PSCAD Simulation on the Influence of Operational Conditions on

Current Distortions in Grid-Tied Photovoltaic Systems

Louis Gerard Rotea
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, NV 89154-4026 (USA)

Abstract – The increasing levels of such Photovoltaic (PV) installations around the world have led to concerns
regarding their unwanted side-effects especially in power quality. Due to the nature of their construction,
wherein non-linear semiconductor devices are used to invert DC to AC, the inclusion of PV Systems in
electrical grids will inevitably introduce harmonics. Numerous studies have already been conducted on this
topic, and aside from their construction, operating conditions such as irradiance, and the quality of the grid
have also been identified to have significant influence on harmonic output. This paper aims to build on
existing models of grid-tied PV systems on PSCAD/EMTDC and simulate the influence of irradiance and
grid-voltage on current distortions. This paper also simulates the effect of a simple AC inductive filter, and an
LCL filter on current distortions. Finally, these results are compared with each other, with the results of
other studies, and with regulating standards.

I. INTRODUCTION These standards do have an oversight, though, in that

they do not deal with the issue of sub-rated operating
Global conditions in recent years have led to an conditions. The present standards only use the maximum
expanded appetite for renewable energy sources. The demand current in their calculation of TDD which
diminishing fossil fuel supply, the political instability of occurs in rated conditions. However, with sub-rated
countries producing these fossil fuels, the ever-more operating conditions during periods of lower irradiance,
destructive effects of global warming, and the lowering the fundamental current decreases proportionally,
of costs for renewable energy technologies have made whereas the current harmonics remain relatively
countries around the world reconsider their sources of unchanged [5]-[7]. This causes Total Harmonic
energy. The proliferation of PV systems especially has Distortion (THD) levels to go beyond what is set by the
surged recently what with the decreasing initial costs for standards at 5%. All three sources have largely attributed
installation [1], and increasing government support in this phenomenon to grid supply voltage quality and the
the form of renewable energy portfolios, feed-in-tariffs, inverter’s attempt to synchronize with it. The supply
tax incentives, etc. [2]. Soon, PV generation may quality causes the inverter to create a base level of
provide for a significant portion of electricity demand current harmonics that remains relatively constant. This
[3], even as much as 16% by 2030 [4]. guarantees increased THD levels when the fundamental
current is lowered due to lower irradiance.
One inherent problem with PV systems, however, is
the necessity to convert the PV array’s DC to the This paper simulates the aforementioned effects of
electrical grid’s AC. Normally, this is implemented irradiance, and voltage supply quality on a grid-tied PV
through an inverter by means of high-frequency system using PSCAD/EMTDC. There are numerous
switching transistors with pulse-width modulation models available for simulating grid-tied PV at
(PWM) capability. This use of nonlinear devices in PV component level [7]-[13], but few have been used to
power generation introduces more undesirable simulate and investigate this specific effect as well as
harmonics into the grid which already has harmonics any methods which can mitigate the detrimental effects.
from nonlinear loads. As such, standards such as IEEE This paper builds on existing PSCAD models of PV
Std. 519-2014, and IEEE 1547-2003 have been grid-tied systems, especially those models found in [8]-
developed to limit these harmonic emissions from [11], and uses the end model to simulate and investigate
electric sources. Per the standards, the individual odd the influence of operating conditions on current
order current harmonics should not surpass 4% between harmonic content generated by the PV system. A
3rd & 9th order, 2% between 11th & 15th, 1.5% between comprehensive description of the end model is discussed
17th & 21st, 0.6% between 23rd & 33rd, and 0.3% for odd in Section II. The results of the simulations will be
harmonics above 35th order. Additionally, the individual presented in Section III, which will show the harmonic
even order current harmonics have 25% the odd orders’ content in the current supplied by the PV system with
limits in a given range, and the Total Demand Distortion respect to various operating condition combinations. In
(TDD) should be less than 5%. these simulations, two voltages will be used to determine
the effects of supply voltage quality: one being a pure
 Fig. 1. Overall model for the grid-tied PV system in PSCAD
sine wave behind a source impedance, and the other source, and a model representing a constant P + jQ load.
being a sine wave with some harmonic content also The major inverter-side components, right up to the
behind a system impedance. These simulations will be interconnection with the grid is shown in Fig. 1.
conducted on three levels of irradiance: 1000 W/m2, 500
W/m2, and 250 W/m2 to simulate the effect of sub-rated A. Photovoltaic Array
operating conditions. Finally, these simulations will be The PV array is the part in a PV system that
conducted with two different configurations of the
generates electricity. All the other components just
components between the inverter and the point of
convert the generated power by the array into something
common coupling (PCC) with the grid: (1) with just a
useful. PV arrays are a series-parallel combination of
smoothing inductance and the transformer’s impedance, solar panels, which in turn are a series-parallel
and (2) wherein the smoothing inductance (L filter) is combination of solar cells. These individual cells are
replaced with an LCL filter. This last set of conditions
semiconductor devices that produce an electric current
will be used to simulate the effectiveness of a passive
when exposed to solar irradiance. In the model, the PV
LCL filter which is deemed to be a more effective way
array is implemented using PSCAD’s PV array object
of dealing with harmonics when compare to a bulky
which have been validated by NREL [15]. The array’s
series inductor [14]. Some discussion and analysis properties, listed in the Table I below, have been kept
between the effect of the different operating conditions, similar to those in [8], [11] to ensure a level of
and some discussion of the results with respect to the
uniformity in results. The modelled system, therefore,
IEEE standards are also in Section III. This paper is then
similarly produces 270 kW at STC as seen in Fig. 2
concluded in Section IV.
Property Value
II. DESCRIPTION OF PSCAD MODEL Modules connected in series 20
Module strings in parallel 20
The PSCAD/EMTDC model used in this paper for
simulations is largely based on the models created and Cells in series per module 108
used in [8]-[11]. The models in these studies were Cell strings in parallel per module 4
chosen as the base for this simulation because they
Reference irradiation 1000 W/m2
contain the essential components necessary to simulate a
common grid-tied PV system. They have a PV array Reference cell temperature 25 oC
which converts solar irradiance into DC; smoothening Effective area per cell 0.01 m2
DC capacitors to clean up output from the array; a
maximum power point tracker (MPPT) to determine the Series resistance per cell 0.02 
optimum voltage, given the current produced by the Shunt resistance per cell 1000 
array; a DC-DC buck converter to force the voltage to
Diode ideality factor 1.5
the level determined by the MPPT; a 3-phase inverter to
convert DC to AC; an AC-side filter to clean up the Band gap energy 1.103 eV
harmonics; a 3-phase 0.23/11kV transformer bank; and Cell sat. current at ref. conditions 1e-12 kA
equivalent grid models. To complete the model for the
Cell SC current at ref conditions 0.0025 kA
purposes of this paper, additional components were
added including: an LCL filter, a harmonic current T coefficient of photo current 0.001 A/K
Table I. PV array properties
 D. Inverter
Once the DC voltage has been set to produce the
most power given a certain level of current, these must
then go to an inverter so that they may be converted to
AC and be allowed interconnection with the utility grid.
The inverter in this model has three main components: P
and Q regulation, sinusoidal pulse width modulation
(SPWM), and the three-phase inverter bridge.
P and Q regulation (Fig. 4) is what is used to keep the
DC voltage entering inverter relatively constant, and the
reactive power leaving the inverter at 0. In this model,
these two conditions are necessary in the operation of
SWPM, and the three phase inverter bridge which are
what actually create the sinusoidal voltage and current to
be injected into the grid.

Fig. 2. PV array’s current (blue) in Amps and power

(orange) in Watts with respect to voltage at STC

B. MPPT and DC-DC Buck Converter

To keep track of the maximum power point, and to
keep the system’s power output optimal, an MPP tracker
was included in the model. This was accomplished using
the MPPT control block provided by PSCAD, using the Fig. 4. P and Q regulation as implemented in PSCAD
incremental conductance algorithm. This algorithm uses
the slope of the P-V curve to determine where MPP is The output of the P and Q controllers are mainly what
located since the slope is positive to the left of MPP, and is used to implement SPWM (Fig. 5) in this model.
negative to the right of MPP. This algorithm is discussed Similar in implementation as the MPPT controller, the
in more detail in [16]. three sinusoidal outputs which are 120 degrees apart, are
The voltage determined by the MPPT to be most used as modulating signals for the six IGBTs which
optimal will then be used to control the duty cycle of the together form the 3-phase inverter bridge as seen in Fig.
DC-DC buck converter (see Fig. 3). Vmppt is first 1. The varying duty-cycles in the inverter bridge create
subtracted from the voltage of the PV array Vpv. The the sinusoidal AC voltage and current. For more details
difference goes through a PI controller and then to a on the three inverter components, see [8].
comparator where it is compared to a high-frequency (in
this case 500 Hz) sawtooth waveform with range 0 to 1.
The output of this comparator is the PWM signal T1
which turns the IGBT immediately after PV array (see
Fig. 1) on and off. T1 is switched on when the difference
between Vmppt and Vpv is greater than the value of the
sawtooth and zero otherwise. When the difference is
greater, T1 is more often ON or T1=1, and the IGBT is
reverse-biased. When the difference is smaller, T1 is
more often OFF or T1=0, making the IGBT forward-
biased and essentially create a short. This PWM action
forces the voltage entering the inverter to match Vmppt.

Fig. 5. SPWM in PSCAD

Fig. 3. MPPT block and DC-DC controller
E. Inductive and LCL Filters G. Equivalent Source and Load Models
Passive filters are devices that use passive linear The distribution grid, as seen in Fig. 7, consists of
components to reduce the magnitude of harmonics two parts: (1) an 11kV sinusoidal source placed behind a
entering or leaving a particular system. In the studies source impedance, and (2) a harmonic current source.
whose models this paper builds upon, there are two The sinusoidal source behind a source impedance, when
types of filters that are being used. [8]-[10] exclusively used by itself, represents a relatively ideal grid source
use a simple inductive filter to deal with their harmonics, Both the positive and zero sequence impedances have
whereas [11] exclusively uses an LCL filter. been kept in their default values as provided by PSCAD
Since it is the goal of this paper to determine ways of which is at Z = 1∠80o . To simulate a more distorted
reducing the harmonics produced by sub-rated operating source, so as to evaluate the effects of the quality of the
conditions, both filters are used in this model to see voltage source on the current harmonics being produced
which is more effective. As seen in Fig. 6, the inductive by the PV system, a harmonic current source is also
filter remains to be a 0.0002H inductor situated in all added. This harmonic source mainly contributes lower
three phases as implemented in [8], [10]. The LCL filter order harmonics, up to the 7th order. When used in
on the other hand is more complicated and was designed conjunction with the sinusoidal signal behind the
using the LCL design algorithm presented in [14]. This impedance, this harmonic source contributes 1.5% THD.
LCL filter has the following components: inverter-side
inductors L1 = 0.6mH, grid-side inductors L2 = 0.04mH,
capacitor filters CF = 600F, and damping resistors RD =
0.08. Care was taken to avoid resonant frequencies.

Fig. 7. Grid-side components including the transformer

bank, equivalent source, and load models
The load in this model is a constant load. It is
implemented using a variable resistor and variable
inductor whose controller is shown in Fig. 8. Pload and
Qload are set by the user, and the controllers provide the
appropriate R and L values. In this simulation the load is
Fig. 6. Inductive filter, and LCL filter connected to set at 0.8+j0.6 MVA to ensure that power is being drawn
the rest of the PSCAD model through breakers from the PV system and the grid equivalent.

F. Transformer
Transformers are an essential part in any AC power
system. They step-up or step-down a given AC voltage
to the appropriate level, depending on the point of the
grid this voltage is at: generation, transmission,
distribution, or end-user.
In this model, the three-phase transformer bank is
used to step up the output of the PV system, which is at
230V to the utility grid’s voltage which is at 11kV.
These transformers operate at the grid’s frequency of
60Hz, and are connected wye-wye, with both primary
and secondary sides grounded. Other properties such as
leakage reactance, copper and eddy current losses are
unchanged and remain with PSCAD’s default values.
Fig. 8. Constant load controller
 III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Unlike irradiance, the voltage quality did not have as
much of an impact on the system as was expected. In
The following results are what came about from
some situations, the harmonic currents increased when
running the model described in Section II in the
switching from an ideal voltage to a distorted one (with
PSCAD/EMTDC program. The solution and plot time
all other parameters being held the same) while in other
steps are set at 50s, and the solution is run from 0 to 5s. situations they decreased. Both cases having changes
Measurements are taken at the point of common which are relatively small.
coupling (PCC) where the system interfaces with the
grid, per IEEE 519-2014, which in this model is at the The filter on the other hand had a significant effect on
primary side of the transformer (See Fig. 1). harmonic content. The LCL filter is far better than a pure
inductive filter in reducing current harmonics at PCC. At
Different operational condition combinations were an irradiance of 250W/m2, the THD was cut by more
simulated to determine their respective effects on current than half. At 500W/m2, the THD was reduced almost by
harmonics at PCC: (1) three levels of irradiance, (2) a factor of three, and with 1000W/m2 THD was reduced
inductive filter vs. LCL filter, and (3) purely sinusoidal almost by a factor of four. With the current IEEE
voltage vs. distorted voltage. The magnitude of the Standards, the system with L filter would not pass the
harmonics from 2nd to 63rd order were then averaged overall THD threshold (5%) at any irradiance, while the
between 4-5s when the system has entered steady state. one with the LCL filter would. If the IEEE Standards
used the actual fundamental current instead of the rated
Irradiance (W/m2) 250 500 1000 current, the system with the LCL filter would be allowed
Filter & Voltage 60Hz Fundamental (A) to contribute to the grid only down to when the
Ideal 2.5604 5.3239 10.5681 irradiance is at around 500W/m2. The L-filter system
L still cannot, at any irradiance.
Distorted 2.5641 5.3213 10.5784
Ideal 2.6118 5.2897 11.0783 6
LCL 5
Distorted 2.6116 5.2851 11.0793
4
THD (%)

Filter & Voltage Total Harmonics (A)

3
Ideal 0.5864 0.6409 0.62765 2
L
Distorted 0.5901 0.6444 0.62327 1
Ideal 0.2333 0.2309 0.1424 0
LCL 2nd 4th 6th 8th 10th 12th 14th 16th 18th 20th
Distorted 0.2811 0.2373 0.18925
Filter & Voltage THD (%)
6
Ideal 22.9 12.038 5.93915 5
L
THD (%)

Distorted 23.014 12.109 5.89192 4

3
Ideal 8.9328 4.3649 1.28538
LCL 2
Distorted 10.762 4.4896 1.70816 1
0
Table II. Fundamental current, total harmonic current,
and THD at different operational conditions
As the results of the simulation show, irradiance level
L Filter LCL Filter
is the main factor in determining THD. The fundamental
current changes with irradiance level at almost the exact
proportion, whereas the total harmonic current does not Fig. 9. Individual order harmonic content of Phase A
– in line with the findings in [5]–[7]. The proportionality current at PCC (%) for the ideal source voltage @
of the total harmonic current even seems to be different 500W/m2 irradiance & sub-rated fundamental
with the two filters. With the L filter, the harmonic
current goes up from 250 to 500 W/m2, and then goes The effect of the LCL filter in reducing harmonic
down from 500 to 1000 W/m2. With the LCL filter, the content can also be seen when looking at the individual
harmonic current goes down as the irradiance increases. harmonic orders (Fig. 9) and the current profiles at PCC
The THD, on the other hand, is inversely proportional to (Fig. 10). With the exception of the 11th to 17th
irradiance in all situations, also inline with [5]-[7]. harmonics, which increase slightly, the rest are
significantly reduced, especially the harmonics < 10th
order and those at around the 41st order harmonics.
These patterns exist both for the ideal source, the just adding harmonics to a sinusoidal one. Finally, it was
distorted source, and for all three levels of irradiance. found that the use of an LCL filter significantly dropped
the amount of current harmonics being produced by the
20 PV system as opposed to the simple L filter. The LCL
filter seems sufficient for the PV system model to pass
Current (A)

10
the current IEEE Standards which uses the fundamental
0 current at rated conditions, but not so much if these
-10 standards called for the usage of the appropriate sub-
rated fundamental current.
-20
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