Émile Durkheim, a foundational sociologist, profoundly influenced our understanding of society

with his concept of the collective. Durkheim was interested in how societies maintain order,
cohesion, and a sense of moral unity, even as they grow larger and more complex. At the heart of
his theories is the idea of the collective consciousness and collective representations, which form
the backbone of social solidarity.

Key Concepts in Durkheim’s Theory of the Collective

1. Collective Consciousness:
o This refers to the shared beliefs, values, and attitudes of a society. Durkheim saw
collective consciousness as essential for social cohesion, arguing that it binds
individuals together and gives them a sense of belonging and purpose. It's this
collective consciousness that allows people to feel part of something greater than
themselves.
o In simpler, less complex societies, like those with clan-based structures, collective
consciousness is more unified and homogeneous, often revolving around shared
religious beliefs or customs.
o In complex, modern societies, the collective consciousness becomes more diverse,
but it's still vital for society's cohesion and stability.
2. Mechanical and Organic Solidarity:
o Durkheim described two types of social cohesion:
 Mechanical Solidarity: Found in simpler societies where individuals
perform similar tasks and share strong collective beliefs and values. Here,
collective consciousness is strong and homogeneous, leading to a close-
knit society.
 Organic Solidarity: Found in more complex societies with a division of
labor, where individuals rely on each other due to their specialized roles.
In these societies, collective consciousness is weaker but still present, and
people are bound by mutual dependence rather than shared beliefs.
3. Collective Representations:
o Durkheim introduced the idea of collective representations, or symbols and
practices that express the collective consciousness. These can include religious
rituals, cultural symbols, and societal norms. For Durkheim, collective
representations provide a way for societies to communicate and reinforce their
shared values.
o For instance, a nation's flag, public holidays, or religious ceremonies are all
collective representations that remind individuals of their shared identity and
values.
4. The Role of Religion and Ritual:
o Durkheim explored how religion, as a powerful form of collective representation,
strengthens the collective consciousness. In his book The Elementary Forms of
Religious Life (1912), he argued that religious rituals create a shared experience
that connects individuals to the group, fostering solidarity.
o He identified totems (symbols or sacred objects) in various religions that represent
the group's values and identity. By collectively recognizing and respecting these
 totems, individuals strengthen their bonds with the group and their commitment to
its beliefs.
5. Anomie and the Breakdown of Collective Consciousness:
o Durkheim was concerned about what happens when the collective consciousness
weakens or fails. In his study of anomie (a state of normlessness or breakdown in
social norms), he argued that rapid social change, like industrialization or
economic upheaval, can disrupt the collective consciousness, leading to feelings
of isolation, purposelessness, and even higher rates of suicide.
o Durkheim's famous study on suicide categorized it into types (such as anomic,
egoistic, altruistic, and fatalistic suicide) that reveal how individuals' relationship
with the collective influences their sense of purpose.

The Significance of Durkheim’s Concept of the Collective in Sociology

Durkheim’s work on the collective emphasizes the essential role of shared beliefs and values in
creating and maintaining a stable society. His theories help explain why societal institutions like
education, religion, and law are so influential—they reinforce collective values that bind people
together. His ideas laid the groundwork for later sociologists to explore how societies adapt to
change and maintain coherence despite growing diversity.

Modern Applications and Critiques

Durkheim’s focus on the collective consciousness remains relevant, as many modern sociologists
study how globalization, digital communication, and cultural diversity impact shared beliefs and
social cohesion. However, some critics argue that Durkheim’s focus on consensus overlooks
societal conflicts and power imbalances. Others believe his approach underestimates individual
agency and the ways people resist dominant cultural norms.

Overall, Durkheim’s concept of the collective consciousness and its role in social cohesion is one
of the cornerstones of sociology, providing a framework to understand how societies maintain
unity in the face of change.
Mary Douglas's Purity and Danger: An Analysis of Concepts of Pollution and Taboo (1966,
reissued 1984) is a seminal work in cultural sociology and anthropology. Douglas examines how
societies use concepts of purity and pollution to establish social order and maintain boundaries,
revealing how these ideas go beyond personal hygiene to shape the moral and social codes
within a community. Here are some of the book's key contributions and insights:

Key Themes and Ideas in Purity and Danger

1. Purity and Pollution as Social Constructs: Douglas argues that ideas of purity and
pollution are not objective truths but cultural constructs. What is considered "pure" or
"polluted" varies widely across societies and is deeply embedded in their respective
cultural beliefs and values. These constructs are not merely symbolic; they are
instrumental in maintaining social order.
2. Social Order and Boundaries: Douglas suggests that taboos and ideas about purity
function to delineate boundaries, both physical and social. By defining what is "out of
place," societies can establish a sense of order. For example, cultural rules about what can
or cannot be consumed (like dietary laws in various religions) define boundaries that
strengthen group identity and cohesion.
3. Symbolic Boundaries and Identity: Purity and pollution help to enforce social
hierarchies and group identities. Douglas demonstrates how cultures often use cleanliness
or pollution metaphors to define insiders and outsiders, marking people who do not
conform to certain social norms as "polluted" or "unclean."
4. Dirt as "Matter Out of Place": One of Douglas's most famous ideas is that "dirt is
matter out of place." This phrase captures how cultures label things as "dirty" when they
do not fit into established categories. The concept challenges readers to see "dirt" not as a
universal idea but as something culturally determined. By categorizing what is acceptable
or taboo, societies reinforce their moral values.
5. Rituals of Purification: Douglas explores the role of rituals of purification as means of
restoring social order after it is disrupted by "pollution." Such rituals help to manage fear
and ambiguity, reinstating a sense of control and structure.
6. Applications to Contemporary Society: While Douglas’s examples often come from
non-Western societies or ancient rituals, she encourages readers to see similar
mechanisms in modern societies. For example, attitudes toward hygiene, contamination,
or even personal habits in Western cultures reflect underlying beliefs about social order
and purity.

Influence on Cultural Sociology

Purity and Danger has influenced many fields, including anthropology, sociology, and religious
studies, by showing how symbolic meanings attached to cleanliness and contamination serve as
tools for regulating behavior and maintaining social order. It underscores how cultural practices,
however irrational they may appear, are often logical responses to complex social needs.
The Societalization of Social Problems: Church Pedophilia, Phone Hacking, and the
Financial Crisis

This concept, introduced by sociologist Jeffrey C. Alexander in his 2018 paper, explores how
certain social problems transcend individual or institutional boundaries to become societal issues
that impact the broader social fabric. Alexander’s theory centers on how specific problems—
such as church pedophilia scandals, phone hacking in media, and the global financial crisis—are
transformed from isolated incidents into pervasive societal concerns. Here’s an overview of
Alexander’s framework and its application to these cases.

1. Societalization as a Process

 Alexander describes societalization as a process in which issues, initially viewed as

isolated institutional problems, escalate into societal concerns. This transformation
involves a breakdown in the "institutional settlements" or norms that allow organizations
to regulate problems internally.
 In this model, societalization occurs when these institutional boundaries are breached,
often through media exposure, public outrage, or external pressure. This leads the public
to perceive these issues not as failures within an institution but as social problems that
threaten societal values and structures.

2. Key Phases in Societalization

Alexander identifies three critical phases in the societalization process:

 Latency Phase: Issues exist but are contained within institutional boundaries, and norms
or settlements prevent public escalation.
 Breaching Phase: A significant event or discovery disrupts the established norms,
bringing the issue to public attention. Media exposure, leaks, or whistleblower actions are
common triggers.
 Reaction Phase: Societal outrage and activism mobilize around the problem, prompting
reforms, policy changes, or even cultural shifts.

3. Case Studies: Examples of Societalization

Alexander applies this framework to three prominent cases:

 Church Pedophilia Scandal: The Catholic Church pedophilia cases were, for decades,
handled within the church, with an emphasis on protecting the institution's image over
addressing abuses. The latency ended as journalists uncovered widespread abuses and
cover-ups, particularly through investigative reporting, such as The Boston Globe's
Spotlight investigation in 2002. The breach led to a reaction phase, where the issue
became a global societal problem, sparking reforms and public outrage.
 Phone Hacking Scandal: In the UK, the News of the World newspaper engaged in
phone hacking to gather stories, violating privacy and ethical standards. Initially managed
as an internal media industry issue, the scandal erupted when it was revealed that a
 murdered teenager’s phone had been hacked, intensifying public outrage. The breach
prompted widespread social backlash, ultimately leading to the newspaper’s closure,
legal consequences, and regulatory reforms in British media.
 2008 Financial Crisis: The global financial crisis, spurred by irresponsible lending
practices, high-risk financial instruments, and regulatory failures, was initially treated as
a problem within the banking industry. However, as the crisis expanded, it breached
institutional boundaries, affecting economies worldwide and leading to public outcry
over corporate practices, government bailouts, and economic inequality. The crisis led to
widespread societal backlash, sparking regulatory reforms like the Dodd-Frank Act in the
U.S.

4. Implications of Societalization

 Alexander’s concept of societalization has broad implications for understanding how

certain problems achieve visibility and priority in the public sphere. Societalized
problems tend to trigger extensive reform efforts and influence cultural norms and
policies, as seen in these cases.
 The theory highlights the role of media as a catalyst in the societalization process, with
investigative journalism often bridging the gap between institutional containment and
societal exposure.
 Societalized issues often lead to a reevaluation of trust and authority, challenging
institutions to maintain transparency and ethical standards.

5. Criticisms and Limitations

 Some argue that societalization may oversimplify complex problems by focusing on

media-driven narratives, possibly overlooking nuances in how these issues develop and
impact diverse groups.
 Others suggest that Alexander's model may overemphasize the societal impact of certain
issues, potentially ignoring cases where breaches do not lead to broader societalization,
such as problems that remain contained or forgotten due to lack of media attention or
public interest.

Conclusion

The societalization of social problems, as outlined by Alexander, provides an insightful

framework to analyze how certain issues grow beyond their institutional origins to become
matters of widespread concern. By examining cases like church pedophilia, phone hacking, and
the financial crisis, this theory sheds light on the processes through which hidden or ignored
issues can break into the societal consciousness, reshaping norms, policies, and public
accountability.