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 Contents vii

7.5: Placement Opportunities 125 9.4: Talk Shows and Product Placements 168
7.5.1: Earned Media 126 9.4.1: Talk Shows 168
7.5.2: Owned Media 126 9.4.2: Magazine Shows 170
7.5.3: Paid Media 126 9.4.3: Product Placement 170
7.6: Writing Opinion Pieces 127 9.5: Online Video 171
7.6.1: Op-Eds 127 Summary: Radio, Television, and Online Video 173
7.6.2: Letters to the Editor 129
Summary: Creating Feature Content and Op-Eds 130 10 Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts 175

8 Publicity Photos and Infographics 132 10.1: The Web: Pervasive in Our Lives 175
10.2: The New Public Relations Paradigm 176
8.1: The Importance of Visual Content 132 10.3: Websites 177
8.2: Components of a Good Photo 133 10.3.1: Planning an Effective Website 178
8.2.1: Technical Quality 133 10.3.2: Managing the Website 180
8.2.2: Subject Matter 133 10.3.3: Making the Site Interactive 180
8.2.3: Composition 135 10.3.4: Attracting Visitors to Your Site 181
8.2.4: Action 137 10.3.5: Tracking Site Visitors 183
8.2.5: Scale 137 10.4: Writing for the Web 183
8.2.6: Camera Angle 138 10.4.1: Providing Content for Online Newsrooms 185
8.2.7: Lighting and Timing 138
10.5: Blogs 186
8.3: Working with Photographers 10.5.1: Types of Blogs 187
and Photo Vendors 139
10.6: Podcasts 191
8.3.1: Finding Photographers 139
10.6.1: Applications of Podcasts 191
8.3.2: Contracts 140
10.6.2: Equipment and Production 191
8.3.3: The Photo Session 140
Summary: Websites, Blogs, and Podcasts 192
8.3.4: Finding Stock Photos 140
8.3.5: Cropping and Retouching 141 11 Social Media and Mobile Apps 194
8.3.6: Ethical Considerations 141
8.4: Writing Photo Captions 142 11.1: The Tsunami of Social Media 194
8.5: The Purpose of Infographics 143 11.2: The Use of Social Media in Public Relations 194
8.6: Types of Infographics 143 11.3: The Continuing Role of Traditional Media 195
8.6.1: Charts 144 11.4: Social Networks 196
8.6.2: Graphic Interface of Subject Content 145 11.4.1: Facebook: King of the Social Networks 196
8.6.3: Other Kinds of Graphics 146 11.4.2: Google+ 197
8.7: Creating an Infographic 146 11.4.3: LinkedIn: The Professional Network 198
8.8: Distributing Photos and Infographics 147 11.5: Micro-Blogging Sites and Apps 198
11.5.1: Twitter: Saying It in 140 Characters or Less 198
8.9: Maintaining Photo and Art Files 147
11.5.2: Vine 200
Summary: Publicity Photos and Infographics 148
11.5.3: Instagram 200
9 Radio, Television, and Online Video 150 11.6: Media Sharing Sites 201
11.6.1: YouTube: King of Video Clips 201
9.1: The Reach of Broadcast Media and
11.6.2: Flickr 204
Online Video 150
11.6.3: Pinterest 205
9.2: Radio 151
11.7: The Rising Tide of Mobile Content 206
9.2.1: Radio News Releases 152
11.7.1: An Ocean of Apps 207
9.2.2: Audio News Releases 153
11.7.2: QR Codes: Rich Content a Scan Away 208
9.2.3: Radio Public Service Announcements 154
11.7.3: Texting 209
9.2.4: Radio Media Tours 156
9.2.5: Radio Promotions 157 11.8: Wikis 210
9.2.6: Community Calendars 157 Summary: Social Media and Mobile Apps 210

9.3: Television
9.3.1: Video News Releases
158
158
12 Intranets, Newsletters, and
9.3.2: The New Normal: B-Roll Packaging 161
Brochures 212
9.3.3: Video Public Service Announcements 165 12.1: Tightening the Writing Focus 212
9.3.4: Satellite Media Tours 166 12.2: The Balancing Act of Editors 212
viii Contents

12.2.1: A Mission Statement Gives Purpose 213 14.2.3: Writing the Speech 249
12.2.2: Making an Article Schedule 214 14.3: The Basics of Giving a Speech 251
12.3: Intranets 214 14.3.1: Coaching Speakers 252
12.4: Online Newsletters 215 14.3.2: Structuring the Message for the Ear 252
12.5: The Value of Print Publications 216 14.3.3: Tailoring Remarks to the Audience 252
12.6: Print Newsletters and Magazines 217 14.3.4: Keeping Speeches Timely and Short 253
12.6.1: Meeting Audience Interests 217 14.3.5: Gestures and Eye Contact 253
12.6.2: Article Headlines 218 14.4: Visual Aids for Presentations 254
12.6.3: Article Lead Sentences 219 14.4.1: PowerPoint 255
12.6.4: Periodical Design 220 14.4.2: Prezi 257
12.6.5: Periodical Format 220 14.5: Being a Good Panelist 258
12.6.6: Periodical Layout 221 14.5.1: Panels 258
12.6.7: Photos and Illustrations 223 14.6: Speaker Training and Placement 258
12.7: Brochures 223 14.6.1: Executive Training 258
12.7.1: Planning a Brochure 223 14.6.2: Speaker’s Bureaus 259
12.7.2: Brochure Format 224 14.6.3: Placing Speakers 260
12.7.3: Writing a Brochure 224 14.6.4: Publicity Opportunities 260
12.7.4: Brochure Paper 225 Summary: Giving Speeches and Presentations 261
12.7.5: Types of Fonts 226
12.7.6: Ink and Color 226 15 Organizing Meetings and Events 263
12.7.7: Finding a Printer 227
15.1: A World Filled with Meetings and Events 263
12.8: Annual Reports 228
15.2: Staff and Committee Meetings 264
12.8.1: Planning and Writing Annual Reports 229
15.3: Larger Group Meetings 265
12.8.2: Trends in Content and Delivery 229
15.3.1: Planning Large Group Meetings 265
Summary: Intranets, Newsletters, and Brochures 230
15.3.2: Meeting Space Logistics 266

13 Writing Email, Memos, 15.3.3: Meeting Invitations

15.3.4: Meeting Registration
267
267
and Proposals 232
15.3.5: Meeting Program 268
13.1: Developing Expertise in Business Communication 232 15.4: Banquets 269
13.2: The Challenge of Communication Overload 233 15.4.1: Working with Catering Managers 271
13.3: Email 233 15.4.2: Banquet Logistics and Timing 271
13.3.1: Email Purpose 234 15.5: Receptions and Cocktail Parties 272
13.3.2: Email Content 234 15.6: Conventions 272
13.3.3: Email Format 236 15.6.1: Planning a Convention 273
13.4: Memorandums 237 15.6.2: Convention Program 274
13.5: Traditional Letters 238 15.7: Trade Shows 275
13.5.1: Purpose of Traditional Letters 239 15.7.1: Exhibit Booths 276
13.5.2: Letter Content 239 15.7.2: Newsrooms and Media Relations 277
13.5.3: Letter Format 239 15.8: Promotional Events 278
13.6: Proposals 240 15.8.1: Using Celebrities to Boost Attendance 278
13.6.1: Purpose of Proposals 240 15.8.2: Event Planning and Logistics 279
13.6.2: Proposal Content and Organization 240 15.9: Open Houses and Plant Tours 281
13.7: Proposals by Public Relations Firms 241 Summary: Organizing Meetings and Events 283
13.8: Briefing and Position Papers 243
Summary: Writing Email, Memos, and Proposals 244 16 Using Direct Mail and Advertising 285

14 Giving Speeches and

16.1: The Business of Direct Mail and Advertising
16.2: The Basics of Direct Mail
285
285
Presentations 245 16.2.1: Advantages of Direct Mail 286
14.1: The Challenge of Public Speaking Engagements 245 16.2.2: Disadvantages of Direct Mail 287
14.2: The Basics of Speechwriting 246 16.3: Creating a Direct Mail Package 287
14.2.1: Researching the Audience and Speaker 246 16.3.1: Mailing Envelope 287
14.2.2: Defining Goals and Content 246 16.3.2: Direct Mail Letter 288
 Contents ix

16.3.3: Direct Mail Brochure 289 17.6.2: The Securities and Exchange Commission 316
16.3.4: Reply Card 289 17.6.3: The Federal Communications Commission 317
16.3.5: Return Envelope 289 17.6.4: The Food and Drug Administration 318
16.3.6: Gifts 290 17.7: Working with Lawyers 318
16.4: The Basics of Public Relations Advertising 290 Summary: Working Within a Legal Framework 319
16.4.1: Advantages of Advertising 291
16.4.2: Disadvantages of Advertising 291 18 Planning Programs and Campaigns 321
16.5: Types of Public Relations Advertising 292 18.1: The Value of a Written Plan 321
16.5.1: Image Building 292 18.2: Developing a PR Plan 321
16.5.2: Investor and Financial Relations 293 18.2.1: Identifying the Situation 321
16.5.3: Public Service 293 18.2.2: Gathering Information 322
16.5.4: Advocacy and Issues 294 18.2.3: Analyzing the Information 323
16.5.5: Announcements 294
18.3: Elements of a PR Plan 323
16.6: Creating a Print Ad 295 18.3.1: The Organization’s Situation 324
16.6.1: Ad Headline 295 18.3.2: Campaign Objectives 325
16.6.2: Ad Text 295 18.3.3: Campaign Audience 327
16.6.3: Ad Artwork 295 18.3.4: Campaign Strategy 327
16.6.4: Ad Layout 295 18.3.5: Campaign Tactics 328
16.7: Working with an Ad Agency 296 18.3.6: Campaign Calendar 329
16.8: Native Advertising 296 18.3.7: Campaign Budget 330
16.9: Other Advertising Channels 297 18.3.8: Campaign Evaluation 330
16.9.1: Billboards 298 18.4: Submitting a Plan for Approval 330
16.9.2: Transit Panels 298 Summary: Planning Programs and Campaigns 332
16.9.3: Buttons and Bumper Stickers 298
16.9.4: Posters 299 19 Measuring Success 333
16.9.5: T-Shirts 299
19.1: The Skill of Measurement 333
16.9.6: Promotional Items 299
19.2: The Importance of Measurement 333
Summary: Using Direct Mail and Advertising 300
19.2.1: Current Status of Measurement
17 Working Within a Legal
and Evaluation 335
19.3: Measurable Program Objectives 336
Framework 302
19.4: Measuring Production/Distribution 336
17.1: A Sampling of Legal Problems 302 19.5: Measuring Message Exposure 337
17.2: Libel and Defamation 303 19.5.1: Media Impressions 338
17.2.1: The Fair Comment Defense 304 19.5.2: Advertising Value Equivalency 338
17.2.2: Avoiding Defamation Suits 304 19.5.3: Systematic Tracking 339
17.3: Invasion of Privacy 305 19.5.4: Monitoring the Web 340
17.3.1: Employee Newsletters 305 19.5.5: Monitoring Social Media 340
17.3.2: Photo Releases 305 19.5.6: Audience Requests, Costs, and Attendance 342
17.3.3: Product Publicity and Advertising 305 19.6: Measuring Audience Awareness 343
17.3.4: Media Inquiries about Employees 306 19.7: Measuring Audience Attitudes 344
17.3.5: Employee Behavior Online 307 19.8: Measuring Audience Action 344
17.4: Copyright Law 309 19.9: Evaluating Newsletters and Brochures 345
17.4.1: Fair Use versus Infringement 310 19.9.1: Evaluation Methods 345
17.4.2: Photography and Artwork 310
19.10: Writing a Measurement Report 346
17.4.3: Work for Hire 311
Summary: Measuring Success 347
17.4.4: Use of Online Material 311
17.5: Trademark Law 312 Media Resources  349
17.5.1: The Protection of Trademarks 312
17.5.2: The Problem of Trademark Infringement 313
Glossary  354
17.5.3: Misappropriation of Personality 314 Credits  357
17.6: Regulatory Agencies 315 Index  363
17.6.1: The Federal Trade Commission 315
This page intentionally left blank
Preface

T
he new edition of Public Relations Writing and Me- become your standard reference source for college and the
dia Techniques continues its reputation as the most first years of your career.
comprehensive “how-to” text on the market. It will
give you a complete tool kit for writing and creating a full
range of public relations materials for distribution through New to the Edition
traditional media (print, radio, television) and the Internet, The increasing array of available media platforms and
including social media. channels is a bonanza for public relations specialists but
Past editions, and this one is no exception, get high also presents two challenges to today’s students and cur-
marks from professors and students as an extremely good, rent practitioners. One challenge is to constantly keep up
user-friendly text written in plain English. It offers com- with the latest developments in mobile devices or new
mon sense advice to students and practitioners about how social networking platforms. The second challenge is to
public relations is practiced in the “real world,” and con- understand how all these new communication platforms
tains clear, step-by-step guidelines illustrated by multiple and channels can be applied in public relations to more ef-
examples from actual award-winning public relations pro- fectively communicate with increasingly segmented audi-
grams conducted by many well-known organizations. ences, across a variety of earned, owned, and paid media.
In addition, it’s the only major PR writing text that pro- This edition offers new and expanded treatment of nu-
vides entire chapters on how to plan meetings and events, merous topics. Some examples include:
compose publicity photos, effectively use infographics,
write news features and op-eds, give a presentation, plan • An updated and revised chapter on websites, blogs,
an entire public relations program or campaign, and mea- and podcasts that includes additional information on
sure the success of a campaign. As one reviewer stated, the role of online newsrooms on organizational web-
“Wilcox and Reber are about the best authors out there.” sites (Chapter 10)
Although the emphasis is on the “nuts and bolts” of • A completely new chapter on social media and apps
effective public relations writing and techniques, the text that thoroughly explores how organizations can effec-
also provides the conceptual framework and broader con- tively use social media to increase consumer engage-
text of how the tactics of public relations fit into the entire ment and brand loyalty (Chapter 11)
public relations process—research, planning, communi- • Expanded information on how to work with influential
cation, and evaluation. The idea is to ensure that you not bloggers (Chapter 4)
only know how to write public relations materials, but also • Completely updated stats on the reach and influence of
understand why they are written from the standpoint of social media (Chapter 11)
furthering organizational objectives.
• Case studies on how major organizations have inte-
The many updates, revisions, and additions to this
grated traditional media and social media in various
new edition reflect today’s work in public relations. Per-
public relations programs and campaigns (all chapters)
haps the most significant changes in this edition concern
the rise of tablets, smartphones, and social media plat- • The use of Search Engine Optimization (SEO) in the
forms that have significantly changed how public relations writing and formatting of news releases (Chapter 5)
writers think and work. Blogs and other social media, such • The increased use and popularity of infographics to
as Facebook, Google+, Twitter, Pinterest, Instagram, and convey a variety of information that is easily digestible
YouTube, have challenged and created new opportunities to the public (Chapter 8)
for public relations practitioners. • How to measure the effectiveness of social media cam-
This edition, more than any other public relations paigns (Chapter 19)
writing text, tells you how to work in the rapidly chang-
• The considerations for designing an attractive and in-
ing digital environment. It’s more than a textbook; it’s a
teractive website (Chapter 10)
handy reference book that students will constantly use on
their first job and current practitioners will use as an ex- • How to prepare and tailor content for distribution in
pert resource. As one professor told their students, “This earned, owned, and paid media (all chapters)
is the one book you should keep. Don’t sell it at the end • The concept of brand journalism and content marketing
of the semester.” In sum, this edition is the book that will as a trend in public relations and marketing (Chapter 7)

xi
xii Preface

• The components and structure of a multimedia news • Guidelines for Designing a Website (Chapter 10)
release and the effectiveness of adding visuals to any • How to Increase Website Visitors (Chapter 10)
news release (Chapters 5, 8)
• The 10 Commandments for Writing Web Content
• The elements of a good online newsletter and how to (Chapter 10)
produce a brochure (Chapter 12)
• How Visitors “Read” a Website (Chapter 10)
• The Components of an Online Newsroom (Chapter 10)
REVEL™
• The Perfect Blog Post by the Numbers (Chapter 10)
Educational technology designed for the way today’s stu-
• How to Do a Podcast (Chapter 10)
dents read, think, and learn
When students are engaged deeply, they learn more • How to Post an Effective Message on Facebook
effectively and perform better in their courses. This simple (Chapter 11)
fact inspired the creation of REVEL: an immersive learn- • How to Improve Your Tweets (Chapter 11)
ing experience designed for the way today’s students read, • How to Use Instagram in Your Organization (Chap-
think, and learn. Built in collaboration with educators and ter 11)
students nationwide, REVEL is the newest, fully digital
• How to Increase Your Organization’s YouTube Views
way to deliver respected Pearson content.
(Chapter 11)
REVEL enlivens course content with media interac-
tives and assessments — integrated directly within the au- • How to Create Content for Pinterest (Chapter 11)
thors’ narrative — that provide opportunities for students • How to Create and Promote an App (Chapter 11)
to read about and practice course material in tandem. This • Lessons in Good Intranet Design (Chapter 12)
immersive educational technology boosts student engage-
• Story Ideas for Employee Periodicals (Chapter 12)
ment, which leads to better understanding of concepts and
• How to Work with Graphic Designers (Chapter 12)
improved performance throughout the course.
Learn more about REVEL • How to Manage Your Email (Chapter 13)
• How to Write a Professional Email (Chapter 13)

How-To Checklists for the • Wording a Speech (Chapter 14)

• Ways to Manage Speech Content (Chapter 14)
Aspiring Writer
• Timing Your Speech (Chapter 14)
This edition has almost 100 Tips for Success features that
offer students checklists on how to prepare various mate- • Avoiding Bad PowerPoint Presentations (Chapter 14)
rials and conduct basic media relations techniques. Such • Profile of an Event Planner (Chapter 15)
checklists provide step-by-step directions and help read- • Ten Tips for Tweeting @Conferences (Chapter 15)
ers grasp basic concepts that are discussed and elaborated
• How to Do Media Relations at a Trade Show (Chap-
upon in the chapter. The following are a sampling of new
ter 15)
and revised Tips for Success, including many that relate to
• Free Online Tools for Analyzing Your Social Media Suc-
social media, which are part of the new edition:
cess (Chapter 19)
• Websites for Public Relations Organizations (Chapter 1)
• Useful Websites for Public Relations Writers (Chapter 1)
• Celebrate! It’s National Footwear Care Month (Chap-
New PR Casebooks to Stimulate
ter 3) Interest and Insight
• The Process of Creating Ideas for a Client (Chapter 3) Students can better grasp a concept if it is illustrated with a
• How to Make Journalists and Bloggers Happy (Chap- practical example from the “real world.” The extensive use
ter 4) of examples is a highlight of this text in two ways.
First, every concept throughout the book is followed
• A Media Relations Checklist (Chapter 4)
by a practical example. Second, a more in-depth summary
• The Six Elements of a Pitch (Chapter 6) of a particular campaign is given in a “PR Casebook” that
• Two Services Match Reporter Queries with PR Sources helps students understand how the various techniques of
(Chapter 6) using earned, owned, and paid content complement each
• Maximizing Your Feature Content (Chapter 7) other in a campaign. Some new cases include the following:

• Guidelines for Creating an Infographic (Chapter 8) • The Ice Bucket Challenge Raises $100 Million (Chapter 3)
• Getting Your PSA on the Air (Chapter 9) • The Wall Street Journal Previews a New Hotel (Chapter 4)
 Preface xiii

• Boston Marathon Bombing Makes Hospital a Crisis Chapter 5 thoroughly details the structure and for-
Center (Chapter 4) mat of the news release. Attention is given to writing
• Two Successful Pitches (Chapter 6) and formatting digital news releases, including multime-
dia releases, that are distributed via email, websites, and
• An Airport Food Operator Uses a B-Roll to Announce
electronic services. Chapter 6 continues the process by de-
a New Service (Chapter 9)
tailing how to prepare fact sheets, media advisories, and
• Pitching the Airport Food Operator’s B-Roll (Chapter 9) media kits. Particularly valuable is a detailed section on
• A Video PSA Warns About the Use of Decorative how to “pitch” a story idea to a journalist or a blogger.
­Contact Lenses (Chapter 9) Chapter 7 focuses on the writing of feature stories,
• Coca-Cola Website Sets the Standard for Brand such as personality profiles and product-application sto-
­Journalism (Chapter 10) ries. The writing of opinion pieces, such as op-eds and let-
ters to the editor, are also discussed. Chapter 8 examines
• Seattle Police Blog About Marijuana (Chapter 10)
the elements of good publicity photos and infographics,
• An Oscar Selfie Generates Three Million Retweets
which often make a story more attractive to editors. It
(Chapter 11)
also offers suggestions on how to work with photogra-
• Social Media Fuels a Solar Decathlon (Chapter 11) phers, write photo captions, and use infographics to dis-
• The RFP Process with Caribou Coffee and Skinnygirl tribute information in a highly attractive visual format.
Cocktails (Chapter 13) Chapter 9 is about preparing content for radio, television,
• Festivals Celebrate Everything from Garlic to Beer and online video. The mechanics of video news releases
(Chapter 15) (VNRs) and B-roll packages are explained, as well as how
to book guests on talk shows, conduct satellite media
• U.S. Census Bureau Targets Millennials (Chapter 16)
tours, and create video stories for YouTube and organiza-
• Legal and Regulatory Bodies Continue to Define Social tional websites.
Media Rules (Chapter 17) Chapter 10 is a detailed examination of how to orga-
• A Frito-Lay Campaign Meets Its Objectives (Chapter 19) nize and format content for websites, blogs, and podcasts.
The chapter ends with a detailed discussion about best
Quotes from Leading Professionals practices for organizing and posting content on an organi-
zation’s online newsroom. Chapter 11 is about effectively
New quotes from leading professionals are highlighted
using social media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter,
throughout. These short, pithy statements give the essence
YouTube, and Pinterest to post content that engages con-
of a professional’s insights and wisdom on a particular
sumers and builds brand loyalty. It ends with a discussion
concept or technique. This approach is much more read-
of how today’s messages must be mobile-enabled to ac-
able than the short narrative or Q&A with a professional
commodate the rising tide of smartphone users, and how
featured in some texts.
apps are now a major factor in the distribution of service-
oriented information.
Organization of the Book Chapter 12 offers information on how to prepare
The text is written and organized so instructors can easily print and online newsletters, write and design a bro-
mix and match chapters that suit their students’ needs. It’s chure, and use employee intranets to distribute content.
also adaptable for either a semester or quarter course and The complex job of writing and organizing an organiza-
can even be divided for two courses. tion’s annual report is also discussed. Chapter 13 offers
Chapter 1 reviews the basic concepts of good writing, students tips on email etiquette, how to write a business
errors to avoid, and what resources are needed. Chapter 2 letter, and how to respond to an organization’s Request
continues with the components of persuasive writing, pro- for Proposal (RFP) seeking the services of a public rela-
vides a brief overview of major communication theories, tions or consulting firm.
and ends with the ethical responsibilities of the public rela- Chapter 14 is about how to write and give speeches
tions writer. and presentations. Detailed guidelines for preparing
Chapter 3 helps students think strategically and cre- PowerPoint slides are provided. Chapter 15 is about plan-
atively about what makes news. Traditional journalistic ning meetings and events. Detailed steps are given for
values are emphasized, but students are also told how organizing a banquet, planning a convention, setting up
to brainstorm ideas to generate news through special a trade show, and selecting a celebrity for a promotional
events, contests, and even stunts. Chapter 4 is about how event. Chapter 16 is about preparing direct mail pieces,
to work with journalists and bloggers to ensure effective primarily for non-profit organizations, and the key ele-
media relations. How to communicate during a crisis also ments of public relations advertising. Other media such as
is covered. billboards, transit panels, and event T-shirts are discussed.
xiv Preface

Chapter 17 provides a legal framework for preparing • PowerPoint—provides a core template of the content
materials. Attention is given to libel, privacy, copyright, covered throughout the text. Can easily be added to
trademarks, and governmental regulatory agencies such customize for your classroom.
as the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Attention is also • Instructor’s Manual—includes a description, in-class
given to the legal or career-damaging consequences of discussion questions, and a research assignment for
posting inappropriate information on organizational or each chapter.
personal social media pages.
• Test Bank—includes additional questions beyond the
Chapter 18 presents the essential elements of a pub-
REVEL in multiple choice and open-ended—short and
lic relations campaign, providing the information needed
essay response—formats.
to integrate various strategies and tactics into an effective
campaign. The steps for how to write a public relations • MyTest—an electronic format of the Test Bank to cus-
plan are given. Chapter 19 explores the various ways that tomize in-class tests or quizzes. Visit: http://www.
the success of a campaign can be measured. A key section pearsonhighered.com/mytest.
of the chapter discusses how social media effectiveness is
measured from the standpoint of reach, share of conver- Acknowledgments
sation, audience engagement, and how much messages We would like to thank those who reviewed previous edi-
are shared. tions and made many suggestions that have been incor-
porated into this revision: Claire Badaracco, Marquette
University; Lora J. DeFore, Mississippi State University;
Available Instructor Resources Donn Silvis, California State University, Dominguez Hills;
The following resources are available for instructors. These and Brenda J. Wrigley, Michigan State University. And a
can be downloaded at http://www.pearsonhighered. special thanks to the many educators who provided input
com/irc. Login required. for this and prior editions.
About the Authors
Dr. Wilcox is professor Dr. Reber is C. Richard
emeritus of public rela- Yarbrough Professor in
tions at San Jose State Uni- Crisis Communication
versity and former director Leadership at the Uni-
of the School of Journalism versity of Georgia, Grady
& Mass Communications. College of Journalism and
He is also the lead author Mass Communication.
of two other popular text- He teaches introduction
books, Public Relations to public relations, man-
Strategies and Tactics and agement, crisis commu-
THINK Public Relations. nication, and writing. On
He is an accredited the graduate level, Reber
Dennis L. Wilcox
(APR) member of the Bryan H. Reber teaches management,
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) and is also in persuasion, campaign re-
the organization’s College of Fellows, recognizing his life- search, and public opinion.
long contributions to the profession. Wilcox is a former Reber ’s research focuses on public relations theory,
chair of the PRSA Educator’s Academy and the public rela- practice, pedagogy, and crisis and health communi-
tions division of the Association for Education in Journal- cation and has been published in the Journal of Public
ism & Mass Communications (AEJMC). Among his many Relations Research, Journalism and Mass Communication
awards is PRSA’s “Educator of the Year,” the Xifra-Heras Quarterly, Journal of Health Communication, Public Rela-
Award from the University of Girona (Spain), an award of tions Review, and Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic
excellence from the Public Relations Society of India, and Media, among others.
an honorary doctorate from the University of Bucharest for Reber regularly presents his research at national and
his many contributions to global public relations education international academic conferences. He is the co-author
and to advancing the profession. of Gaining Inf luence in Public Relations, Public Relations:
Wilcox is currently active in the International Public Strategies and Tactics, 11th ed., and THINK Public Rela-
Relations Association (IPRA) and is a member of the Ar- tions. Reber serves on the board of the Plank Center for
thur W. Page Society, an organization of senior public rela- Leadership in Public Relations and is a member of the
tions executives. He now travels extensively as a speaker Arthur W. Page Society. He worked for 15 years in public
and consultant in Europe, South America, and Asia. His relations at Bethel College, Kansas. He can be reached at
philosophy, to quote St. Augustine, is “The world is a [email protected].
book, and those who do not travel read only a page.” He
can be reached at [email protected].

xv
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Chapter 1
Getting Organized for Writing
Learning Objectives
1.1 Recognize the public relations framework in 1.5 Express the different forms of research and
which writing plays a role how online resources can assist with public
relations writing tasks
1.2 Express the objectives, audiences, and the
channels used by the public relations writer 1.6 Illustrate the guidelines for public relations
writing
1.3 Describe some of the necessary tools that a
public relations writer needs access to 1.7 Analyze the common errors made by the PR
writer and ways to avoid them
1.4 Report how the professional writer can use
industry resources to keep up with
developments in the field

1.1: The Framework of 1.1.1: Writing Is Only One

Component
Public Relations Writing It’s important to realize that the preparation and distribution
1.1 Recognize the public relations framework in of messages is only one part of the public relations process.
which writing plays a role Public relations work is actually composed of four core com-
ponents: research, planning, communication, and evaluation.
The focus of this course is on the most visible aspect of
Public relations writing is part of the communication compo-
public relations—the writing and distribution of messages
nent, which only occurs after research has been conducted
in a variety of formats to multiple media channels and
and extensive planning to formulate the goals and objectives
platforms. To the uninitiated, this activity is the sum and
of a campaign has taken place. Planning also involves the
substance of public relations. For them, PR stands for
selection of audiences to be reached, the key messages to be
“press release,” which has historically been the most com-
distributed, and the strategies that should be used to ensure
mon publicity technique. Because of this, it’s necessary to
the overall success of the program or campaign.
first establish the framework in which public relations
It’s also important to know the difference between
writing takes place.
strategies and tactics.

1
2 Chapter 1

1.1.2: Writers as Communication

Technicians
Public relations writers and media placement specialists are
responsible for implementing all of the tactics in a campaign
or program. They, by definition, fulfill a “technician” or “tacti-
cal” role. They are the “production” staff who write the news
releases, formulate the feature stories, produce videos for
online distribution, and contact the television show producer
to make a “pitch” for the company’s spokesperson to appear
as a guest to talk about the organization or the product.
It is important to note that a public relations writer usu-
ally prepares material for possible use in the news columns
of newspapers or on broadcast news and magazine pro-
grams. Such placement is called earned media because,
unlike advertising that is purchased, public relations materi-
als are only used if journalists and editors decide the infor-
mation is newsworthy.
The role of writer and technician is the standard entry-
level position in public relations, but some in the public rela-
tions field have been writers and media relations experts for
most of their careers. This is because most positions in public
relations at corporations or public relations firms are at the
technician or tactical level. A speechwriter or an editor of an
employee newsletter, for example, may be a skilled technician
by definition, but he or she is also a highly prized professional
who receives a good salary because of his or her expertise.
There is a distinction, however, between the duties per-
formed by a technician and those of a public relations man-
ager. Professor David Dozier of San Diego State University,
who has done considerable research on roles in public rela-
tions, says, “Managers make policy decisions and are held
accountable for public relations outcomes,” whereas “techni-
cians carry out the low-level mechanics of generating com-
munication products that implement policy decisions made
by others.”
This is not to say that professional practitioners don’t ful- As you can see, the total framework of public relations
fill both manager and technician roles. A professional may is much more than just “press releases.” Such materials are
primarily be a manager but also be deeply involved in pre- important, but they are only one highly visible manifesta-
paring a media kit or arranging a special event. By the same tion of the entire public relations process. With this frame-
token, a public relations writer in an organization with lim- work in mind, we begin our discussion about public
ited staffing may primarily be a technician but also be relations writing and media techniques.
involved in the planning of an entire campaign. The follow-
ing Tips for Success box outlines additional skills that a public
relations writer should possess. 1.2: The Public Relations
Writer
Tips for Success 1.2 Express the objectives, audiences, and the channels
used by the public relations writer
Writing Is One of Six Skills
The ability to write is one of the six essential skills for a success- Although the public relations writer and the journalist
ful career in public relations. Dennis L. Wilcox, Glen T. Cameron, share a number of common characteristics in their approach
and Bryan H. Reber summarize the essential skills in the 11th to writing, the public relations writer differs in objectives,
edition of their textbook, Public Relations Strategies & Tactics. audiences, and channels.
 Getting Organized for Writing 3

key messages about the product and how it can benefit cus-
tomers?” In the case of a newsletter for an organization, there
might be several objectives. Akron Children’s Hospital, for
example, started Inside Children as a way of reaching single-
family households with children and family incomes of
$30,000 or more within its 17-county service area. The objec-
tives of the newsletter, published three times a year, were:

1. To generate business by building awareness for vari-

ous departments and programs.
2. To recruit participants for various pediatric drug and
clinical trials.
3. To generate requests for more information from the
hospital’s referral telephone line and the website.
4. To distribute various parenting and child health mate-
1.2.1: Objectives rials to interested parents.

A journalist is usually employed by a news organization to

gather, process, and synthesize information for the primary 1.2.2: Audiences
purpose of providing news to the organization’s subscrib- The traditional journalist writes for one audience—readers,
ers, viewers, or listeners. A hallmark of professional report- listeners, or viewers of the medium for which he or she works.
ing is to present information in a fair and balanced manner. Newspapers, magazines, radio, and television are usually
The public relations writer, in contrast, is usually defined as “mass media,” because the audience is very broad
employed by an organization that wants to communicate and its members have little in common. An extension of the
with a variety of audiences, either through the news media or mass media, of course, is online news sites such as the Huff-
through other channels of communication. These organiza- ington Post that also serve a broad spectrum of the public.
tions may include corporations, government agencies, envi- The public relations writer, however, may write for
ronmental groups, labor unions, trade associations, or public numerous, specialized audiences—employees, community
relations firms that provide information on behalf of clients. leaders, customers, teenagers, seniors, women, various eth-
The writer’s purpose is advocacy, not objectivity. The nic and racial groups, travelers, governmental regulatory
goal is not only to accurately inform but also to persuade agencies, investors, farmers, and many others. Effective pub-
and motivate. Edward M. Stanton, former chairman of the lic relations writing requires careful definition of the audi-
Manning, Selvage & Lee public relations firm, once described ence and its composition so that information can be tailored
public relations activity in Public Relations Quarterly as to its interests and concerns. A public relations writer per-
“working with clients on strategy and messages, and then forms research constantly to determine the audience’s needs,
delivering these messages to target audiences in order to per- concerns, and interests. Armed with this information, the
suade them to do something that is beneficial to the client.” public relations writer can write a more persuasive message.
“The use of fact and emotion in a story is critical—particu-
larly in public relations. In a world cluttered with messag- 1.2.3: Channels
es competing for audience time and attention, our mes-
Journalists, by nature of their employment, primarily reach
sages and stories require both elements to be effective.”
their audiences through one channel: the medium that pub-
— Kevin Dugan, founder of the Bad Pitch Blog
lishes, broadcasts, or posts their work on a news website.
Professor Robert Heath, co-author of Rhetorical and The public relations writer, in contrast, is not restricted to
Critical Approaches to Public Relations, points out that the any one media platform but will use many channels and
role of advocate is a time-honored one. It goes back 2,000 media platforms to effectively reach well-defined audiences.
years to Aristotle, who conceptualized the term rhetoric— Indeed, today’s public relations writer sits at the junc-
the ability to determine what needs to be said and how it tion of multiple media platforms that are broadly classified
should be said to achieve desired outcomes. Heath writes as earned, owned, and paid media. Earned media are defined as
that rhetoric “entails the ability and obligation to demon- stories in the traditional mass media that are selected by
strate to an audience facts and arguments available to gatekeepers such as editors, broadcast producers, and
bring insight into an important issue.” bloggers. The coverage may be based on a news release, a
Hence, all public relations writing should begin with the news conference, or an event by an organization, but jour-
question, “How does this help the organization achieve its nalists and editors make the decision whether the informa-
objectives?” For example, “Does the news release contain the tion is “newsworthy” and write or produce the actual
4 Chapter 1

story. Thus, this is considered “earned” media because the

organization receives publicity without paying for it.
Owned media, on the other hand, are media channels
owned by the organization. This may include the organiza-
tion’s website, its Facebook and YouTube page, newslet-
ters, brochures, pamphlets, direct mail, posters, email
distribution, podcasts, blogs, and even the organization’s
intranet for employees and vendors. Organizations,
through their public relations, corporate communications,
and marketing departments, not only “own” these chan-
nels but also control all content without the filter of tradi-
tional media gatekeepers.
Paid media are primarily ads in traditional media and
on such sites as Google and Facebook. Organizations pay
for space on these platforms to distribute their messages
about their products and services. Although public rela-
tions writers rarely get involved in producing ads, they
1.3.1: Computer and Printer
increasingly are involved in another form of paid media Public relations professionals spend much of their working
under the rubric of “sponsorship.” day in front of a computer. One survey of independent
In this situation, public relations writers produce fea- public relations practitioners, many of whom work from
ture stories in a journalistic format that are then placed in home, found that they spend about 70 to 80 percent of their
publications and online news sites after paying a fee to the day on the computer doing word processing, surfing the
publisher. In many cases, the publication’s staff will actually Internet, and sending or responding to emails. A good
write the “sponsored” story. Online news sites such as the multifunctional printer is also a necessity because it allows
Atlantic, Buzzfeed, and the Huffington Post now have a “spon- you to print out hard copies of your work for detailed edit-
sored” section that supplements their advertising revenue. ing, process photos on SD cards, scan documents, and even
In most cases, a combination of earned, owned, and send faxes.
paid media is selected to achieve maximum message pen- A computer is your single most important piece of
etration and understanding. This important concept is equipment as a public relations writer. It enables you to
illustrated throughout this course by showing how public use sophisticated word processing software programs
relations professionals use multiple media platforms for a such as Microsoft Office that permit maximum flexibility
single project or campaign. to write, edit, format, insert artwork, and merge informa-
tion into a complete document. Other software packages
WRITING PROMPT such as Adobe’s Creative Suite enable you to profession-
ally edit photos, create entire brochures, and edit video
There are several differences in how public relations writers and jour-
nalists do their jobs in terms of objectives, audiences, and channels.
that can then be posted to the Internet and other social
What do you think is the major difference between a public relations media sites.
writer and a journalist? The type of computer and printer you use depends on
your work environment. Public relations writers who are
The response entered here will appear in the in the same office on a daily basis often use a desktop PC or
performance dashboard and can be viewed by
your instructor. Mac. Practitioners say there are three primary reasons for
using a desktop:
Submit 1. Computers and printers in an office are often net-
worked so it’s easier to share software and files and to
tap into the organization’s database, which often con-
1.3: The Writer’s Basic tains proprietary information.

Tool Kit 2. They are more cost effective in terms of having more
memory and hard disk space than laptops or tablets.
1.3 Describe some of the necessary tools that a public 3. Large monitors and standard keyboards are better
relations writer needs access to suited for writing and editing.

It is essential for the public relations writer to have a work- Others, particularly students and professionals who
space that includes a computer and a printer, Internet travel frequently, prefer laptops with standard-sized
access, and a reference library. keyboards because of their portability and flexibility. In
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
hostility, while, to Ojeda, he gave much credit for his sagacity. We
shall here add, respecting the fate of Caonabo, that, some time
after, Columbus, on returning to Spain, took this haughty chief with
him. But he died during the voyage.

chapter viii.

Columbus returns to Spain.

I have related how Pedro Margarite seized a ship, and, with some
others, fled to Spain. Here they found full exercise for their enmity to
Columbus. They accused him of many wicked acts, which, though
unfounded, obtained some credit, and served to lessen his justly-
acquired popularity.
The king and queen, thinking, perhaps, that all was not right,
despatched a man, by the name of Aguado, to see how matters
stood, and to assist in preserving the tranquillity of the colony.
No sooner had Aguado arrived at Isabella, than he began to
assume a tone of authority, and to treat Columbus as an inferior.
Among other things, he endeavored to hunt up accusations against
him, which he might present to the court of Spain on his return.
Perceiving what was going forward, and what was intended
against him, Columbus determined to return to Spain at the same
time that Aguado did. On the 10th of March, 1496, both embarked in
different vessels. After a fatiguing voyage of three months, they
landed at Cadiz.
On his arrival in Spain, Columbus found that his enemies had
been at work in good earnest. They had spread various injurious
reports about his management. Although these reports had
doubtless reached the king and queen, they received him with great
kindness, and treated him with attention.
In the autumn of that year, a large sum of money was ordered to
be advanced to Columbus, in order to fit out another expedition
under his command. Various circumstances occurred, however, to
delay the sailing of the vessels, and it was not until the 30th of May,
1498, that Columbus was enabled to leave Spain on his third voyage
for the new world.

chapter ix.

Third voyage of Columbus—Fresh troubles.

Columbus left Spain, on his third voyage, in May, 1498. During
this voyage, he and his men suffered greatly in being becalmed, in
the middle of summer, within the tropics. For eight days, they could
make no progress, but lay motionless upon the water, under the
heat of a scorching sun. So intense was the heat that they could
scarcely breathe. Their meat spoiled, and they lost nearly all their
wine and water.
At length, they were enabled to proceed, and, on the 31st of July,
to their inexpressible joy, they discovered the island of Trinidad. At
this time, they had but one cask of water remaining in the ship. On
the 30th of August, Columbus arrived at Hispaniola. During this
voyage, he had suffered greatly from watching and fatigue, from
fever and gout. Yet he indulged the hope that his constitution, which
had been uncommonly good, would recover itself after his arrival.
But Columbus was destined to new toils and new trials. He found the
colony in a sad state. The Spaniards had experienced troubles during
his absence. They had had wars with the natives, difficulties with
one another, indolence had prevailed, and a famine had almost
ensued.
We must pass over many interesting particulars, and content
ourselves with letting our readers know, in general, that, after the
return of Columbus, affairs proceeded still very badly. Many of the
Spaniards in the new world were hostile to Columbus, resisted his
authority, formed conspiracies against his government, and
continued to send home complaints against him to Spain.
It was unfortunate for Columbus that the expectations of the
people in Spain had been raised so high, respecting the wealth of
the new world. They expected, from the accounts which had been
received about the gold found there, that Spain would become rich
in consequence of this discovery.
Even Ferdinand and Isabella had their hopes greatly raised. But,
at length, they found that they were obliged to be at continual
expense for the support of the Spaniards in the new world. This
tended to lessen their gratification at the discovery, and prepared
them to listen, with less reluctance, to complaints against Columbus.
For a time, they continued to regard him with kindness, and were
unwilling to admit the truth of complaints which were made against
him. But they were so numerous, so often repeated, so confidently
asserted, that, at length, they began to doubt whether all was right
on the part of Columbus.
His enemies were now about triumphant. The king and queen
appointed a man, by the name of Bobadilla, to repair to Hispaniola;
as governor, to assume the administration; and, at the same time,
they required Columbus to surrender everything into his hands.
Having made an examination, if Columbus and his brothers were
found to have abused their authority, their power was to be taken
from them altogether.

chapter x.

Columbus arrested, and sent home in chains—His fourth voyage—

His sufferings and death.
Bobadilla arrived at Isabella in July, 1500. Columbus, at this time,
was in another part of the island. No sooner was the former landed,
than it was apparent to the friends of Columbus, especially to his
brothers, what he intended. He began to issue his commands as
chief of the island, and took possession of the house of Columbus
and everything in it.
Soon after, this arrogant man summoned Columbus to appear
before him. This was truly humbling to the exalted mind of
Columbus, conscious, as he was, of no wrong. Yet he judged it wise
to suppress his feelings and comply with the command.
But little did Columbus expect such a reception as he met with.
Little did he imagine that it was in the power, even of enemies, to
treat him with so much injustice and indignity as he now
experienced. No sooner did he appear at Isabella, than he was
seized, loaded with irons, and confined to the fortress. His brothers,
Diego and Bartholomew, shared a similar fate. They were separated
from each other, and Bobadilla, himself, did not condescend even to
see them.
Soon after, orders were issued for the departure of a vessel for
Spain; and in that vessel went the noble Columbus and his brothers
as prisoners and in irons. What a reverse of fortune! How often have
the benefactors of mankind met with unkindness from those from
whom they had a right to expect gratitude! How often have they
met with injustice, where they ought to have experienced honor and
reward!
It was, doubtless, trying to Columbus to be thus seized,
imprisoned, and loaded with chains, and sent home apparently
disgraced; but it must have been most trying of all to him to have
met with insults and hoots from the multitude who had assembled to
witness his departure. The voyage was short. The master of the
vessel treated Columbus with kindness and respect, which served to
soften the troubles which now preyed upon his wounded spirit.
When Columbus arrived in Spain, and in chains, there was a
general burst of indignation, throughout the country, that he should
have been thus treated. The king, therefore, pretended that he had
no share in this treatment of the discoverer of the new world, and
ordered him to be set at liberty. It seems, however, that the heart of
the monarch was turned from him; for, during nine long months,
Columbus remained in neglect, and, finally, the king appointed
Nicholas Ovando governor of Hispaniola.
 It was at last decided that Columbus should proceed on a fourth
voyage, which was commenced May 9th, 1502. His powers were
indeed restricted, and his constitution shattered; but still he panted
for new adventures and discoveries. He had this time four small
ships and one hundred and fifty men.
His particular object now was to discover a passage to India
through the Gulf of Mexico. After coasting along the shores of this
gulf, and making various discoveries, he was forced, by the crazy
state of his ships, to return to Hispaniola. He stopped at Jamaica,
and finally arrived at Santo Domingo. After experiencing a great
variety of sufferings, he departed for Spain, where he arrived in
November. On reaching Seville, he heard of the death of his friend
and patron, queen Isabella.
The sun of prosperity had now set upon Columbus. He was
suffered to linger in neglect and poverty. He was also attacked with
sickness, and detained till 1505, at which time, weary and
exhausted, he arrived at Segovia, the seat of the Spanish court.
Here he applied to the king for redress, but this was denied him. He
lingered a year longer in obscurity and poverty, till death gave him
relief. He died at Valladolid, on the 20th of May, 1506.
Thus ended a noble and glorious career, and one which teaches
us a sad lesson of the wrongs, injustice and cruelty of kings. As if to
make some amends for the sufferings of Columbus, his remains
received a pompous funeral,—a circumstance, however, which shows
that his merit was known, and that those who had injured him were
conscious of the wrongs they had done him.

The Cat and the Mouse.—A mouse, ranging about a brewery,

happening to fall into one of the vats, was in imminent danger of
drowning, and called to a cat to take him out. “It is a foolish
request,” replied the cat; “for, as soon as I get you, I shall eat you.”
The mouse piteously replied that that fate would be better than to
be drowned in beer. The cat lifted him out; but the fumes of the
beer caused pussy to sneeze, and the mouse took refuge in his hole.
The cat called upon mousey to come out: “You rascal, did you not
promise I should eat you?” “Ah!” replied mousey, “but you know I
was in liquor at the time.”

Fable of the Humming-bird and Butterfly.—A humming-bird once met

a butterfly, and, being pleased with the beauty of its person and the
glory of its wings, made an offer of perpetual friendship.
“I cannot think of it,” was the reply, “as you once spurned at me,
and called me a crawling dolt!”
“Impossible!” exclaimed the humming-bird. “I always entertained
the highest respect for such beautiful creatures as you.”
“Perhaps you do now,” said the other; “but, when you insulted
me, I was a caterpillar. So let me give you this piece of advice:
Never insult the humble, as they may one day become your
superiors.”

Some time since, some men took twenty-one geese from a farm-
yard in Kent, England, belonging to a Mr. White. A gander, which
belonged to the flock, was left behind, with a bag tied round its
neck, containing twenty-one pence, and the following poetic excuse
written on a slip of paper:
“Dear Mister White,
We wish you good night,
We are sorry we cannot stay longer;
We have taken twenty-one geese,
At a penny a piece,
And left the amount with the gander.”
 Washington Irving’s cottage.

Washington Irving’s Cottage.

It is curious to observe the interest attached to everything
connected with a great man. We love especially to visit the
residences of those who have excited our admiration either by their
writings or their actions. It may be pleasant to our readers,
therefore, to see the picture, on the opposite page, of the cottage of
Washington Irving, a pleasant and amusing writer, who has acquired
great reputation. There are very few persons, in this country, who
have not read some of his books.
The cottage, of which we have given a picture, is situated in a
secluded spot, on the eastern bank of the Hudson river, a
considerable distance above New York. The place is called Sleepy
Hollow, and is the scene of one of Mr. Irving’s best stories. The
building is a curious one, seeming to partake partly of the English
and partly of the Dutch style of architecture.
 The place is remarkable for the quiet and tranquillity that reign
around. The whistle of the quail and the tapping of the woodpecker
are almost the only sounds that are heard.
In this delightful spot Mr. Irving fixed his residence some years
ago. But, about two years since, he was appointed minister to Spain,
and in this capacity he is now living at Madrid.
 Jumping Rabbit’s Story.
chapter vi.

If I were to give a minute account of all that happened while I

was with the Indians, it would fill a large book. Perhaps I may, some
time or other, give a more particular account of my adventures; but I
must now condense my narrative, and give only the leading events
of my life with the Indians.
I continued for nearly six years with the tribe of Kickapoos, who
first made me their captive. During this period these Indians
frequently shifted their abode, partly with a view to the acquisition
of game, and partly to escape the neighborhood of troublesome
enemies. We had occasional skirmishes with other tribes, and once a
serious war with the Osages.
Small companies of white hunters and fur traders sometimes
visited our camp, taking our furs, and giving us powder, ball and
trinkets in return. The trade in furs became more and more an
object to the tribe, and, finally, it was a part of their system to
despatch some of the men every winter to the mountainous country
at the west, for the purpose of killing foxes, wild-cats, and other
animals, in order to obtain their skins.
I accompanied one of these parties, which consisted of eleven
men. We proceeded, early in the autumn, to the Rocky Mountains,
and, hearing that game was very abundant on the other side, we
traversed that immense range, and found ourselves upon its western
slope. We came to a river, which, it was said, emptied its waters into
a great salt lake. Impelled by curiosity, we continued our ramble to
the westward, and, at last, reached the shores of the Pacific.
Novelty strikes even the imagination of the savage. Our party
were, therefore, not a little excited when they gazed at the
boundless sea, and noticed the greenish tinge of its waters. When
they tasted it, and perceived its salt and bitter flavor, they spit
violently, and uttered a great many exclamations of astonishment. It
was here that I first saw a ship. This was one of the American
vessels, going to trade with the Indians on the north-west coast, and
obtain their furs. She passed near us, and I could easily distinguish
her sails, her ropes, and some of the men. I had often heard of the
white people, since I had been with the Indians, but nothing I had
ever seen had given me such an idea of their skill and power as did
this vessel.
We lingered along the shores of the Pacific for some weeks, and
here we met with various tribes of Indians. Some of these were
called Flat-heads, the upper part of their heads being flattened, by
placing them in infancy between two boards. It may seem difficult to
account for the prevalence of such a painful and unnatural custom;
but we must remember that fashion governs the Indians as well as
the white people. Some of the savages bore holes through their ears
and noses, for the purpose of suspending jewels therein. Some
submit to a burning of the flesh, in order to tattoo the skin; and
those we have just mentioned compress the skull between two
boards. These things are all done in compliance with fashion.
We at last returned to the Rocky Mountains, and spent the winter
in the pursuit of game. We killed a number of wild sheep and wild
goats, and several beautiful little antelopes. These creatures we
found in small herds at the eastern foot of the mountains. They
were exceedingly agile, with gentle, black eyes and mild
countenances, and seemed to speed over the ground almost as
swiftly as a bird could fly.
Loaded with furs of various kinds, we set out for our return. One
night, as we were encamped upon the banks of a small river, we
were attacked by a party of about twenty Pawnees. Two of our
Indians were killed, and the rest escaped. I was myself taken
prisoner, and nearly the whole of our furs fell into the hands of the
assailants.
 I was now taken with my new captors to the encampment of the
Pawnees, a distance of five days’ journey. I submitted with apparent
satisfaction to my captivity, and, making myself useful, soon
acquired the favor of the people among whom I was now adopted. I
had, however, no real attachment to them, and determined to seize
the first favorable opportunity for my escape. Several months
passed, and I began to be more reconciled to my lot, particularly as
I was now regarded as a leader among the hunters of the tribe.
A plan was now set on foot for a marauding expedition against
the Indians dwelling far to the eastward of our present position. We
had plenty of horses, and thirty of us, well mounted and equipped,
set forth upon the proposed adventures. We proceeded eastward,
and traversed a large extent of country, and, at last, came within the
vicinity of some scattered settlements of white men.
I now discovered that it was the purpose of my companions to
attack these settlements,—a circumstance which they had before
concealed from me. This concealment probably arose from their
knowledge that I was of white descent, and they were, perhaps,
afraid that I would not join them heartily in plundering my own
kindred.
At last, however, they told me their scheme. Though I had been
long with the Indians, and had adopted their customs and feelings,
yet I was by no means pleased with the idea of attacking these
white settlements. I knew it was unsafe for me, however, to avow
my scruples; for, if their suspicion was excited, they would not
hesitate to send a bullet through my heart. I therefore received their
proposition with apparent unconcern. Perceiving, however, the keen
eyes of an old chief bent suspiciously upon me, I thought it
necessary to profess an interest in the enterprise which I did not
feel.
The intention of escaping from the tribe, which I had formerly
cherished, now revived, and an opportunity was only wanting for me
to take leave of them forever. While I was in this state of mind, we
came into the vicinity of a small white settlement, consisting of four
or five houses. One of our party had been in this quarter before, and
knew the situation of these dwellings. They were all scattered, and
one of them he described as apart from the rest, and as likely to
afford considerable plunder.
It was thought best, however, before making the attack, to gain
more exact information of the present state of things among the
settlers; and, with this view, it was proposed that four of us should
paint and dress ourselves as Osages, and pay a visit to these white
people under pretence of selling them furs. We halted in the thick
forest, and made our preparations. Our party of spies then set out
on foot, and proceeded to visit the houses of the white men. We
found five or six log-houses built upon the borders of the White river,
each of them having some cleared and cultivated lands around
them.
A little higher up the stream, we came to the other house which
has been before mentioned. It was larger than those we have
described, and had the appearance of considerable comfort and
thrift on the part of the inhabitants.
When we entered the house, we saw two women; one of them
about middle age, the other about sixteen. It was now several years
since I had been with the Indians, during which period I had not
seen a white woman. The moment I looked on those now before
me, my former associations and trains of thought revived. We
addressed the oldest of the females, and asked for a cup of water.
She replied in tones of kindness and courtesy, but I thought I could
perceive something of trepidation and anxiety in her manner. Her
voice, also, awakened indescribable emotions in my breast.
The young lady soon brought us a pitcher of water, and, when I
looked upon her, it seemed to me that I had never beheld a creature
so lovely. As the man of the house was not at home, we soon
departed, and, as our business was now accomplished, we
proceeded straight to our companions, whose lurking-place we
reached late in the evening. We communicated the information we
had acquired, and it was soon resolved to make an attack upon the
last house we had visited, the very next night.
The situation in which I now found myself was most painful. The
deepest interest had been excited in my breast toward those whom
the savages had resolved to sacrifice. The forms of the mother and
daughter continually haunted my mind; and a strange fancy that it
was my mother and sister whom I had seen, seized upon me.
Improbable, impossible, indeed, as this seemed when I considered it
calmly, there was still a conviction resting upon my heart that I was
about to engage in assailing the dwelling-place of my parents, with
every chance of sacrificing the lives of my kindred.
I was not long in resolving to take no part in this murderous
scheme, except to baffle it. But what could be done? To escape from
the savages, forever on the watch, and, doubtless, in some degree
suspicious of me, was a thing by no means easily achieved. I
determined, however, to make the attempt, even if it cost me my
life.
It was the plan of the Indians to remain where they were till
about midnight, then to proceed on horseback to the vicinity of the
settlements, and, having tied the horses in some sheltered spot, to
go on foot to the assault they meditated. Early the next evening, the
whole party laid down for the purpose of obtaining some repose,
their horses having been fastened, so as to be at command. I had
taken care that my own horse should be imperfectly tied, so that I
knew he would soon get loose.
In the course of an hour, and after most of the company were
asleep, I heard the animal moving about. I then rose up, expressed
some surprise, and remarked that my horse was loose, and that I
must go and take care of him. One or two Indians, who were still
awake, heard what I said, and, seeing nothing suspicious in my
conduct, I was permitted to depart without interruption. I soon
caught my horse, and cautiously led him away from the slumbering
party. When I had gone to the distance of fifty rods, I mounted his
back and plunged into the woods.
 For more than a mile I took a direction opposite to the houses of
the settlers. Then, making a wide circuit, I turned and pursued my
way toward them. Coming to the bank of the river, I was guided in
my course, and ere long reached the first of those settlements which
I had visited with my Indian companions. I now woke up the people
in the several houses, and, in the imperfect English I was able to
command, told them of the attack that was meditated.
Four men, well armed, immediately started with me for the house
which was to be the first object of attack. It was nearly midnight
when we arrived and roused the inmates of the house. There was no
time to be lost, and immediate preparations to receive the enemy
were made. In about an hour we saw their dark forms gliding out
from the edge of the forest, and approaching the house. With a soft
and stealthy tread they approached. Two of them seized upon a
large stick of timber, and were advancing to the door, for the
purpose of beating it in, when I thrust my head out of the window
and uttered the war-whoop. The astonished Indians started back,
and for a short time concealed themselves in an adjacent thicket.
I knew that they would recognize my voice, and understand that
their plot was detected, and that preparations were made to repel it.
I hoped, therefore, that they would retire and give up their
enterprise. Such, however, was not their determination. In a short
time they rallied, and, setting up the war-cry, advanced with rapid
steps toward the house.
I marked the leader of the band, whom I knew to be the bravest
man of the party, and, presenting my rifle, I fired. The Indian fell
with a terrific scream. The rest of the party halted. There was a
momentary bustle, and the savages disappeared. We continued on
the watch till morning, and were then happy to discover that the
enemy had carried off their wounded leader, and abandoned the
enterprise that had brought them hither.
I had been too intently occupied, during the night, to think of
much beside the immediate business in hand, but I now turned my
eyes upon the inmates of the house. These consisted of four
persons,—a husband and wife of middle age, and a son and
daughter now in the flower of youth. The thought again crossed my
mind that here were my parents, my brother and my sister. At last,
in the conviction that this was so, I placed myself before the matron,
and said, as well as I knew how, “Did you ever lose a son?”
“Yes, yes! why do you ask?” said she, looking at me with intense
curiosity.
“He is here,” said I.
“You my son?” said she.
But I cannot describe the scene. It will be sufficient for the reader
to know that I had the happiness this day of being restored to my
family and saving them from the perils of an Indian assault.

“Where have you been this week?” “Me? I’ve been fishing.” “Catch
anything?” “Yes, a cold.” “Where were you last night?” “Ducking.”
“Get any?” “Yes, one.” “Where?” “In the river.” “How?” “Tumbled in.”
 Inquisitive Jack.
chapter xi.

About Butterflies.
Our readers must not suppose that our little hero had no interest
in anything but insects. It is true that his mind being once engaged
upon this subject, his curiosity increased with his knowledge, and for
a time he preferred the study of insects to that of anything else. At
one period, as I have told you, he was greatly interested in beetles;
then in spiders; and then in bees. Finally he turned his attention to
butterflies. You may be tired of my story, but you must hear about
this.
One beautiful summer day, he saw a large butterfly seated upon a
flower—its wings were splendidly marked with figures of brown,
black and gold. They were almost as large as the palm of his hand.
As the insect sat upon the flower, he waved them up and down,
seeming to fan the blossom upon which it was resting.
Jack’s first idea was to rush upon the butterfly, and seize it. But
he had now acquired a habit of investigation. He had lost that
instinct which leads little, thoughtless children to snatch at every
new and pleasing object. He was no longer a mere child, but a
thinking boy. His mind was awake, and the pleasure he derived from
its exercise was a very great pleasure.
So Jack, having approached near to the butterfly, paused and
examined it carefully. He found that it had four wings, two large and
two small ones, and that it had six legs, four only of which seemed
to be used.
While Jack was thus pursuing his observations, he gradually drew
nearer, until the alarmed insect took to flight, and, with a wavering
motion, swept across an adjacent meadow, until it was lost in the
distance. As Jack was in the habit of thinking about what he had
seen, he mused upon the little butterfly, and then he asked his Aunt
Betsey about it. She was ever ready to gratify his curiosity, and so
she proceeded to tell him about butterflies, pretty much as follows:
“You must know, my dear Jack,” said she, “that the family of
butterflies is very numerous; this consists not only of those which
pass under the name of butterfly, and which go abroad in the
daylight, but of those which are called moths, and which fly about at
night.
“The butterflies have ever been regarded as among the most
beautiful objects in nature. They seem almost like flowers or gems,
which have become endowed with life, and, taking wings, soar away
upon the breeze. Thus the poet Moore speaks of them, as creatures
‘Which flutter round the jasmine stems,
Like winged flowers, or flying gems.’

“Who, indeed, has not observed these little creatures flying from
flower to flower, sipping the nectar from each, and seeming only to
think of the present happy moment? And who has not thought how
like to happy, heedless, children are these pretty butterflies?
“It is natural that the poets, who were always looking out for
beautiful things, should seize upon such a subject as the butterflies,
and we therefore find them often alluded to in poetry. Spencer, an
old English poet, thus describes one of these insects,—and it is a
very good description too:
‘The velvet nap which on his wings doth lie,
The silken down with which his back is dight,
His broad, outstretched horns, his airy thighs,
His glorious colors, and his glistening eyes.’

“The moths have also attracted the attention of the poet; and as
they are dazzled by a lamp at night, and frequently fly into it and
scorch themselves to death, they have been often compared to
giddy youth, who rush thoughtlessly into dangerous pleasures, and
are thus lost forever.
 “The butterflies and moths have not only four wings and six legs,
and two horns or feelers, but they have a little tube or proboscis,
with which they suck in the juice of flowers. When this is not in use,
it is nicely rolled up, and packed beneath the head of the animal,
under a hairy cover made for the purpose.
“When examined with a glass, the body of the insect appears to
be covered with hair, and the fine brilliant dust upon the wings is
found to consist of minute scales.
“But the eyes of butterflies, are, perhaps, their most remarkable
quality. Some of these are simple, while others are composed of a
collection of magnifying lenses. It is said that in some butterflies the
eye consists of sixteen thousand lenses. If so, it would seem that
when a butterfly of this sort looks at a person, he sees sixteen
thousand images of him! Of the butterfly tribe, some live upon the
honey of flowers, others upon the leaves of plants, and others upon
dead wood. Some of them subsist upon animal substances, and are
very destructive to woollen cloths, furs and feathers. The honey-
comb moth we have already mentioned as often infesting the bee-
hive, and preying upon wax.
“While the butterflies, in their perfect state, have always attracted
the attention and excited the interest of mankind, the wonderful
steps by which they reach their perfect state have not formed a less
interesting subject of observation. Most insects have three states of
existence; they are first eggs, then worms, and then the winged and
perfect insect.
“But the transformations of the butterfly have ever been regarded
as very wonderful. The female deposits her eggs upon such plants
as are proper to nourish the little caterpillars which are to proceed
from them. The common white butterfly places hers upon cabbages.
The tortoise-shell and peacock butterflies place theirs upon nettles,
&c. These are generally attached by a kind of glue to the surface of
the plant. The moths are usually more careful, for they generally
deposit their eggs in some concealed place, and wrap them up
carefully in a downy substance.
 “Butterflies do not enshroud themselves in a silken case, or
cocoon, spun from the mouth, as is done by many other insects; but
their process is more wonderful. When the butterfly egg is hatched,
it produces a caterpillar. This is a kind of heavy worm, usually
furnished with sixteen feet.
“It grows rapidly after changing its skin, which process lasts three
or four minutes, and frequently proves fatal. It is now furnished with
twelve round eyes, and feeds voraciously upon leaves. Having
reached its full size, it ceases to eat, and retires to some solitary
place to undergo its wonderful transformation.
“Here it proceeds to form a mass of silken threads, which it spins
from its mouth. This is attached to a proper place, and the caterpillar
is soon seen suspended by the tail. It now raises its head a little,
giving a curve to its back. This motion is repeated until a slit is
formed, first behind the head, and then along the back. At length
the skin of the larva disappears, and the chrysalis is formed. This
consists of a smooth, shining mass, speckled with gold.
“The newly-formed chrysalis of a butterfly, when opened, is found
to contain only a mass of pap, in which no trace of the limbs of the
future butterfly can be observed, yet the outer covering is marked
with all the external organs of the future butterfly in a very short
time after the skin of the caterpillar has been cast off. On opening
the chrysalis, indeed, after a proper space, we shall find, encased in
separate parts, the wings, eyes and other organs of the future
butterfly.
“When the insect has remained in this pulpy or chrysalis state for
a proper time, a motion may be perceived within. The skin, which is
now thin and dry, gives way, and bursting into four distinct and
regular pieces, liberates its little prisoner. This now emits a reddish
colored liquid, which superstitious people have called bloody rain; its
wings rapidly assume their proper size, and it joins its companions in
the air. The old poet Spencer thus happily describes the new-born
insect:
 ‘When he arriving, round about doth fly
From bed to bed, from one to other border;
And takes survey, with curious, busy eye,
Of every flower and herb there set in order;
Now this, now that, he tasteth tenderly,
Yet none of them he rudely doth disorder;
Nor with his feet, their silken leaves deface,
But pastures on the pleasures of each place.’”

chapter xii.

About insects in general.

I will now give my readers a short chapter upon insects in
general, extracted from Aunt Betsey Piper’s talk to her inquisitive
nephew.
Insects are so called because they appear to be divided into two
parts, and the word insect means cut apart. The insect tribe are
divided by naturalists into several orders. The first consists of those
that never have wings, as the spider, flea, louse, &c.; the second
consists of those which have wings, but so cased up as not to
appear when first produced, such as the grasshopper, earwig,
dragon-fly, &c.; the third is of the moth and butterfly kind; the fourth
such as come from a worm instead of a caterpillar, as the beetle,
bee, fly, gnat, &c.
We are very apt to conceive that insects, from their extreme
littleness, are very insignificant. But this is a wrong view of the
subject. In the first place, they are exceedingly ingenious in their
structure, and wonderful in their habits and instincts. A writer on
natural history says, that if we compare insects with the higher ranks
of nature, such as quadrupeds, birds, &c., we shall perceive in the
former all the peculiarities which belong to the latter; the piercing
eye of the lynx and the falcon, the hard shield of the armadillo, the
splendid tail of the peacock, the imposing horns of the stag, the
swiftness of the antelope, the fecundity of the hare, the architectural
powers of the beaver, the climbing powers of the squirrel, the
gambols of the monkey, the swimming of the frog, the burrowing of
the mole, and the leaping of the kangaroo; all these things are
found amongst insects, and often, indeed, in a redoubled degree.
The eye of the fly, with its thousand lenses, the scales of the
diamond beetle, the wonderful works of the hive, the ingenuity of
the spider, the transformation of the butterfly,—these and many
other interesting circumstances show that this class of animated
nature possesses strong claims upon our attention.
The amazing extent of the insect tribes also increases the interest
of this subject. In the royal collection at Berlin, in Prussia, there are
no less than twenty-eight thousand species or kinds of beetle.
Celebrated naturalists have calculated that there are, in the world,
five hundred thousand different kinds of insects, and countless
myriads of each kind. It is said that one single insect of the aphis or
louse tribe may be the living parent of six thousand millions of
descendants. If all the insects in the world were collected into one
heap, it would doubtless rise ten times as high as the top of Bunker-
Hill monument, near Boston.
The importance of insects may be gathered from another
consideration.—Some of them are very useful. The bee we have
already noticed. We may also mention the cochineal insect, which
exists in great numbers in the East Indies and in South America. It is
a minute creature, of the aphis tribe, one of which is hardly so large
as a peppercorn. Yet it is produced in such quantities, that many
thousands of pounds are sent every year, in a dried state, to America
and Europe. They contain a coloring principle, called carmine, which
produces an intensely red color. These insects are chiefly used for
dying scarlet. In Brazil, large estates are devoted to the cultivation of
plants, for the purpose of breeding them. Great quantities are also
produced in different parts of Spain.
Among the useful insects, we may notice the Spanish fly, which is
about three fourths of an inch in length, with brilliant green wings.
These are shaken down from the trees, it being their habit to feign
death when disturbed. They are called cantharides, and are used in
medicine, especially for producing blisters.
We might notice many other useful insects, but must pass them
by. We might speak, also, of the beautiful fireflies, which appear in
myriads, during the night, over our meadows and amid the forests;
of the glow-worms, which seem to burn with a mild and steady
blaze, to illuminate the darkness; and the great lantern moth of
South America, which is sometimes used to decorate the heads of
females, and several of which will answer the purpose of a torch.
But we must pass over these wonderful things, and consider that
the surface of the earth, the waves of the sea, and the very
atmosphere around the whole globe, are all the abodes of countless
insects. Even the stalks and leaves of plants are filled with them. If
you will take a microscope and look into the stalks of certain plants,
you will see thousands of little busy, bustling insects there, all of
them seeming to be in the full enjoyment of existence. Nay, if you
will apply the microscope to a tumbler of pure water, you will see
that this also is filled with living things. Thus the poet says:
 “Full nature swarms with life; one wondrous mass
Of animals, creatures organized.
Through subterranean cells,
Where searching sunbeams scarce can find a way,
Earth animated heaves. The flowery leaf
Wants not its soft inhabitants. Secure,
Within its winding citadel, the stone
Holds multitudes. But chief the forest boughs,
That dance unnumbered to the playful breeze,
The downy orchard, and the melting pulp
Of mellow fruit, the nameless nations feed
Of evanescent insects. Where the pool
Stands mantled o’er with green, invisible,
Amid the floating verdure, millions stray:
* * * * Nor is the stream
Of purest crystal, nor the lucid air,
Though one transparent vacancy it seems,
Void of their unseen people.”

chapter xiii.

Conclusion.
I hope my readers are satisfied, by this time, that Inquisitive Jack,
in pursuing the study of insects, was not wasting his time. It not
only gave him a great deal of pleasure, but he obtained from it much
useful information. He went on, from one step to another, until he
understood the whole science of insects, which is called Entomology.
But I have told you the story of our curious little friend, not so
much to recommend the particular study of insects, as to show the
utility of habits of observation and investigation. You have seen, by
the story I have told you, that, by means of these habits, Jack not
only enjoyed a great deal of pleasure and satisfaction, but that he
became a very learned man; but I must tell you, what I have before
intimated, that his whole attention was not confined to insects. He
observed and investigated plants and flowers, and thus became a
botanist. He studied into the habits and nature of birds, and thus
became an ornithologist; and, in short, he mastered the whole field
of natural history. Perhaps I shall, some time or other, give you an
account of his proceedings in relation to some of these matters.
 The Close of the Year.
Look at the picture! It is winter—and the old man is toiling
through the deep, deep snow. A heavy burthen is on his back; the
sky is dark and gloomy; the scene around is desolate and chill. We
can easily fancy that the heart of the aged traveller is heavy; that his
limbs are weary; that a damp, cold moisture is upon his brow, and
an expression of bitterness and sorrow around his lips; yet he plods
stoutly on—and why should he not? If he were to despair, he would
but make the snow his pillow, and the sleety drift his winding-sheet.
Beside, he is not alone. A cheerful friend is with him; a humble one
indeed, yet one that will not desert him, whether in sunshine or
storm, in summer’s joy or winter’s sorrow.
There is something of truth and nature in this scene, and old Bob
Merry feels that it may be properly placed at the head of his annual
goodby. I cannot but entertain the idea that the old man in the cut,
may stand for my representative. He has his burthen, and I my
cares; he is making his way through the heavy drift, and I too am
stumping it on, amid obstacles and difficulties. He has his cheerful
friend, beckoning him on, and I, old and decrepit, am attended by
the angel of Hope, which ministers to me, even when all beside have
deserted me. That hound in the picture may seem to tell the weary
and wayworn traveller of the home that is at hand, of the bright
hearth that burns for him, of the warm hearts that are ready to
receive him. And Hope, the comforter, tells me too, that there are
some bright firesides where Bob Merry is a welcome guest; where
his monthly visits are not a tax, but a pleasure; where to him the
latch of the door is free and the string never pulled in.
These are my fancies—and though they may be but the dreams
of a conceited old man, I will still cherish them. Real or fantastic,
they lighten my heart, cheer my steps, and give me courage to
pursue my journey.
And now, my gentle readers, we are at the close of the old year!
May it find you good and happy. We are at the threshold of the new
year; may this, too, find you good and happy. What better wish can
I utter? And will you continue for twelve months more, the
acquaintance which we have so long sustained? Come! Black Eyes,
Blue Eyes, and Grey Eyes—one and all—let as pursue our rambles,
and I promise still to exert myself for your pleasure and profit! I
have some of Bill Keeler’s stories, which I have picked up, and which
I intend to give you. I have some curious adventures in South
America; some stories of the Old Man in the Corner, and other nuts
to crack for you. So, girls and boys, come along!
 Our Correspondence.
The following letter we insert with much pleasure:—
Rindge, N. H., Oct. 27, 1843.
Mr. Merry:
I have taken your Museum the past year, and like it very
much. I should like to have you put in another anecdote
about Bill Keeler. Will you be so kind as to put in the following
Riddles, if you please, to gratify a boy ten years old?

1.
It is in the bolster, but not in the bed;
It is in the grave, but not in the dead;
It is in the rock, but not in the stone;
It is in the marrow, but not in the bone.
2.
I’m captain of a company
That counts full twenty-six;
And also with a party five
I deign to intermix;
With Adam I was seen to stay,
But Eve I do not like;
I’m always found throughout the day,
But never in the night.

Your affectionate friend, Samuel B——.

We have received answers from Mary G. D., F. W. B., J. F. T., and
some others, to our Twenty Questions about Animals, in the October
number of the Museum. Most of them are correct. As a specimen of
the letters on this subject, we insert the following, adding a few
notes of correction:—
Bristol, Oct. 25th, 1843.
My dear Mr. Merry:
 In the last number of your Museum, you wished your little
readers to send you the answers to twenty questions given to
us. I am quite a small boy, but I thought I would try to
answer them; and those that I may answer wrong I should
like to have you correct in your next number, and oblige a
little friend and subscriber, who is yet too young to write for
himself.
1st question. The five most remarkable quadrupeds in
Africa are the Lion, Zebra, Hippopotamus, Camelopard,
Hyena.(1)
2d. The three most famous animals in Asia are the
Elephant, Rhinoceros, and Lion.
3d. The Elephant is the largest quadruped, and is a native
of Asia.
4th. The Giraffe is the tallest animal in the world, and
found in Asia(2) and Africa.
5th. The Ostrich is the largest bird, and found in Asia and
Africa.
6th. The largest kind of serpent is the Boa Constrictor, and
found in Asia.
7th. The smallest bird is the Humming-Bird, and found in
America.
8th. The largest animal is the Elephant,(3) and lives in
Asia.
9th. The Orang-Outang most resembles man, and is found
in Borneo, one of the East India Islands.
10th. The Horse is the most useful animal to man.
11th. The Bison is the largest quadruped found wild in
America.