAl5Si5O20.6H2O(orth)
Other common silicates
 Zircon ZrSiO4(tet)  Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4(tric)

 Episode Ca2(Fe,Al)3(SiO4)3(OH) (mon)  Axinite (Ca,Fe,Mg,Mn)3Al2BSi4O15(OH) (tric)
 Prehnite Ca2Al2Si3O10(OH)2(orth)  Dickite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 (mon)
 Sillimanite Al2SiO5(orth)  Halloysite Al2Si2O5(OH)4 (mon)
 Andalusite Al2SiO5(orth)  Montmorillonite
 Kyanite Al2SiO5(tric) (Na,Ca)0.3(Al,Mg)2Si4O10(OH)2.nH2O(mon)
 Cordierite Mg2Al4Si5018(orth)  Nontronite Na0.3Fe3+2(Si, Al)4O10(OH)2.nH2O(mon)
 Staurolite (Fe,Mg,Zn)2Al9Si4O23(OH) (orth)  Antigorite (Mg,Fe2+)3Si2O5(OH)4 (mon)
 Titanite (or sphene) CaTiSi05(mon)  Clinochrysotile Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 (mon)
 Vesuvianite Ca10Mg2Al4(SiO4)5(Si2O7OH)4(tet)  Lizardite Mg3Si2O5(OH)4 (trig, hex)
 Wollastonite CaSiO3 (tric)  Willemite Zn2SiO4(hex)
 Rhodonite (Mn,Fe,Mg)SiO3(tric)  Apophyllite KCa4 Si8O20(F,OH).8H2O(tet)
 Beryl Be3Al2Si6O18 (hex)  Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2(mon)
 Topaz Al2SiO4(F,OH)2 (orth)
 Clinochlore (Mg,Fe)5Al(Si3Al)O10(OH)8 (mon)
Non-silicates mineralogy Pyrite- FeS2
Sulphides Physical Properties
The sulphides are an important class of • H = 6 - 6.5.
minerals, which include the majority of the ore • Streak - black
minerals. They are nearly all opaque with
distinctive colours and characteristically • Colour - pale brass yellow
coloured streaks. Sulphur (atomic number 16)
forms a 2- anion which combines with a variety • S.G. = heavy.
of cations to produce the sulphide mineral • Habit - Striated cubes, pyritohedrons or
group. massive granular. Tarnishes to richer yellow
"fool's gold".
• Lustre - Metallic.
Occurrence - A common sulphide in many rocks
and most ores.
Use - Chief use as a source of sulphur for
sulphuric acid. Often mined for the gold or
copper associated with it.
Distinguished by colour and lustre. Cubes are
striated such that no set of striations continues
into a set on an adjacent face. Pyrite has no
cleavage, so all cubic faces are crystal faces
rather than cleavages.
Pyrrhotite- Fe1-xS Pentlandite- (Fe,Ni)9S8
Physical Properties Physical Properties
• H = 4.
• H = 3.4 - 4.
• Streak - black
• Streak - light bronze-brown
• Colour - brownish bronze
• S.G. = heavy. • Colour - yellowish-bronze
• Habit - massive. Variably magnetic • S.G. = heavy.
• Lustre - metallic. • Habit - massive. Octahedral parting
Occurrence - associated with basic igneous • Lustre - metallic.
rocks.
Occurrence - associated with basic igneous
Use – an ore of iron rocks. Probably accumulated by magmatic
segregation.
Use - principal ore of nickel.
Chalcopyrite- CuFeS2 Arsenopyrite - FeAsS
• H = 3.5 - 4. • H = 5.5 - 6.
• Streak - black • Streak - black
• Colour - Brass yellow • Colour - Metallic silver-white
• S.G. = heavy. • S.G. = very heavy.
• Habit - Massive Tarnishes to bronze. May • Habit - Massive Tarnishes to pale
tarnish to iridescent reds and blue-purple. copper.
• Lustre - Metallic. • Lustre - Metallic.
Occurrence - Associated with other copper
minerals. The primary copper mineral in
Occurrence - Associated with tin and tungsten
"porphyry-copper" deposits. minerals in high tempearture hydrothermal
deposits.
Use - A chief source of copper.
Use - The pricipal source of arsenic.
Distinguished by a richer yellow colour than
pyrite. Distinguished by a richer yellow colour than
pyrite. Garlic odour when hit with a hammer
(other sulphides give a sulphurous smell).
Galena- PbS Bornite- Cu5FeS4
• H = 2.5 • H = 2.5
• Cleavage - • Streak - Black
• Streak - Lead grey • Colour - Metallic brown
• Colour - Lead grey • S.G. = heavy.
• S.G. = very heavy. • Habit - Massive. Characteristic
• Habit - Cubic. Fine grained samples iridescent purple tarnish.
may appear massive. • Lustre - Metallic.
• Lustre - Metallic. Occurrence - Associated with other copper
Occurrence - Commonly associated with minerals, e.g. chalcocite and chalcopyrite.
shalerite. Often associated with and may Use - An ore of copper, but less important
contain silver. than chalcocite and chalcopyrite.
Use - Practically the only source of lead and Distinguished by its characteritic bronze
an important ore of silver. colour on fresh surfaces, and by the purple
Distinguished by its S.G., cleavage, colour, tarnish.
lustre and habit.
Chalcocite- Cu2S Sphalerite- ZnS
• H = 2.5 - 3 • H = 3.5 - 4
• Streak - Grey-black • Cleavage - Perfect in 6 directions
• Colour - Metallic lead grey • Streak - Light brown
• S.G. = heavy.
• Colour - Brown to black
• Habit - Massive. Tarnishes to black
• S.G. = medium.
• Lustre - Metallic.
• Habit - Cleaved masses
Occurrence - Associated with other copper
minerals, particularly in regions of supergene • Lustre - Resinous to sub-metallic.
enrichment. In "porphyry copper" deposits. Occurrence - Very common. Often
• Use - An important ore of copper. associated with galena
Distinguished by its lead-grey colour, massive Use - The most important ore of zinc.
habit and association with other copper
minerals Distinguished by its lead-grey colour,
massive habit and association with other
copper minerals.
Molybdenite- MoS2 Stibnite- Sb2S3
• H = 1 -1.5 • H=2
• Cleavage - 1 perfect • Cleavage - 1 perfect
• Streak - greyish black • Streak - lead grey to black
• Colour - lead grey • Colour - lead grey
• S.G. = heavy. • S.G. = heavy.
• Habit - micaceous. • Habit - bladed with cross striations
• Lustre - metallic. • Lustre - metallic.
• Occurrence - accessory mineral in • Occurrence - hydrothermal veins or
some granites and pegmatites replacement in hot springs deposits.
Use - The principal ore of molybdenum. Use - The principal ore of antimony.
Distinguished by its colour, low hardness, Distinguished by lead-grey colour, bladed habit
metallic lustre and micaceous habit. and one perfect cleavage, and soft black streak
Oxides Corundum - Al2O3
Oxygen (atomic number 8) forms a 2- anion and Corundum is hexagonal and optically negative.
combines with a variety of cations to form the It occurs in Al-rich igneous and metamorphic
oxide group of minerals. rocks. If transparent blue, it is the gemstone
sapphire, if transparent red, it is the gemstone
The iron oxides are best distinguished by their ruby.
streak. Magnetite has a black streak, haematite
has a red streak and goethite has a yellow Spinel - MgAl2O4
streak. The oxide minerals are very common Spinel is an isometric mineral that occurs
and usually occur as accessory minerals in all ultrabasic rocks like peridotite, and in many low
kinds of rocks. The most common oxide silica ignoeous rocks like basalts, where it
minerals are the following: contains high concentrations of Cr. It is also
found in Al-rich contact metamorphic rocks. It
shows a wide variety of colors depending on
trace amounts of other ions substituting for
both Mg and Al. Because of the isometric
nature, Spinel is difficult to distinguish from
garnet, although spinel tends to occur as much
smaller crystals.
Chromite - Fe+2Cr2O4
Magnetite - Fe3O4
Chromite is a major ore of Cr. It is found in in low
silica, Mg-rich igneous rocks, usually associated Magnetite is one of the most common oxide minerals. It is a
major ore of Fe, and is found as an accessory mineral in all
with Olivine. Often it is seen as small inclusions in rock types. It is isometric and commonly crystallizes with an
Olivine, indicating that it is an early crystallizing octahedral habit. In hand specimen it is most easily identified
phase in basaltic and gabbroic magmas. by its strongly magnetic nature, black color, and hardness of 6.
Physical Properties
Physical Properties
• H = 5.5 - 6.
• H = 5.5.
• Streak - black
• Streak - dark brown • Colour - black
• Colour -iron-black to brownish black • S.G. = heavy.
• S.G. = heavy. • Habit - Octahedral crystals or massive.
• Habit - equigranular. • Lustre - Metallic.
Occurrence - Common accessory mineral in igneous and
• Lustre - metallic to sub-metallic metamorphic rocks and can become concentrated in heavy
mineral sands. Can be a major constituent of a rock through
Occurrence - associated with Mg-rich rocks, such magmatic segregation and in high temperature hydrothermal
as serpentinites. Large ore deposits formed by veins. Represents reducing conditions relative to haematite.
magmatic differentiation. Use - An important iron ore.
Use - only ore of chromium. Distinguished by being strongly magnetic, octahedral crystals,
its black streak and metallic lustre.
Distinguished by its submetallic lustre and
equigranular habit.
Ilmenite - FeTiO3
Ilmenite is a major ore of Ti. It is found as a common accessory mineral in a wide
range of igneous volcanic and plutonic rocks, as well as metamorphic and clastic
sedimentary rocks. It forms a solid solution series with Hematite, and commonly
occurs along with Magnetite. Ilmenite is hexagonal, but is usually opaque which
makes its distinction from other oxide minerals difficult. Ilmenite, however, often
shows an elongated or acicular habit, whereas Magnetite usually crystallizes as more
equant crystals with an octahedral habit.
Physical Properties
• H = 5.5 - 6.
• Streak - black to brownish red
• Colour - iron-black
• S.G. = heavy.
• Habit - massive. thick tabular crystals
• Lustre - metallic to sub-metallic
Occurrence - common accessory mineral in igneous rocks. Often associated with
magnetite. A constituent of black mineral sands.
Use - major source of titanium.
Distinguished from haematite by streak and from magnetite by lack of magnetism.
Hematite - Fe2O3
Hematite is one of the most important ores of Fe. It is more oxidized than
Magnetite, and thus forms as an alteration product of magnetite as well as other Fe
bearing minerals. In most unaltered igneous rocks, hematite occurs as a component
of Ilmenite in solid solution. Hematite is hexagonal, but rarely occurs in crystals
where its symmetry can be determined.
Physical Properties
• H = 5.5 - 6.5.
• Streak - brownish red
• Colour - reddish brown to black
• S.G. = heavy.
• Habit - Massive. Also botryoidal, micaceous or earthy.
• Lustre - Metallic in crystalline varieties, dull in earthy varieties.
Occurrence - Found with other Fe - Ti - O minerals in igneous and metamorphic
rocks. In sedimentary rocks it forms as large banded iron formations and is the
cement in red sandstones.
Use - The most important ore of iron. Frequently forms by oxidation of other
primary iron-bearing minerals, for example in gossans.
Distinguished by being non-magnetic, or only weakly magnetic (through the
inclusion of small grains of magnetite), its red streak and metallic to dull lustre.
Goethite- FeO(OH) Limonite- FeO(OH).nH2O
Physical Properties Massive and earthy. Limonite is the general
• H = 5 - 5.5. name given to hydrated ferric oxides and as
a field name for amorphous mixtures of
• Streak - brownish yellow iron oxide that are earthy
• Colour - yellowish brown to dark
brown
• S.G. = heavy.
• Habit - Massive. Also botryoidal or
earthy.
• Lustre - Metallic in crystalline
varieties, dull in earthy varieties.
Occurrence - common mineral formed under
oxidizing conditions as a weathering product
of iron-bearing minerals. Forms the gossans
over metalliferous veins and deposits.
Residual laterites.
Distinguished by being non-magnetic, its
yellow streak and dull lustre
Cassiterite- SnO2 Pyrolusite- MnO2
• H = 7. • H = 1 - 2. (Earthy) 6 - 6.5 (Crystalline)
• Streak - white • Streak - iron black
• Colour - red-brown to black • Colour - iron-black
• S.G. = very heavy. • S.G. = heavy.
• Habit - Prismatic crystals. • Habit - massive. Nodules. dissolved Mn
• Lustre - adamantine to sub-metallic may be redeposited in rocks as dendrites (fern-
like patterns).
Occurrence - may be formed in late-stage • Lustre - metallic
igneous intrusions, such as pegmatites, but
more commonly found in high-temperature Occurrence - dendrites on joint planes in many
hydrothermal veins in granitic rocks, usually rock types. Nodules on floors of lakes, bogs and
with fluorine or boron minerals. Often shallow seas
associated with wolframite, molybdenite and Use - most common manganese ore.
arsenopyrite. Commonly found in placer
deposits. Distinguished by its low hardness (it may soil
Use - Principal ore of tin the fingers) and black streak.
Recognised by high S.G., adamantine lustre and
light streak
Carbonates Calcite- CaCO3
The carbonates are an important group of minerals Physical Properties
near the Earth's surface. Carbonate minerals make
up the bulk of limestone and dolostone. Are found • H = 3.
as cementing agents in clastic sedimentary rocks,
and make up the shells of many organisms. The • Cleavage - 3 (perfect) at 75°/105°
carbonates are based on the CO3-2 structural unit, (rhombic).
which has carbon surrounded by 3 oxygen in • Colour - white, various.
triangular coordination.
There are three structural types of carbonates: • S.G. = light
• Habit - rhombs, or massive.
• Lustre - vitreous to earthy.
Calcite Group Aragonite Group Dolomite Group
Occurrence - Common and widespread. The
Calcite CaCO3 Aragonite CaCO3 Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 principal, or only, mineral in limestones and
Magnesite MgCO3 Witherite BaCO3 Ankerite CaFe(CO3)2 its metamorphic equivalent, marble.
Siderite FeCO3 Strontianite SrCO3
Use - Source of lime for cement, a flux for
smelting, & fertiliser. Limestone and marble
Rhodochrosite MnCO3 Cerussite PbCO3 are also used in building industry.
Smithsonite ZnCO3 Distinguished by its low hardness and perfect
cleavages. Can be easily scratched by metal.
The Dolomite Group

Dolomite - CaMg(CO3)2 and Ankerite - CaFe(CO3)2 form a complete solid solution series, although
because Mg-rich environments are much more common than Fe-rich environments, Mg-rich
dolomites are much more common than Ankerites. Ankerite is common mineral in Pre-Cambrian
iron formations. Dolomite is a common constituent of older limestones, probably the result of
secondary replacement of original calcite. It is also found as dolomitic marbles, and as hydrothermal
vein deposits.
Dolomite- CaMg(CO3)2
Physical Properties
• H = 3.5 - 4.
• Cleavage - 3 (perfect) at 75°/105° (rhombic).
• Colour - pink, white, various.
• S.G. = light
• Habit - rhombs, or massive. Crystals have curved rhombohedral surfaces.
• Lustre - vitreous.
Occurrence - in extensive sedimentary strata due to the replacement of Ca by Mg in limestones.
Use - a building and ornamental stone. Used in the production of blast furnace linings.
Distinguished from calcite by its lack of reaction to cold HCl. Except in its curved crystal form, it is
hard to distingush from calcite without acid. Calcite is much more common than dolomite.
Siderite- FeCO3 Magnesite- MgCO3
• H = 3.5 - 5 • H = 3.5 - 5
• Cleavage - 3 (perfect) at 75°/105° • Streak - white
(rhombic). • Colour - white
• Streak - white
• S.G. = light.
• Colour - light to dark brown • Habit - Massive.
• S.G. = medium. • Lustre - Vitreous
• Habit - Cleavable masses.
Magnesite is a common alteration product of Mg-rich
• Lustre - Vitreous minerals on altered igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Occurrence - common vein mineral Like calcite, it shows perfect rhombohedral cleavage,
associated with various metallic ores. but unlike calcite, it does not readily effervesce in
dilute HCl. It does, however, effervesce in hot HCl.
Use - An ore of iron, but generally These properties and its association with Mg-rich
unimportant as an ore mineral. minerals and rocks make it distinguishable from
Calcite.
Distinguished by an appearance similar to
calcite, but darker colour and higher S.G. Use - A source of magnesia. Dead-burned magnesite is
used to line furnaces.
Distinguished by massive appearance and white colour.
Cerussite- PbCO3 Malachite- Cu2CO3(OH)2
• H = 3 - 3.5 • H = 3.5 - 4
• Streak - white • Streak - Pale green
• Colour - colourless, white • Colour - Bright green
• S.G. = very heavy. • S.G. = medium.
• Habit - platy crystals or granular • Habit - Massive. Sometimes botryoidal

masses • Lustre - Dull. Vitreous crystals are rare.
• Lustre - adamantine. transparent Occurrence - Associated with azurite
Occurrence - supergene lead ore formed by the Use - An ore of copper.
action of carbonated waters on galena.
Distinguished by its green colour and
Commonly associated with galena.
association with azurite or other copper
Use - An important lead ore. minerals.
Distinguished by its high S.G., adamantine lustre
and crystal form.
Azurite- Cu3(CO3)2(OH)2 Rhodochrosite MnCO3
Physical Properties Rhodochrosite is the Mn bearing carbonate, and is thus found only
in environments where there is an abundance of Manganese. It is
• H = 3.5 - 4
relatively rare and occurs as hydrothermal veins and as an
• Streak - Blue alteration product of Mn rich deposits. In hand specimen it show
• Colour - Azure blue a distinctive pink color along with the rhombohedral cleavage
common to the Calcite group minerals. Hot HCl is required to make
• S.G. = medium. the mineral effervesce
• Habit - Massive or tabular The Aragonite Group
crystals.
The Aragonite group of minerals is all orthorhombic, and can thus
• Lustre - Vitreous be distinguished from minerals of the calcite group by their lack of
Occurrence - Associated with rhombohedral cleavage. Aragonite (CaCO3) is the most common
malachite, but less common. mineral in this group.
Use - A minor ore of copper. Aragonite is the higher pressure form of CaCO3 but, nevertheless
occurs and forms at surface temperatures and pressures. When
Distinguished by its azure blue found in metamorphic rocks it is a good indicator of the low
colour and association with temperature, high pressure conditions of metamorphism, and is
malachite or other copper thus commonly found in Blueschist Facies metamorphic rocks
minerals. along with Glaucophane
Sulphates Gypsum- CaSO4.2H2O
Sulphur (atomic number 16) forms sulphide Physical Properties
minerals when it captures two electrons to
fill its outer electron shell, forming a 2- anion. H=2
However, sulphur may also lose its six Streak - white
electrons in this outer shell, forming a small,
highly charged 6+ cation. This combines with Colour - colourless, white, grey
4 oxygens to form a tightly bound (SO4)2- S.G. = light.
complex anion that is not capable of sharing
oxygens with other groups. These SO4 groups Habit - crystals with "swallow-tail" twinning.
are the fundamental structural unit of the Cleavage - 1 perfect, and two other cleavages.
sulphate minerals
Lustre - vitreous, pearly, silky
Use - for the production of plaster of paris.
Occurrence - in sedimentary rocks in evaporitic
sequences. Rosette-like aggregates are formed
in desert areas by the evaporation of rising
groundwater and are known as "desert rose".
Distinguished by its softness (can be scratched
by a finger nail), twinning and three cleavages.
Anhydrite- CaSO4 Barite- BaSO4
H = 3 - 3.5 H = 3 - 3.5
Cleavage - cubic, but not seen in massive aggregates Streak - white
Colour - colourless to bluish Colour - colourless, white.
S.G. = light. S.G. = heavy.
Habit - massive aggregates. Habit - massive. Good cleavage in 3 directions
Lustre - vitreous, to pearly on cleavage Lustre - vitreous.
Occurrence - similar to gypsum. Formed by the Occurrence - most commonly as a gangue mineral in
dehydration of gypsum. Hydration of anhydrite will hydrothermal veins.
produce gypsum, with an increase in volume.
Use - chief source of barium for chemicals. Most is

used in oil and gas-well drilling.
Halides
The halides are chracterised by having a principle anion with a 1- charge, such as Cl-, F-, Br-, and I-. Such anions are known as halogens.
When they combine with relatively large, weakly charged cations, the packing of the spherical elements leads to highest possible
symmetry. Bonding is almost pure ionic bonding. The isometric (cubic) halides have relatively low hardness, low density, good cleavage
and are sometimes brightly coloured.
Halite- NaCl
Physical Properties
• H = 2.5
• Streak - white
• Colour - white, clear
• S.G. - low
• Habit - cubes. Some crystals hopper-shaped.
• Cleavage - 3 perfect at 90° (cubic)
• Lustre - vitreous
Occurrence - in evaporite deposits which form sedimentary beds up to 1000m thick, and salt domes, or pipe-like masses of salt rising from
underlying beds. A salt dome in Iran that has reached the surface has formed a salt glacier, due to the extreme aridity of the region.
• Other - salty taste
Use - source of sodium and chlorine for the manufacture of hydrochloric acid and sodium compounds. Tanning. Preservative. Flavour
enhancement of foodstuffs.
Distinguished by its colour and cubic habit, but primarily by its salty taste.
Fluorite- CaF2
Physical Properties
• Hardness = 4
• Streak - white
• Colour - light green, purple, white, various
• S.G. - medium
• Habit - cubes, sometimes in penetration twins, or
cleavable masses
• Cleavage - 4 perfect (octahedral)
• Lustre - vitreous
Occurrence - usually in hydrothermal veins
Use - as a flux for making steel. Source of fluorine for
hydrofluoric acid.
Distinguished by its colour, habit, and hardness (harder than
calcite and less than quartz).

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Practical Economic

What is the difference between minerals and rocks?

What are minerals used for?

Physical properties of minerals (Mineral properties in hand specimen)

Crystal shape and habit (form)

- Brittle - Breaks or powders easily.

- Malleable - can be hammered into thin sheets.

- Sectile - can be cut into thin shavings with a knife.

- Elastic - bends but does return to its original shape.

- Hardness is resistance to scratching or piercing.

- Toughness is resistance to breakage.

- The combination of the two largely defines the durability of a mineral

 Cuprite Cu2O (cub)

Molybdates and Tungstates

Other common silicates

 Zircon ZrSiO4(tet)  Kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4(tric)

Physical Properties Physical Properties

Oxides Corundum - Al2O3

The Dolomite Group

Cerussite- PbCO3 Malachite- Cu2CO3(OH)2

Physical Properties Physical Properties

• Streak - white • Streak - Pale green

• Colour - colourless, white • Colour - Bright green

• S.G. = very heavy. • S.G. = medium.

• Habit - platy crystals or granular • Habit - Massive. Sometimes botryoidal

Use - chief source of barium for chemicals. Most is

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