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Selected Features of Bactrian Grammar 1., Aufl. ed.
Edition Saloumeh Gholami Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Saloumeh Gholami
ISBN(s): 9783447103008, 3447103000
Edition: 1., Aufl. ed.
File Details: PDF, 7.30 MB
Year: 2014
Language: english
GÖTTINGER ORIENTFORSCHUNGEN
I I I. R E I H E: I R A N I C A
Neue Folge 12
Herausgegeben von
Philip G. Kreyenbroek
2014
Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden
Saloumeh Gholami
Selected Features
of Bactrian Grammar
2014
Harrassowitz Verlag · Wiesbaden
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© Otto Harrassowitz GmbH & Co. KG, Wiesbaden 2014
This work, including all of its parts, is protected by copyright.
Any use beyond the limits of copyright law without the permission
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Printed on permanent/durable paper.
Printing and binding: D Hubert & Co., Göttingen
Printed in Germany
ISSN 0340-6334
ISBN 978-3-447-10300-8
e-ISBN PDF 978-3-447-19338-2
Table of Contents
Abbreviations ....................................................................................................... 15
Table of phonetic values ....................................................................................... 17
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 19
1. Chapter One: Introduction ................................................................................ 21
1.1 Bactria ....................................................................................................... 21
1.2 Bactrian language and script ..................................................................... 22
1.3 Bactrian sources ........................................................................................ 23
1.3.1 Coins ...................................................................................................... 23
1.3.2 Seals ....................................................................................................... 23
1.3.3 Inscriptions ............................................................................................. 24
Surkh Kotal ..................................................................................................... 24
Rabatak ........................................................................................................... 24
The other inscriptions ..................................................................................... 25
1.3.4 Manuscripts ............................................................................................ 25
1.3.5 Documents ............................................................................................. 25
1. Legal documents ......................................................................................... 26
2. Lists and accounts ....................................................................................... 26
3. Letters ......................................................................................................... 26
4. Buddhist texts ............................................................................................. 26
5. Fragments of documents of uncertain type ................................................. 27
1.4 Aims and assumptions .............................................................................. 27
2. Chapter Two: Historical phonology of Bactrian ............................................... 31
2.1 Consonants ................................................................................................ 32
2.2 Simple consonants .................................................................................... 32
2.2.1 PIr. plosives ........................................................................................... 32
2.2.1.1 PIr. *p, *t, *k....................................................................................... 32
*# p> p ............................................................................................................ 32
*-p- > v and b .................................................................................................. 32
*# t > t ............................................................................................................. 33
*t > d,( đ?)....................................................................................................... 33
*# k- > k .......................................................................................................... 34
*-k- > g ........................................................................................................... 35
2.2.1.2 PIr. *b, *d, *g ...................................................................................... 35
*b > <β>=[v] ................................................................................................... 35
*d > l ............................................................................................................... 35
6 Table of Contents
*g > γ ............................................................................................................... 36
2.2.1.3 PIr. *č, *ǰ ............................................................................................. 36
*č > ʦ .............................................................................................................. 37
2.2.2 PIr. fricatives and affricates .................................................................... 37
2.2.2.1 PIr. *f, *θ, *x ....................................................................................... 37
*f > f ................................................................................................................ 38
*θ > h ............................................................................................................. 38
*x> x ............................................................................................................... 38
2.2.2.2 PIr. *s, *z ............................................................................................. 38
*s > s ............................................................................................................... 38
*s > ś ............................................................................................................... 38
*z > z ............................................................................................................... 39
2.2.2.3 PIr. *š .................................................................................................. 39
*-š- > š ............................................................................................................. 39
*-š- > h ............................................................................................................ 39
2.2.2.4 PIr. *h .................................................................................................. 39
*h > h .............................................................................................................. 39
2.2.3 PIr. Sonorants ......................................................................................... 40
2.2.3.1 PIr. *m, *n ........................................................................................... 40
*m > m ............................................................................................................ 40
*-n- > n ............................................................................................................ 40
2.2.3.2 PIr.*r.................................................................................................... 40
*-r- > -r- .......................................................................................................... 40
2.2.3.3 PIr. *w ................................................................................................. 40
*w > w ............................................................................................................. 40
2.2.3.4 PIr. *y .................................................................................................. 40
*y > y .............................................................................................................. 41
2.2.4 Summary of the system of consonants ................................................... 41
2.3 Consonant clusters..................................................................................... 41
2.3.1 Combination with plosives ..................................................................... 43
2.3.1.1 Plosive + Plosive ................................................................................. 43
*gd > γd ........................................................................................................... 43
2.3.1.2 Plosive + Affricate .............................................................................. 44
*-tč- > ts <σ> and once <ζζ> ........................................................................... 44
2.3.1.3 Plosive + Nasal .................................................................................... 44
*-gn- > γn ........................................................................................................ 44
2.3.1.4 Plosives + Approximant ...................................................................... 44
*-dy > l ............................................................................................................ 44
2.3.1.5 Plosives + Trill .................................................................................... 44
*dr > lr (or dr) ................................................................................................. 44
2.3.2 Combination with nasals ........................................................................ 45
2.3.2.1 Nasal + Plosive .................................................................................... 45
*-nt- > nd ......................................................................................................... 45
Table of Contents 7
*ntč > ndz ....................................................................................................... 45

*-nd- > nd ....................................................................................................... 45
*-mb- > mv ..................................................................................................... 45
*-mp- > mv ..................................................................................................... 45
*-mk- > ng ...................................................................................................... 46
2.3.2.2 Nasal + Fricative ................................................................................. 46
*nθ > h ............................................................................................................ 46
*-ns- > s .......................................................................................................... 46
2.3.2.3 Nasal + Affricates ............................................................................... 46
*nč > ndz......................................................................................................... 46
*nǰ > ndz/nz .................................................................................................... 46
2.3.3 Combination with fricatives ................................................................... 46
2.3.3.1 Fricative + Plosives ............................................................................. 46
*ft > vd ............................................................................................................ 47
*-xt- > γd......................................................................................................... 47
*-xt- > γ(ǝ)d .................................................................................................... 47
*st > st ............................................................................................................. 47
*sp > sp ........................................................................................................... 47
*št > t .............................................................................................................. 47
*št > št ............................................................................................................. 47
*-zd- > zd ........................................................................................................ 48
*-zd- > z .......................................................................................................... 48
*šk > šk ........................................................................................................... 48
*sk > sk ........................................................................................................... 48
2.3.3.2 Fricative + Fricative ............................................................................ 48
*-xs- > xs ........................................................................................................ 48
*# fš-> f........................................................................................................... 48
*# fš-> x .......................................................................................................... 48
*-fš-> fš ........................................................................................................... 48
*-fš-> f ............................................................................................................ 49
*# xš- > š ......................................................................................................... 49
*# xš- > x ........................................................................................................ 49
*-xš- > xš ........................................................................................................ 49
*-xš- > x .......................................................................................................... 49
*#xšn > xn....................................................................................................... 50
*-xšt- > xt ........................................................................................................ 50
*-xšt- > xš ....................................................................................................... 50
*-štk- > -šk-..................................................................................................... 50
2.3.3.3 Fricative + affricate ............................................................................. 50
*sč > ʦ ............................................................................................................ 50
2.3.3.4 Fricative + Nasal ................................................................................. 51
*-xm- > xm ..................................................................................................... 51
*šm > hm ........................................................................................................ 51
8 Table of Contents
*-šm- > hm ...................................................................................................... 51

*hm > hm ........................................................................................................ 51
*-zn- > zn ........................................................................................................ 51
2.3.3.5 Fricative + Trill ................................................................................... 51
*#fr- > fr .......................................................................................................... 51
*# fra- > fr(ǝ) ................................................................................................... 52
*#sr > š ............................................................................................................ 52
*-str- > š .......................................................................................................... 52
*θr- > hr > r ..................................................................................................... 52
*θr- > hr........................................................................................................... 52
*θr > r .............................................................................................................. 52
*-hr- > r ........................................................................................................... 52
*# xr- > xr ....................................................................................................... 53
*-xr- > xr ......................................................................................................... 53
*# xr- > xir ...................................................................................................... 53
2.3.3.6 Fricative + Approximant ..................................................................... 53
*θw> lf ............................................................................................................ 53
*# dw- > lβ ...................................................................................................... 53
*# dw> β.......................................................................................................... 53
*xw > xo.......................................................................................................... 54
*hw- > xo ........................................................................................................ 54
* θy > i ............................................................................................................ 54
*zy > z ............................................................................................................. 54
*sy > s ............................................................................................................. 54
2.3.4 Combinations with affricates .................................................................. 54
2.3.4.1 Affricates + Approximant ................................................................... 54
*čy > š ............................................................................................................. 54
*čy-> ś (σ) ....................................................................................................... 55
*ǰy > ž (ζ) ........................................................................................................ 55
2.3.5 Combination with Trill ........................................................................... 55
2.3.5.1 Trill + Plosives .................................................................................... 55
*-rt- > rd .......................................................................................................... 55
*-rd- > rd ......................................................................................................... 55
*-rd- > -rl- ....................................................................................................... 55
2.3.5.2 Trill + Fricative ................................................................................... 56
*-rš- > š ........................................................................................................... 56
*rž > z.............................................................................................................. 56
*-rz- > rz.......................................................................................................... 56
*rs > rs ............................................................................................................. 56
*-rst- > -št- ...................................................................................................... 56
2.3.5.3 Trill + Nasal ........................................................................................ 56
*-rn- > r ........................................................................................................... 56
*-rn- > rn ......................................................................................................... 56
Table of Contents 9
*rm > rm ......................................................................................................... 57

2.3.6 Combination with approximant.............................................................. 57
2.3.6.1 Approximant + r .................................................................................. 57
#*wr > r........................................................................................................... 57
2.4 Phonological processes: Metathesis .......................................................... 57
2.5 Vowels ...................................................................................................... 57
*# i > i ............................................................................................................. 57
2.6 Simple vowels ........................................................................................... 57
*# a > a............................................................................................................ 58
*-a- > a ............................................................................................................ 58
*#ā > ā............................................................................................................. 58
*ā > ā............................................................................................................... 58
*# i > Ø ........................................................................................................... 58
*i > i ................................................................................................................ 58
*i > a/ǝ (in Greek script α) .............................................................................. 59
*# u > ə (in Greek script α) ............................................................................. 59
*# u > u ........................................................................................................... 59
*u > u .............................................................................................................. 59
*-ṛ- > -ir- (ιρ) .................................................................................................. 59
*-ṛ- > -ur- (ορ)................................................................................................. 60
2.7 Loss of vowels .......................................................................................... 60
2.7.1 Loss of #V- ............................................................................................ 60
*# a > Ø .......................................................................................................... 60
2.7.2 Loss of -V- (Syncope):........................................................................... 60
-Between plosive and sonorant: ...................................................................... 60
-Between plosive and plosive: ........................................................................ 60
-Between fricative and plosive:....................................................................... 60
-Between fricative and nasal: .......................................................................... 61
2.7.3 The treatment of final vowels ................................................................ 61
*ā # > Ø .......................................................................................................... 61
2.8 Diphthongs ................................................................................................ 61
*au > o ........................................................................................................... 61
*ai > ē ............................................................................................................. 61
*aya > ē (> ī) ................................................................................................... 62
*āyā > ā ........................................................................................................... 62
*-āya# > ī (or sometimes yi) ........................................................................... 62
*iya > ē or ī ..................................................................................................... 62
*iya > i ............................................................................................................ 62
*iya > ē ........................................................................................................... 62
*awa-> ō ......................................................................................................... 62
*-awā- > awā ................................................................................................... 63
*-āwa- > āwa ................................................................................................... 63
*-āwā- > āwā ................................................................................................... 63
10 Table of Contents
*-āwi- > ā ........................................................................................................ 63

2.9 Combination of vowel and consonant ....................................................... 63
2.9.1 Combination of w with vowels ............................................................... 63
2.9.1.1 In initial position ................................................................................. 63
*# wa- > wa > o ............................................................................................... 63
*# wā- > wā ..................................................................................................... 64
*# wi-> wi ....................................................................................................... 64
2.9.2 Combination of y with vowels ................................................................ 64
2.9.2.1 In final position ................................................................................... 64
*arya # > ēr (ηρ) .............................................................................................. 64
2.9.3 The combination of other consonants with vowels ................................ 64
2.9.3.1 In final position ................................................................................... 64
*-an # > Ø ....................................................................................................... 64
*am # > Ø ........................................................................................................ 64
*Vh # > Ø ........................................................................................................ 64
2.10 Palatalization ........................................................................................... 65
* a > i /-.ya, -.i ................................................................................................. 65
*ā > ē /-.ya ....................................................................................................... 65
* a > i /-.s,-.z ................................................................................................... 65
* a > -.i /-.n ...................................................................................................... 65
2.11 Vowel assimilation .................................................................................. 65
*a > o /-.u ........................................................................................................ 65
*i > ə................................................................................................................ 65
2.12 Dissimilation ........................................................................................... 65
*# wi- > ya ...................................................................................................... 66
2.13 Lowering (?) ............................................................................................ 66
*ī > ē (?) .......................................................................................................... 66
2.14 Reduced vowel (ǝ):.................................................................................. 66
Ø > ə/ #-CC ..................................................................................................... 66
*a, i > ə ............................................................................................................ 66
*-xm- > xəm .................................................................................................... 67
2.14.1 Suffixal k .............................................................................................. 67
A.1. *-aka- > -γο ............................................................................................. 67
A.2. *-aka- after a voiceless consonant > -κο ................................................. 67
A.3.*-aka- after υ > -αxο ................................................................................. 67
B. *-aka- > -αγο .............................................................................................. 67
C. *-iyaka- > ιγο > ιιο ..................................................................................... 67
2.15 Summary ................................................................................................. 68
3. Chapter Three: Nominal phrases....................................................................... 73
3.1 Number and case ....................................................................................... 73
3.1.1 Substantive ............................................................................................. 73
3.1.2 Adjective ................................................................................................ 74
Table of Contents 11
3.2 Gender....................................................................................................... 76
3.2.1 Genitive construction ............................................................................. 76
3.2.2 Apposition .............................................................................................. 78
Apposition without particle ι........................................................................... 78
Apposition with particle ι: .............................................................................. 82
Apposition containing a group of words ......................................................... 83
3.2.3 Numerals ................................................................................................ 84
3.2.3.1 Cardinal numbers ................................................................................ 84
3.2.3.2 Plural or no plural ending .................................................................... 88
3.2.3.3 Combined numerals ............................................................................ 89
3.2.3.4 Ordinal numbers .................................................................................. 89
3.3 Adjectives ................................................................................................. 90
3.3.1 Word formation ...................................................................................... 90
3.3.2 Nominal phrases consisting of an adjective ........................................... 92
3.3.3 Ordering of adjectives ............................................................................ 93
3.4 Summary ................................................................................................... 95
4. Chapter Four: Pronouns .................................................................................... 99
4.1 Personal pronouns ..................................................................................... 99
4.1.1 The direct full pronouns ......................................................................... 99
4.1.2 The oblique full pronouns ...................................................................... 101
Possessive function ......................................................................................... 101
4.1.3 Enclitic pronouns ................................................................................... 102
The position of enclitic pronouns.................................................................... 104
After a conjunction ......................................................................................... 104
After a preposition .......................................................................................... 104
Attached to a verb ........................................................................................... 104
Attached to another enclitic pronoun .............................................................. 105
4.1.4 Ordering of enclitic and full pronouns ................................................... 105
4.2 Demonstratives ......................................................................................... 106
4.3 Reflexive forms ......................................................................................... 108
4.3.1 Reflexive pronouns ................................................................................ 108
4.3.2 Reflexive adjectives ............................................................................... 111
4.4. Indefinite pronouns .................................................................................. 112
4.4.1 With animates ........................................................................................ 113
4.4.2 With inanimates ..................................................................................... 115
4.4.3 With both animates and inanimates ....................................................... 117
4.5 Possessive pronouns.................................................................................. 119
With inanimates .............................................................................................. 120
With animates ................................................................................................. 121
4.6 Relative pronouns ..................................................................................... 121
4.6.1 Main relative pronouns .......................................................................... 121
4.7 Summary ................................................................................................... 127
Personal pronoun ............................................................................................. 127

Demonstratives ................................................................................................ 128
Reflexive pronoun ........................................................................................... 128
Indefinite pronoun ........................................................................................... 128
Possessive pronoun ......................................................................................... 129
Relative pronoun ............................................................................................. 129
5. Chapter Five: Prepositions and postpositions ................................................... 131
5.1 The functions of prepositions and postpositions ....................................... 131
5.1.1 αβο, αβα-, αβ- “to, for, in, etc.” .............................................................. 131
In an ergative construction: ............................................................................. 132
In a non-ergative construction: ........................................................................ 132
A special case .................................................................................................. 133
αβο as object marker or directive? .................................................................. 134
5.1.2 φαρο, φαρα-, φαρ- “to, for” .................................................................... 135
5.1.3 ασο “from, (out) of, by, against, concerning, according to,
in respect of, as a result of, than, etc.” ............................................................ 136
5.1.4 πιδο, πιδ-, πιδδ- “in, on, by, with,…” ..................................................... 138
5.1.5 πισο, πισα-, πισοα- “to, in the presence of” ............................................ 140
5.1.6 αλο .......................................................................................................... 141
5.1.7 ναβανδο, νοβανδο................................................................................... 142
5.1.8 πιδοραλο “because of, by the agency of” ............................................... 142
5.1.9 Prepositions as preverbs ......................................................................... 143
5.2 Summary ................................................................................................... 143
6. Chapter Six: Adverbs ........................................................................................ 145
6.1 Formation of adverbs by suffixes .............................................................. 145
6.2 Types of adverbs ....................................................................................... 146
6.3 Deictic adverbs .......................................................................................... 147
6.3.1 Proximate deixic adverbs ....................................................................... 148
6.3.2 Remote deixis adverbs ........................................................................... 151
6.4 Syntactical positions of adverbs ................................................................ 155
6.5 Summary ................................................................................................... 159
7. Chapter Seven: Conjunctions ............................................................................ 161
7.1 Coordinating conjunctions ........................................................................ 161
7.1.1 Rarely attested coordinating conjunctions .............................................. 167
7.2 Correlative conjunctions ........................................................................... 170
7.3 Subordinating conjunctions ....................................................................... 172
7.3.1 Time ....................................................................................................... 172
7.3.2 Cause/Effect ........................................................................................... 174
7.3.3 Condition ................................................................................................ 178
7.4 Summary ................................................................................................... 180
Table of Contents 13
8. Chapter Eight: The verb ................................................................................... 183

8.1 Position ..................................................................................................... 183
8.1.1 Two verbs in a construction ................................................................... 183
8.2 Agreement with subject ............................................................................ 188
8.3 Passive and ergative constructions ............................................................ 192
8.3.1 Passive in Bactrian ................................................................................. 192
8.4. Auxiliary verbs ........................................................................................ 195
Perfect ............................................................................................................. 196
Pluperfect ........................................................................................................ 196
Past Subjunctive .............................................................................................. 196
8.4.1 The syntactic position of the auxiliary verb ........................................... 198
8.5 Summary ................................................................................................... 198
9. Chapter Nine: Word order ................................................................................ 201
9.1 Nominal sentences .................................................................................... 201
9.1.1 The presence of a copula ........................................................................ 201
9.1.1.1 The position of the copula ................................................................... 203
The absence of the copula ............................................................................... 204
9.1.2 The nominal sentence of possession ...................................................... 205
9.2 Verbal sentences ....................................................................................... 205
9.2.1 Intransitive verbs .................................................................................... 205
9.3 Transitive verbs ......................................................................................... 206
9.4 Double object constructions ...................................................................... 208
9.5 The order of elements in Bactrian ............................................................. 211
9.6 Summary ................................................................................................... 213
10. Chapter Ten: Compounds ............................................................................... 217
10.1 Bactrian compounds according to the grammatical feautures
of elements ...................................................................................................... 217
a. Noun ............................................................................................................ 217
b. Adjective ..................................................................................................... 218
c. Suffix........................................................................................................... 218
d. Adverb ........................................................................................................ 219
e. Past participle or past stem .......................................................................... 219
a. Noun ............................................................................................................ 219
b. Adjective ..................................................................................................... 220
c. pp or past stem ............................................................................................ 220
a. Noun ............................................................................................................ 220
b. Adjective ..................................................................................................... 221
c. Adverb ......................................................................................................... 221
10.2 Bactrian compounds according to the syntactical features of elements .. 221
10.2.1 Exocentric ............................................................................................ 221
10.2.1.1 Bahuvrihi (possessive compound) .................................................... 221
10.2.1.2 Verbal governing .............................................................................. 222
1. κηρ-“do, make”. .......................................................................................... 222

2. βαρ- “bring” ................................................................................................ 223
3. λαυ- “give”. ................................................................................................. 223
4. ωσταδο “to put” ........................................................................................... 223
5. ηρσ- “come, arrive” ..................................................................................... 223
6. ζιν- “to strike” ............................................................................................. 223
10.2.1.3 Prepositional governing ..................................................................... 223
10.2.1.4 Derivative (Ableitung) ...................................................................... 223
10.2.2 Endocentric .......................................................................................... 224
10.2.2.1 Determinative compound .................................................................. 224
α. Adjective + substantive or substantive + adjective ..................................... 224
β. Substantive + substantive ............................................................................ 225
10.2.2.2 Copulative (Dvandva) ....................................................................... 225
10.3 Tripartite compounds .............................................................................. 225
10.4 Seam vowel ............................................................................................. 226
10.5 Summary ................................................................................................. 228
References............................................................................................................. 231
Abbreviations
A Agent
ABL Ablative
ADJ Adjective
ADV Adverb(ial)
AR Armenian
ART Article
AV Avestan
Bac. Bactrian
BD I Sims-Williams 2000
BD II Sims-Williams 2007
COJ Conjunction
CP Enclitic pronoun
DB Darius, Behistan document
DEM Demonstrative
DIR Direct
EZ Ezafe
F Feminine
FUP Future participle
GEN Genitive
INA Indefinite adjective
IND Indicative
INDIR Indirect
INF Infinitive
INP Indefinite pronoun
IMP Imperative
IMPF Imperfect
KHOT Khotan Saka
LAT Latin
M Masculine
MAN Manichaen
MMP Manichaen Middle Persian
MP Middle Persian
N Noun
NE Neuter
NEG Negative
NOM Nominative
NP New Persian
16 Abbreviations
O Object
OBL Oblique
OInd Old Indian
OM Object marker
OP Old Persian
OPT Optative
p Person
PA Pronominal adjective
PAR Particle
PASS Passive
PF Perfect
PL Plural
PLP Pluperfect
PN Personal name; Place name
POSA Possessive adjective
POSP Possessive pronoun
POST Postposition
Pp Past participle
PR Parthian
PRE Preposition
PROH Prohibitive
PRON Pronoun
PRS Present
PST Past
RA Reflexive adjective
RP Reflexive pronoun
RTP Relative pronoun
RUS Russian
S Subject
SBJV Subjunctive
SG Singular
SOG Sogdian
UFL Uninflected
V Verb
XPa Xerxes, Persepolis document a
1s/2s/3s First person singular/second…/third
1p/2p/3p First person plural/second…/third
Table of phonetic values
The following table shows the Greek letters used for writing Bactrian (in bold) and
their probable phonetic values in Bactrian. 1
α β γ δ ε ζ η
a, b, β g, γ, d e, z, ž, dz ē,
ā, γγ: ŋg ει: ī final -ηιο : ē
ə
θ ι κ λ μ ν ο π
θ y, i, ī k l m n w, u, ū, o, ə, ø p
ρ þ σ τ υ φ χ ω
r š s,ts,dz2, ś t h f x ō
1 Following Sims-Williams 1989: 233.

2 Both σ and ζ may present dz.
Acknowledgements
The first person who encouraged me to work on the Bactrian language was Dr.
Hassan Rezai Baghbidi. His encouragement was the main reason for my move to
Germany and for writing my doctoral thesis on this language.
The present book is a revised version of my doctoral thesis submitted to and de-
fended at Göttingen University in 2010. I am deeply indebted to Dr. Antje
Wendtland at Göttingen University, who helped introduce me to the study of this
language and to its sources and reference materials. She supported me throughout
my study and read my thesis several times, always giving me very useful sugges-
tions. Furthermore, I would particularly like to thank Professor Dr. Philip
Kreyenbroek, who provided us with a very friendly atmosphere at our institute to
work and study in. I really appreciate his encouragement and help.
I wish to express my special appreciation as well to Dr. Agnes Korn, for her very
insightful and useful comments on the chapters “Historical phonology” and
“Compounds”. I am deeply indebted to Professor Dr. Desmond Durkin-Meisterernst,
who read the last version of the present study, drew my attention to some references,
and saved my work from possible errors. Special thanks are due to Prof. Dr.
Nicholas Sims-Williams for his valuable comments and corrections on the chapter of
historical phonology.
I would like to thank Denise Bailey and Arif Biter for their unflagging support
and help. They corrected and formatted this work several times with admirable pa-
tience. It is not necessary to say that all remaining errors are my own.
Finally, I wish to express special gratitude to The Soudavar Memorial Founda-
tion for the financial support that enabled me to rework my doctoral thesis and pub-
lish the present book.
Frankfurt am Main, 2014 Saloumeh Gholami

1. Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 Bactria
Bactria played an important role in the history of Central Asia. Originally, Bactria
consisted of the plain between the Hindu Kush and the Āmū Daryā, with its string of
agricultural oases dependent on water taken from the rivers of Balkh (Bactra),
Tashkurgan, Kondūz, Sar-e Pol, and Šīrīn Tagāō.1
The name Bactria is first mentioned in the list of Darius's conquests in the
Behistan inscription (OP. Bāxtriš) and in other old Persian inscriptions 2 and in a
fragment of the work of Ctesias of Cnidos (Gk. Βάκτρα).3 According to historical
sources, Bactria occupied a commanding position on the royal road to India, and the
Bactrians also played an important role in the Persian army. For example, at Salamis
they were under the great king's direct command.4
Alexander invaded Bactria, and Greek rulers maintained a rule informed by
Hellenist culture for some 200 years after his death (323 B.C.). After the conquest of
Alexander, the south of Tajikistan became the northern part of the Hellenistic Greco-
Bactrian Kingdom. The Greek kings divided Bactria-Sogdiana into a number of
satrapies, as this was a more manageable arrangement. This region was described as
“Mother of cities” and as “Paradise on earth”. 5
In the Avesta, Bactria is mentioned in the list of countries in the first chapter of
the Vendīdād (in V.I.6: Bāxδīm and in V.I.7: Bāxδīmča)6 and the form Baxl is at-
tested in the Pahlavi books Šahrestānīhā ī Ērān7 and as the name of a river in
Bundahišn8.
The Šahrestānīhā ī Ērān associates Bactria with the Kayanid prince Spandyād
(Esfandīyār) and his victory in the holy war against Arjāsp.9
Soon after the middle of the second century B.C., Greek rule ended with inva-
sions of nomads, notably the Yüeh-chih or Tokharoi from the North, who settled in
1 Leriche 1989: 339.

2 See Kent 1953: 199.
3 Leriche 1989: 339 and Kent 1953: 199.
4 Leriche 1989: 340.
5 Tarn 1951: 113.
6 Bartholomae 1904: 953.
7 Daryaee 2002: 13.
8 Pakzad 2005: 149.
9 Grenet 1989: 344.
22 1. Chapter One: Introduction
Northern Afghanistan.10 The archaeological discoveries relating to this period point

to a continuation of agricultural and urban development. 11
Under the Kushans, Bactria became a major commercial center on the Silk Road.
In the Kushan period (68 B.C.–240 A.D.), people were able to travel there; among
them were Indian monks who brought the religion of the Buddha to Bactria.12
1.2 Bactrian language and script
Bactrian is an intermediary Middle Iranian language, because it possesses the char-

acters of both Eastern and Western Iranian groups.
Table 1 shows an overview of the Iranian languages:
Table 1. Overview of the Iranian languages
Old Western Eastern

Iranian Old Persian Avesta
Middle Western Intermediary Eastern
Iranian Middle Persian, Parthian Bactrian Sogdian, Khotanese, Saka,
Chwaresmian
New Persian, Kurdish, Balochi, etc. Pashto, Pamir languages,
Iranian Ossetic, etc.
In Achaemenian times, in the fifth century B.C., written communication between

Iranians, as well as between Iranians and non-Iranians, was conducted in Aramaic. A
group of Aramaic documents, dating to the fourth century B.C., reflect the fact that
in Achaemenian times, Aramaic was also used in Bactria and Sogdiana. 13 In post-
Achaemenian times, this probably led to a kind of Bactrian being written with
Aramaic ideograms in Aramaic script, as was the case with Middle Persian, Parthian,
and Chorasmian.14
The practice of writing Bactrian in Greek script must have begun in the first cen-
tury B.C., when literacy in Greek was still sufficiently widespread among the
Bactrians.15 The Bactrian coins show that at first, the Kushans continued the tradi-
tional use of Greek. In the reign of Kanishka I (ca. 127–151 A.D.),16 Bactrian re-
10 Sims-Williams 1989b: 344.

11 Leriche 1989: 341.
12 Leriche 1989: 343.
13 For these documents, cf. Naveh and Shaked 2012.
14 Gershevitch 1983: 1254.
16 Cf. Falk 2001: 121–136.
1.3 Bactrian sources 23
placed Greek on the Kushan coins. After this period, Greek ceased to be used as an
official language in Bactria.17
After the collapse of the Kushan empire, Bactrian continued to be used for at
least six centuries, as is shown by the ninth century inscriptions from the Tochi val-
ley in Pakistan and the remnants of Buddhist and Manichaen manuscripts as far
away as the Turfan oasis in western China. 18
1.3 Bactrian sources

1.3.1 Coins
The coins of the first Bactrian kings give their names and titles in Greek. 19
Kanishka's coins from the beginning of his reign were written in the Greek language
and script, and depict Greek divinities. But later coins were written in the Bactrian
language and a modified Greek script. 20 With the eclipse of the Kushan dynasty,
their lands west of the Indus fell into the hands of the Sasanians. In addition to coin-
age inscribed in Pahlavi and (occasionally) in Brāhmī, the Kušān-šāhs21 issued coins
with legends in cursive Greco-Bactrian script.22 The Bactrian coin-legends of the
Hunnish23 period (ca. 600–700 A.D.)24 display a rich linguistic diversity, with loan
titles from Indian (sri “Śrī”), Turkish (kagano “Khaghan”, tarxano “Tarkhan”,
todono “Tudun”) and Latin (fromo kēsaro “Caesar of Rome”), as well as from
Bactrian and Middle Persian (bago, šauo, xoadēo).25
1.3.2 Seals
The number of Kushan seals bearing Bactrian inscriptions is small. Bactrian inscrip-
tions on seals during the Kushano-Sasanian and subsequent periods were written in
an extremely cursive variety of the Greek script. There is some difficulty in dividing
Kushano-Sasanian seals from those of the preceding Kushan period (68 B.C.–240
A.D.).26 Many of the earlier Kushan seals can be distinguished because their
Bactrian inscriptions are written in a less cursive form of the Greek alphabet. 27

18 Sims-Williams 1997.
20 Cf. Bopearachchi 1991 and Humbach 1967.
21 The kings of the Kušān period (68 B.C.–240 A.D.).
23 Cf. Göbl 1964, Humbach 1967, and 1967a.
24 Cf. Göbl 1967: 26.
25 Cf. Sims-Williams 1989b: 345.
26 Falk 2001: 131.
27 Bivar 1968: 1–2.
These seals are inscribed with names and titles of their owner 28 in Greco-Bactrian
script.
1.3.3 Inscriptions
Surkh Kotal29
This inscription was carved in the second century A.D. into a large monolith in the
ruins of the acropolis of Surkh Kotal in northern Afghanistan, 30 and is extremely
well preserved in three forms. 31 It was discovered in May 1957 by the French
Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan. 32 According to Gershevitch and Henning,
the purpose of this inscription was to record the construction work carried out by
Nokonzoko. It was “the first substantial document of the Middle Iranian dialect of
Bactria”.33 The text of the Surkh Kotal inscription was published first by André
Maricq, who identified some important words and phrases including the name of
Kanishka, and then by Henning, Gershevitch, Harmatta, and Livšic. The most recent
edition was published by Lazard, Grenet, and de la Lamberterie.
Rabatak
The Rabatak inscription is the oldest Bactrian inscription. The stone bearing this
inscription, together with fragments of a sculpture of a lion and agricultural ele-
ments, was found in March 1993 on a hill locally known as “the Kafirs’ Castle”, in a
region called Rabatak, 25 miles north of Pul-i Khumri.34 The inscription relates to
the rule of the Kushan emperor Kanishka35 and speaks of a sanctuary being built by
Shafar, the local Kushan officer. This inscription was published for the first time by
Cribb and Sims-Williams,36 and in a revised edition by Sims-Williams.37
This inscription provides an important list of gods, and according to Cribb, “it
makes the role of the divine images on Kushan coins abundantly clear.” 38 The
Rabatak Inscription also states that Kanishka issued a Greek edict and then put it
into Aryan and described some of the events of his first regal year. As Sims-
Williams and Cribb note: “The most startling revelation is the identification of a new
28 Titles such as asbarobido “chief of cavalry” or oazarko fromalaro “great commander” and
šaurabo “satrap” and uazaroxto “chiliarch” (cf. Sims-Williams 1989b: 345).
29 For interpretation of this inscription, cf. Benveniste 1961: 113–152, Humbach 1962: 40–43,
1960, 1963: 13–19; Henning 1960: 47–55 and 1956: 366–367, Gershevitch 1979: 55–73,
Harmatta 1964: 373–471.
31 Cf. Göbl: 1965.
32 Henning 1960: 47.
33 Humbach 2003: 157.
34 Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996: 75.
35 The reign of Kaniška I: ca. 127–151 A.D.
36 Cf. Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996: 75–96.
37 Sims-Williams 2004 (2008): 53–68.
1.3 Bactrian sources 25
king, Vima Tak[to] (line 13), whose position among Kushan kings is clearly indi-
cated.”39
The other inscriptions

The trilingual inscription of Dašt-e Nāvūr (in Bactrian, Kharoṣṭī and an undeci-
phered script),40 the inscription of Ayrtam (in Afghanistan),41 the inscription of
Delbarjīn (in Afghanistan),42 two inscriptions from Jaghatu (in Afghanistan), inscrip-
tions from Uruzgan (in Afghanistan) and the Tochi valley (in Pakistan), and two
very short rock inscriptions were also written in Bactrian. Several graffiti in cursive
Bactrian script of the Kushano-Sasanian period have been found in the Buddhist
cave-monastery of Kara-Tepe (in Turkmenistan).43 Tang-i Safedak is another
Bactrian inscription, which has been published by Lee and Sims-Williams.44 The
other sites at which Bactrian inscriptions have been found are Afrasiab (in
Uzbekistan), as well as Shatial Bridge and Tochi Valley (in Pakistan).
1.3.4 Manuscripts
During the Turfan expeditions, seven of the eight known fragments in Greco-
Bactrian script were found at Toyoq (Tuyugou), an ancient village and very impor-
tant archaeological site in the Turfan area. Another fragment was found at Lou-lan, a
city in the region Xinjiang in China. 45 Certain words suggest that the Lou-lan manu-
script may contain a Buddhist text.46 One other manuscript (M 1224), in Manichaean
script, was found at Qočo by Mary Boyce, and first noticed in June 1958, when she
was working on “The Catalogue of the Iranian Manuscripts in Manichaen Script in
the German Turfan Collection”.47
1.3.5 Documents
Our knowledge of the Bactrian language depends largely on a corpus of one hundred
and fifty documents in Bactrian cursive script, which appeared in the bazaar of
Peshawar and on the international art market in recent years. Many of these docu-

40 For this inscription, cf. Davary 1976, Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996: 95 (Appendix).
41 It is dated early in the reign of Huvishka and resembles the almost contemporary Surkh Kotal
monolith in vocabulary and phraseology (Sims-Williams 1989b: 346); for this inscription, cf.
Harmatta 1986: 131–146.
42 These inscriptions include substantial fragments of a monumental inscription of the early
Kushan period (Sims-Williams 1989b: 346).
43 Sims-Williams 1989b: 346, and for Kara Tepe, cf. Humbach 1970: 43–50 and Davary 1982:
40.
44 Lee and Sims-Williams 2003: 159–174.
45 For these manuscripts, cf. Humbach 1967: 28–32.
47 For the story of this fragment and further information about it, see Sims-Williams 2009: 245–
268 and see Durkin-Meisterernst 2004.
ments are now in the collection of Dr. Nasser David Khalili in London. 48 These
documents were written on leather, cloth and even on wooden sticks. They span the
whole period between Sasanian rule in the fourth century A.D. and Arab supremacy
in the eighth century.49 Many of these documents are published by Sims-Williams
(2000a and 2007a), and some of the other texts were published in separate articles in
different magazines.50 The new Bactrian documents may be divided into five groups:
1. Legal documents
Twenty-six legal documents, including contracts and receipts dated from 342–781
A.D.,51 and five documents of unknown date have been published. 52 Most of the
dated documents are legal contracts dealing with sales, leases, gifts, the manumis-
sion of a slave and the settlement of disputes. There is a marriage contract, which
happens to be the earliest dated document in Bactrian. 53
2. Lists and accounts

Seven leather documents and 29 wooden slips or tallies have been published. 54
These are generally undated, but one of them may present the date 379 A.D.55
3. Letters
Seventy letters are published in Bactrian Documents II,56 three of which show the
dates of 430, 431, and 463 A.D.57
4. Buddhist texts
Only two Buddhist texts are published in Bactrian Documents II, which are un-
dated.58 Sims-Williams published another Buddhist text belonging to the Schøyen
Collection.59
48 For other possessors of the Bactrian documents, cf. Yoshida 2003: 156.
49 Sims Williams 2002a: 12.
50 For a list of these documents and magazines, cf. Yoshida 2003: 156.
51 It must be added that this dating has been offered by Sims-Williams, and that there have been
other suggestions, for example, see Falk: 2001 and 2004.
52 Cf. Sims-Williams 2000: 31–153.
53 Sims-Williams 2002a: 12.
54 Cf. Sims-Williams 2000: 10–12 and 2000.
55 Cf. Sims-Williams 2002: 226.
59 Cf. Sims-Williams 2000, in Buddhist Manuscripts, ed. J. Braarvig, vol. 1, Oslo, pp. 275–77. In
Internet: http://schoyencollection.com/greekdocscr.html.
1.4 Aims and assumptions 27
5. Fragments of documents of uncertain type

These three fragments of documents are published in Bactrian Documents II,60
which present only a few words. They are not complete documents, and many words
are missing.
1.4 Aims and assumptions
In Section 1, I have presented a list of Bactrian sources and the names of people who
have worked on this language. During recent years, many works have been pub-
lished, especially articles. Many of these are corrections, reviews and notices of
older studies. Most researchers have concentrated more on philology and etymology,
and only a few grammatical points can be found in their works.
J. Harmatta gives some grammatical information in his articles such as “The
great Bactrian inscription” (1964), “Minor Bactrian inscriptions” (1965) and “Late
Bactrian inscriptions” (1969). For example, he discusses the function of conjunc-
tions in the Surkh Kotal inscription.
G. Djelani Davary was the first person to write about the morphology of
Bactrian. His dictionary of Bactrian includes a very short sketch of Bactrian mor-
phology.61 This chapter consists of seven sections: Substantives, adjectives, pro-
nouns, prepositions, conjunctions, preverbs, and verbal endings. In four pages, he
introduces only a few examples of these categories and gives their etymologies.
In 1984, Gilbert Lazard, Franz Grenet and Charles de Lamberterie wrote “Notes
bactriennes”. This article is a new review of the Surkh Kotal inscription and includes
a short section on nominal flection in Bactrian.
In 1985, Sims-Williams published “a note on Bactrian phonology” 62 and, in
1989, the articles “Bactrian” in Compendium Linguarum Iranicarum and “Bactrian
language” in Encyclopaedia Iranica III. In the last two articles, he describes some
important grammatical points of Bactrian. These articles provided the most detailed
description of Bactrian and its morphology.
Sims-Williams has also published Bactrian Documents I (2000) and II (2007),
which includes notes on the orthography and grammar of Bactrian. 63 The glossary of
these books also includes some grammatical points. The revised version of BD I and
BD III was published in 2012. The volume BD III contains the plates and images of
the Bactrian documents published in BD I and BD II. Other articles of Sims-
Williams also contain information on Bactrian grammar.
In 2003, Tremblay investigated the function of the past participle with the copula
in his article “La résurrection du Bactrien”.

61 Davary 1982: 140–144.
62 Sims-Williams 1985: 111–116.
63 Sims-Williams 2007: 38–49.
In the same year, Yoshida wrote a review of Sims-Williams’ Bactrian

Documents I and mentions some grammatical points. In “The great Surkh Kotal
inscription”, he reviewed the old readings and interpretations of this inscription and
also briefly discussed several grammatical features.
The other works on Bactrian grammar are the articles by Sims-Williams,
“Differential object marking in Bactrian”, 64 “The Bactrian fragment in Manichaean
script (M 1224)”,65 and “Remarks on the phonology of the Manichaean Bactrian
fragment (M 1224)”;66 and three articles by Gholami on ergativity, 67 demonstrative
determiners and pronouns,68 and definite articles.69
As the above information shows, no study has been specifically devoted to
Bactrian grammar and especially to its syntax. The only article on the subject of
syntax was authored by Sims-Williams in 1973. In this short article, he analyses
three examples of syntactic features of the Nokonzok inscription.
It was mainly for this reason that I decided to work on some important gram-
matical points in Bactrian. I selected a limited set of topics which were relatively
unknown or which could show the unique character of this language. In this study, I
aim to investigate various phonological, morphological, and syntactical features in
Bactrian.
The text corpus used for this investigation is comprised of the texts edited by
Sims-Williams as Bactrian Documents (henceforth abbreviated as BD) I (legal and
economic documents) and BD II (letters), as well as revised version of BD I and BD
III, the Rabatak inscription edited by Sims-Williams 2004 (2008), and the Kanishka
inscription of Surkh Kotal (Lazard, Grenet and de Lamberterie 1984). The data for
the linguistic investigation come from a selection of published articles, books and
Internet sites. Details on these sources are provided in the footnotes and in the list of
references.
This study includes the following parts: After Chapter One, that is, the introduc-
tion, in Chapter Two, “Historical phonology of Bactrian”, I discuss the historical
phonology of Bactrian, that is, the development of Old Iranian consonants and vow-
els in the Bactrian language.
In Chapter Three, I focus on nominal phrases. The major aim of this chapter is to
investigate the syntactical position of different kinds of nouns and their relationship
in a sentence. The other topic to be addressed in this chapter is that of nominal sen-
tences.
In Chapter Four, the different types of pronouns are discussed. The focus here is
on their syntactical properties.
64 Sims-Williams 2011: 23–38.

65 Sims-Williams 2009: 245–268.
66 Sims-Williams 2011a: 244–251.
67 Gholami 2009a: 132–141.
68 Gholami 2009: 19–26.
69 Gholami 2011: 11–22.
1.4 Aims and assumptions 29
In Chapter Five, the function and syntactical position of prepositions and postpo-
sitions are discussed. In Chapter Six, adverbs are described in terms of their forma-
tion. I also focus on the proximate and remote deixis adverbs as well as their
different syntactic positions.
The main aim of Chapter Seven is to introduce the various kinds of conjunctions
and their functions in Bactrian.
In Chapter Eight, the previously unresearched aspects of the Bactrian verb are
discussed. This chapter contains discussion of the syntactical position of the verb
and its agreement with subject, and also of the passive and ergative constructions in
Bactrian. The last part of this chapter treats the auxiliary verb.
In Chapter Nine, I examine word order in clauses with transitive or intransitive
verbs, and also provide an investigation of double object constructions. Finally in
Chapter Ten, I present a study of the different types of compounds in Bactrian. I
describe first the grammatical features of compound elements, and then I describe
their semantic relationship to each other.
Here I would like to mention that the purpose of the present book is not to offer a
very detailed historical and comparative analysis of the selected features in Bactrian,
but instead to present an overview of the different characteristics of this language
and provide a basis for general comparison with other Middle Iranian languages. To
systematically compare Bactrian to other Middle Iranian languages, it is necessary to
study all the mentioned topics in the present book in other languages, too. In the case
of certain topics, various investigations and works were available and used for this
book. In many other cases, information was missing. There are thus many open
questions remaining with regard to different levels of Bactrian grammar. I hope this
book creates new opportunities in this field to reflect on these difficulties.
2. Chapter Two: Historical phonology of Bactrian1
The purpose of this chapter is to update the research on the historical phonology of
Bactrian according to the new findings of Bactrian materials, which were published
2000 and 2007 by Sims-Williams. He described Bactrian phonology in two articles, 2
with his investigation based on the materials which had come to light up to that time.
A question that arises here is whether the new findings will cause revision of the
results of the older studies.
For this purpose, the development of the Proto Indo-Iranian phonemes3 to
Bactrian will first be discussed in detail. As Bactrian is a transitional Iranian
language, it will be also important to identify the Eastern and Western phonological
characteristics in this language.
The study of phonology of Bactrian is faced with several problems. As this
language is written in a variety of the Greek script, it is sometimes difficult to
determine the exact characteristics of orthographic symbols, especially in the case of
the long vowels and the consonants σ and ζ. In this respect, an unique Bactrian text
in Manichaean script could be very helpful. 4 In many cases we observe more than
one unexpected outcome of an Old Iranian consonant or vowel in Bactrian. This may
introduce either a loanword or an archaism. It is not really clear whether we have
more than one Bactrian dialect. Some material also show a different variety from
what we regularly find.
The first part of this chapter focuses on simple consonants and then on consonant
clusters. The second part focuses on the vowel system as well as the combination of
vowels and consonants, and it also outlines the special phonological characteristics
of Bactrian.
1 I would like to take this opportunity to express my special gratitude to Agnes Korn for her very
helpful comments and suggestions on the present chapter.
2 Cf. Sims-Williams 1989 and 1989a.
3 The analysis is accompanied by an assessment of the etymology of the Bactrian forms
mentioned in Sims-Williams's Lexicon in the glossary of BD II.
4 This fragment is published by Sims-Williams. Cf. Sims-Williams 2009: 245–268; for the
phonology of this fragment, cf. Sims-Williams 2011: 244–251.
32 2. Chapter Two: Historical phonology of Bactrian
2.1 Consonants
2.2 Simple consonants
In this section, the development of PIr. simple consonants in different positions is

analysed.
2.2.1 PIr. plosives
2.2.1.1 PIr. *p, *t, *k
Table 2. Proto-Iranian plosives
PIr. Initial position Internal position

Bac. script Phonetic value Bac. script Phonetic value
p π- p- -β-, -ββ- (only in -v-, -b-
αββο)
t τ- t- -δ-, -δδ- -đ-, -d-
k κ- k- -γ- -g-
č σ- ʦ- -σ- -ʦ-
b β- v -β- -v-
d λ- l- -λ- -l-
g γ- γ -γ- -γ-
ǰ ζ- z-, ʣ- (?), ž- (?) -ζ- -z-, -ʣ- (?), -ž- (?)
The development of PIr. plosives is not uniform in Bactrian. In general, the word-
initial plosives *# p, *t, *k seem to have been preserved without any change. Inter-
vocalic *-p-, *-t-, *-k- have progressed to <β>, <δ>, <γ>. In the following, the de-
tails of this development and some of the special characteristics are presented.
*p
PIr. *#p is preserved in Bactrian:
*# p> p
Examples: πανζο “five” < *panča-, παρασαρλο “last year” < *parā-sardV-, παλο
“family” < *pada-, πουρο “son” <*puθra-
In general, the internal *-p- between two vowels is changed to <β>:
*-p- > v and b

It is not clear exactly in which position the letter β represents the sound b and in
which position it represents v. The Bactrian fragment in Manichean script has two
2.2 Simple consonants 33
different letters b and β, representing the sounds [b] and [v], respectively. In this
fragment, only three words possess b. These are b’gyg 5 “having a share” (also
b’gy(g) ynd), bwt “Buddha” and źmbwd’ng “worldly, earthly”. It seems that in
Manichaen Bactrian, only <b> is used, and it represents v, whereas b can be seen
only in loanwords. The Manichaen form (y)ʼβ “water” shows, at least at this stage of
the language, that OIr. postvocalic *p developed to [v]. It is also important to know
how Graeco-Bactrian <β> should be pronounced. The question is whether it always
stands for [v], or whether in certain cases it stands for [b]. The double -ββ- in the
Graeco-Bactrian form αββο “water” <*āp- may represent [b], which distinguishes
this word from the preposition αβο [av] “to”. As δδ represents [d], and not fricative
[đ], -ββ- may represent [b], and not fricative [v]. Unfortunately, there is no other
example of the occurrence of -ββ-.
In some compounds in which the second element begins with *p, *p seems to be
preserved, for example, in υαμοπαλο “accordingly”(?) < *hama-pada-6, *p is pre-
served, but in another variant of this word, namely, αμβαλο, *p has developed to
<β>. The variant υαμοπαλο is attested in documents from 379/380 A.D., whereas
αμβαλο occurs in documents from 417/418 A.D.. The question is whether the variant
υαμοπαλο is older and whether *p is changed to <β>, namely [v] or [b], in such a
context in later texts. Here, we look at other examples in order to find an answer to
our question. In λαþνοβωστογο < *dāšinV-pawasta-ka-“deed of gift” (in document
C from 379/380 A.D.), *p has developed to [v] or [b]. In λαþνοπαλαþνοβωστιγο
“contract for the exchange of gifts” < *dāšinV-pati-dāšinV- (in document W from
747 A.D.), the first *p is preserved. The document W represents the preservation of
two varieties, namely, the preservation and changing of *p.
*t
*# t > t
Initial * t is preserved in Bactrian:
Examples: τα “then” < *tā, ταβ- “to seal”< *tāpa-7
*t > d,( đ?)

Postvocalic *t has developed to <δδ> and <δ>. The question is whether <δδ>
actually represents a double consonant or if it is here an attempt to distinguish [d]
and [đ].
The letter δ is always doubled before palatal vowels <η> and <ι> in the later
texts,8 for example, εζδδηβιδο (αζδο “knowledge” + πιδο “with”) “with the cogni-
5 According to Sims-Williams “the writing with b- and g- for expected β and γ suggests a loan-
word from Western Iranian…, possibly from Parthian.” cf. Sims-Williams 2009: 258.
6 In Parthian hampad (Durkin-Meisterernst 2004: 179).
7 This verb originally meaning “to be(come) hot” in Bactrian has the meaning “to heat (wax) and
impress” (for this verb in other Iranian languages and its meaning see Cheung 2007: 378–379).
8 Sims-Williams 2007: 38.
zance of”, αγαδδηιο (preterite form of ηρσ- “to come” + verbal ending -ηιο) “you
brought”, κιρδδημο (preterite form of κιρ- + verbal ending -ημο) “I did”, πιδδι (πιδο
“in” + ειο “this”) “in this”. According to Sims-Williams, the writing δδ indicates
[dd], resulting from the assimilation of [dy] from palatalized [d]. He mentions the
sequence of forms ταδηια/ταδηιο [tādē(i)] (Rabatak, Surkh Kotal, etc.) > ταδοιηιο
[tādyē(i)] (in unpublished documents, including two dated in the years 157 and 195
= 389 and 427 A.D.), > ταδδηιο [tāddē(i)] (in documents from years 446–527=678–
759 A.D.).9 Regarding the above examples and information, we can conclude that
<δδ> may represent [d], but there is actually no evidence to prove that <δ> may
represent the fricative [đ]. In the Manichaean fragment, the letter <δ> is not used,
and for this reason, it is not clear whether there are really both [d] and [đ]. In the
following examples, postvocalic *t has developed to <δ>, namely [d], likely
comparable to Middle Persian and Parthian: οδο “and” < *uta-, πιδο “to, on, by, at”
<*pati-.
In ραμοσητο “the spirit Ram” < *rāmā-čaita-, postvocalic t is preserved. This
word is probably a loanword from Sogdian rʼmcytk.10
In απισοδαρο <*pasča-tara-, *t has developed to [d], but in another variant of this
word, namely, απισταρο is preserved. απισταρο occurs two times, once in xp
(uncertain date) and twice in Q (c. 671 A.D.). απισοδαρο is attested in documents cc,
ci (c. 379/380 A:D.) and xe (uncertain date).
The following examples with initial δ- [d] seem to be native Bactrian words:
Examples: δαγογγο “such, in this way” < *aitāt-gauna-ka, δανομανο “such-and-
such” < *aitāt-nmān-a-, δαφρηλο “so much” < *aitāt-frāyah-11
*k
*k in initial position is preserved:
*# k- > k
Examples: καδαμο “whatever” < *katāma-, καδγο “house” < *kataka-, καλδο
“when, if” < *kadā + *uti-

10 Suggested to me by Sims-Williams.
11 In these examples, *ai- has disappeared. The shortening or ultimate disappearance of Old
Iranian long vowels or diphthongs in certain circumstances is one of the Eastern Middle Iranian
charachteristics, for example, *aizma > Sogdian zm-, Chwaresmian (ʼ) zm. Cf. Sims-Williams
1989a: 168.
*-k- > g12

In the postvocalic position, *k is changed to <γ>. The question is whether <γ>
represents [g] and [γ], or both of them. In the Manichaen Bactrian fragment, there
are separate letters for [g] or [γ]. According to Sims-Williams, “Old Iranian
postvocalic *k had developed only as far as the plosive [g], as exemplified by βrg
and many other words with suffixal *-k-.”13Other examples of this development are
ιωγο (MAN. ywg) “one, a, a certain” < *aiwaka-, ζαμιγο “ground” < *zamīkā-.
There are also some examples of the preservation of *k under special conditions.
It seems that *k in the initial position of the second element in a compound could be
preserved, and in this environment, it functions as an initial *k:
Example: πιδοκαρδο “retention” <*pati-karda-
2.2.1.2 PIr. *b, *d, *g

PIr *b, *d, *g are represented by Bactrian [v], [l], [γ]. As mentioned in (2.2.1.1), *b
is preserved only in loanwords and after nasals in the Manichaen Bactrian
fragment.14
*b > <β>=[v]
Examples: αβαρ- “to bring” < *ābara-, ασβαρο “horseman” < *aspa-bāra-15 (proba-
bly a loanword from Middle Persian), βαγο “god” < *baga-.
The *d is changed to l:16
*d > l
Examples: λαρζo “subject to restrictions” < *dārzV-17, λαυ- “to give” < *daθa-,
λιστο “hand” < *dasta-18, *αλο, αλα- “with” < *hadā-, αρλο “side” < *arda-, καρλ-
“to do” < *karda- (from κιρ-)19, μαλαχο “locust” < *madaxa, μολο “wine” < *madu-
The PIr. *d is only preserved in loanwords in the form of <δ> and <δδ>, for ex-
ample, δινο/δδινο “name of the twenty-fourth day of the month” < *dayanā- (MP
dēn), δοδαγο “family” (MP dūdag), and in the form <Δ> (in documents from the
seventh and eighth centuries), for example, in Δραχμο20 “dirham” (Gk. δραχμή).21 It
12 In the following examples, it is not clear whether the outcome is g or γ: αγιρο “ineffective” <
*a-karya-, αγισινδο “dissatisfied” < *aka-sandV-, οιγαλφο “witness” <*wi-kāθwan(?). Ac-
cording to Tremblay 2003: 132–3, the Bactrian form οιγαλφο is in origin an abstract *wi-
kawya-θwa- Sims-Williams 2007: 246.
15 This is an example of haplography and assimilation.
16 According to Sims-Williams, *d has developed via *δ to l Sims-Williams 1989: 233.
17 For the original meaning of this word and its form in other Iranian languages, see Sims-
Williams 2007: 226.
18 An example of palatalization, in which *a is changed to i.
19 For the forms of this verb in Iranian languages, see Cheung 2007: 236–238.
20 δδραχμο is also attested.
21 For the circumstances of Δ, cf. Sims-Williams 2007: 38–39.
is interesting to note that in some cases, all of these three variants are attested, for
example, διναρο/δδιναρο/Διναρο “dinar”. The question is how δ, δδ and Δ must be
pronounced. According to Sims-Williams, in some cases, Δ seems to have the same
function as δδ. Possibly δδ and Δ indicate [d]. But in the case of δ, we do not know
whether it always represents a plosive or sometimes also a fricative. 22 The develop-
ment of a d (> δ or z) > l or r is common in languages around the world. Presumably
such a development could have happened in Bactrian, too. If we accept this theory,
then in some cases, δ may represent a fricative and could be an intermediate stage of
the development of [d] to [l].
*g has developed to γ:
*g > γ23
Examples: αγαδο (past stem) “came” < *ā-gata-, ωγοτο (past stem) “concealed”(?)
(MAN. ʼwγwt) <*awa-gušta-24, βαγο “god” < *baga-
It must be added that <γγ> represents [ƞg].
2.2.1.3 PIr. *č, *ǰ

It seems that Bactrian, as other Eastern Middle Iranian languages, though with the
exception of Sogdian, participates in the depalatalization of *č to ʦ and *ǰ to ʣ.
*č
*č written as <σ> in Bactrian. The Greek and Manichaen script does not reflect the
exact phonetic value of this consonant. We can only say that it is not a simple s, but
it is not absolutely clear whether it is actually an affricate ʦ. It probably has two
different phonological values, namely [ʦ] and [s]. When it derives from *č, it
represents [ʦ] and if it derives from *s, it indicates [s]. The only exception is ασο
“from”, in Manichaen, ʼs. Even though this preposition derives from *hačā, it is
pronounced according to the Manichaen form as [as]. According to Sims-Williams,
it was probably a proclitic and may attest a simplification of final [ʦ] to [s] in sandhi
before certain consonants.25

23 It is not clear where this letter represents g and in which position it is used for γ. In the
Manichaean fragment, it is also difficult to recognize these very similar letters, cf. Sims-
Williams 2011: 244. The letter Γ is a modification of g by a small hook or opening of the lower
stroke, and because the fragment is written with such a small script, this is very hard to recog-
nize (suggested by Durkin-Meisterernst).
24 See *gaud- in Cheung 2007: 114.
*č > ʦ
Examples: σαζαμανο “as soon as” < *čiyāt-ǰamān-, σανο “pleasure” < *čanah-, σηρο
“use” (?) < *čārya-, (α)σιδο26 “what, which” < *čim + -δο, πισο (MAN. pyc) “in the
presence of” < *patīčā
The last example, namely, πισο, shows that [ʦ] may also occur after palatal vow-
els.27
*ǰ
According to Sims-Williams, the Manichaen script distinguishes between at least
two, and perhaps three different sounds, namely, <z>, < >,28 and <j>,29 which are all
written with the letter <ζ> in the Graeco-Bactrian script. It is impotant to know
which of these would be the outcome of *ǰ. In the Manichaen fragment, we have two
outcomes, namely, < > and <j> for *ǰ, as shown in the following examples:
Examples: yn’g “body” < *ǰīnā-kā-/ǰayanā-kā-, ʼwjyd “killed” <*awa-ǰata-
It is not clear whether it is really a difference between <j> and < >. According to
Sims-Williams, < > represents [dz] (and [ʤ]?), and <j> may show [ʒ] (and [ʤ]?).
2.2.2 PIr. fricatives and affricates
2.2.2.1 PIr. *f, *θ, *x
Table 3. Proto-Iranian fricatives and affricates
PIr. Both initial and internal position

Bac. script Phonetic value
f φ f
θ υ h
x χ x
s σ s, ts, dz, ś (after a palatal
vowel)
z ζ z, ž, dz
š þ š
h υ h
PIr. *f and *x are preserved in Bactrian, and *θ has developed to h:
26 According to Sims-Williams, (ǝ) ʦid, Sims-Williams 2011: 247.

27 This is also mentioned by Sims-Williams 2011: 247.
28 Sims-Williams transliterated this sound as ź in Sims-Williams 2009.
29 For further discussion on these three sounds, cf. Sims-Williams 2011: 247–249.
*f > f
Examples: φαρδαρο “more” < *fra-tara-30, φαρο “glory” < *farnah-, παδοφρασο
“punishment” < *pāti-frāsā-, μιυροναφρανο “west” < *miθra-nifrāna-
*θ > h 31
Examples: υαγγο “load” < *θanga-, αναυαγδο “without deduction” (?) < *an-ā-
θaxta-32
In one instance, θ is preserved in ιθαο “thus” < *iθā. This word could be a
loanword or it may be an archaism.
*x> x
Examples: χαλ- “to prick” < *xada-, χανο “house” < *xānā-, χαρο “donkey” <
*xara-, αχασ- “to quarell” < *ā-xasa-, ποροχηζ- “to serve” < *pari-xaiza-
2.2.2.2 PIr. *s, *z
*s
As mentioned above, σ has different phonological values, for example, it may
represent [ʦ], when it derives from Old Iranian *č. Another function of σ can be a
development of *s. In Manichaean script, there are two different forms as the output
of *s, that is, s and ś.
*s > s
Examples: σαβολο “jar” < *sapauda-, σαγδο “level” < *sātaka-, σαδο “hundred” <
*sata-, ασαδαγο “accrued” < *ā-sāta-ka-, κασοκο “little” < *kasu-ka-, αχασ- < *ā-
xasa- “to quarrel”
*s > ś
According to Sims-Williams, we find ś after a palatal vowel, e.g., hβyśznng “of
many kinds” = υαβισο “much, many” < *harwa-wispa-33 + ζαγγο “manner, way” <
*zanaka-
*z
Without any doubt, we can claim that *z has developed only to z:
30 According to Sims-Williams *faru-tara-.

31 The development of *θ to h in Bactrian, is also mentioned by Wendtland 2009:176–177.
32 In one instance, θ is changed to x in the consonant cluster in ζαχμο “wound” <*ǰa(n)θma(n)-.
This word may be a loanword.
33 Suggested by Durkin-Meisterernst.
*z > z
Examples: ζαμιγο “ground” < *zamīkā-, ζαν- “to know” < *zāna-, αζαδο “free” <
*āzāta-, αζο “I” < *azam
2.2.2.3 PIr. *š
It seems that there are two different outcomes for *š in Bactrian, namely, š and h:
*-š- > š
Examples: αζγαþ- “to dissent” (?) < *uz-gaša- (?), λαþνο “gift” < *dāšinV-, νιþαλμο
“seat” < *ni-šadman-, παχþιιο “relation by marriage” < pagVšaka-, φριχηþ “to se-
duce” (?) < *fra-xrāšaya-, χαþιγο “clothing” < *xāša-ka-
*-š- > h
Examples: ασνωυο “daughter in law” < *snušā, ειμουανο “these” < *imaišanām,
ναγαυ-/νιγαυ “to hear” < *ni-gauša-, ναυαþτο “to settle” < *ni-šāšta-
The development of *-š- > š is more common in Bactrian. The same
development can also be found in Sogdian.
2.2.2.4 PIr. *h
Generally *h is preserved in both initial and internal position:
*h > h
Examples: υαβισο “much, many” < *harwa-wispa-34, υαζαρο “thousand” <
*hazāhra-, υαμγο “same” < *hama-ka-, παδουαμονδο “boundary” < *pāti-ham-ant-
iya-, πιδοοαυανο “request” < *pati-wahana-
It seems that *h could have disappeared in some cases. In the case of the word
“month”, we observe both developments, that is, it can be preserved, such as in μαυο
“month” < māhV-, or it can disappear, as in μαο “month” < māhV-. A word-initial
*h is lost very often, in this case it is possible that examples might be loanwords
from Middle Persian.
In the following examples, word initial *h is lost: *αλο, αλα- “with” < *hadā-,
αλωγδο “fully privileged”< *hadā-uxta- “possessing (the right of) speech”, αγγαργο
“property” < *ham-kāraka-, αγγιτι “to receive” < *ham-kašta-, αμβαγδο “to give
away” < *ham-baxta-
There are also other examples of the omission of h. It seems that *h can have
disappeared before a long vowel:
Examples: ναμαγγο “dowry” < *namah-āna-ka-, οασαρο “market” < *wahā-
čarana-
34 Suggested by Durkin-Meisterernst.
2.2.3 PIr. Sonorants
Table 4. Proto-Iranian Sonorants
PIr. Both initial and internal position

Bac. script Phonetic value
m μ m
n ν n
r ρ r
w ο w
y ι y
2.2.3.1 PIr. *m, *n

The Olr. nasals are preserved in Bactrian.
*m > m
Examples: μαλαχο “locust” < *madaxa-, μιργο “chicken” < *mṛga-, μανο “mind” <
*māna-, αζγαμο “produce” < *uz-gāma-, καδαμο “whatever” < *katāma-, κιμ- “to
want” < *kāmaya-
*-n- > n
Examples: νακανδο “dug” < *ni-kanta-, ναμαγο “list” < *nāmaka-, ναμο “name” <
*nāman-, κινο “revenge” < *kainā-, καρανο “direction, side” < *karāna-
2.2.3.2 PIr.*r
*r is preserved in Bactrian:
*-r- > -r-

Examples: ραγο “plain” < *rāgā-, ραζ- “to call” < *rāza-, ρωσο “day” < *raučah-,
αβαρ- “to bring” < *ā-bara-, ανδαρο “other” < *antara-
2.2.3.3 PIr. *w
Bactrian preserves the *w in both initial and internal positions:
*w > w
Examples: οαζ- “to use” < *waza-, οασαρο “market” < *wahā-čarana-, ταοανο
“fine” < *tāwāna-
2.2.3.4 PIr. *y
*y
*y is consistently preserved in Bactrian:
2.3 Consonant clusters 41
*y > y
Examples: ιαοηδανο “eternal” < *yāwai-tāna-, ιαοι, ιαο, ιαοo “grain, corn” < *yawa-
, ιογδιγο “pair” < *yuxta-ka-, ιονο “apprentice” < *yuwan-a- or yūn-a-
2.2.4 Summary of the system of consonants

According to the above discussion and examples, we can summarize the consonant
system in Bactrian as follows:
Table 5. The basic consonantal system
bilabial/ dental alveolar palatal velar/

labiodental glottal
plosive/affricate voiceless p t ts č k
voiced b d dz ǰ g
fricative voiceless f θ s š x
voiced β δ z ž γ
nasal m n ƞ
glide w l r y h
2.3 Consonant clusters
Table 6. Consonant clusters
PIr. Bac. script Phonetic value Details in Chapter

Plosive + Plosive
gd γδ γd 2.3.1.1
Plosive + Affricate
tč σ and once ζζ ts 2.3.1.2
Plosive + Nasal
gn γν γn 2.3.1.3
Plosive + Approximant
dy λ l 2.3.1.4
Plosive + Trill
dr λρ, δρ lr, dr 2.3.1.5
Nasal + Plosive
nt νδ nd 2.3.2.1
ntč nζ nz (?) 2.3.2.1
nd νδ nd 2.3.2.1
mb μβ mv 2.3.2.1

mk γγ ƞg 2.3.2.1
Nasal + Fricative
nθ υ h 2.3.2.2
ns σ s (?) 2.3.2.2
Nasal + Affricate
nč νζ ndz 2.3.2.3
nǰ νζ ndz, dz 2.3.2.3
Fricative + Plosives
ft βδ vd 2.3.3.1
xt γδ γd 2.3.3.1
st στ st 2.3.3.1
sp σπ sp 2.3.3.1
št þτ, τ št, t 2.3.3.1
zd ζδ, ζ zd, z 2.3.3.1
šk þκ šk 2.3.3.1
sk σκ sk 2.3.3.1
Fricative + Fricative
xs χσ xs 2.3.3.2
#fš φ, χ f, x 2.3.3.2
-fš- φþ, φ fš, f 2.3.3.2
#xš þ, χ š, x 2.3.3.2
-xš- χþ, χ xš,x 2.3.3.2
#xšn χν xn 2.3.3.2
xšt χτ, χþ xt, xš 2.3.3.2
štk þκ šk 2.3.3.2
Fricative + Affricate
sč σ ʦ 2.3.3.3
Fricative + Nasal
xm χμ xm 2.3.3.4
šm υμ, μ hm, m 2.3.3.4
hm υμ hm 2.3.3.4
zn ζν zn 2.3.3.4
Fricative + Trill
fr φρ fr 2.3.3.5
fra φρο fr(ə) 2.3.3.5
#sr þ š 2.3.3.5
-str- þ š 2.3.3.5
θr υρ, ρ hr, r 2.3.3.5
hr ρ r 2.3.3.5
xr χρ xr 2.3.3.5
Fricative + Approximant
2.3 Consonant clusters 43

θw λφ lf 2.3.3.6
#dw λβ, β lβ, β 2.3.3.6
xw χο xo 2.3.3.6
hw χο xo 2.3.3.6
θy ι i 2.3.3.6
zy ζ z 2.3.3.6
sy# σ s 2.3.3.6
Affricates + Approximant
čy þ, σ š, ś 2.3.4.1
ǰy ζ ž (?) 2.3.4.1
Trill + Plosives
rt ρδ rd 2.3.5.1
rd ρδ, once ρλ rd, once rl 2.3.5.1
Trill + Fricative
rš þ š 2.3.5.2
rž ζ z 2.3.5.2
rz ρζ rz 2.3.5.2
rs ρσ rs 2.3.5.2
rst þτ št 2.3.5.2
Trill + Nasal
rn ρ r 2.3.5.3
rm ρμ rm 2.3.5.3
Approximant + r
wr ρ r 2.3.6.1
2.3.1 Combination with plosives

Some typical cases of the development of consonant clusters are listed here:
2.3.1.1 Plosive + Plosive
*gd
*gd > γd
Example: λογδο “daughter” < *dugdā
2.3.1.2 Plosive + Affricate
*-tč-
*-tč- > ts <σ> and once <ζζ>

Examples: γασικο “concubine” < *gāta-čī-35, λοχσο “pail” < *duxta-čī, παρσο
“back, afterwards” < *paršti-čī-, λαρσο “illness” < *darta-čiya-, ποζζο “debt” <
*partu-čī- or *partu-čiya-
2.3.1.3 Plosive + Nasal
*-gn-
*-gn- > γn
Example: οιγνο “famine” < *waignā-
2.3.1.4 Plosives + Approximant
*-dy-
*-dy > l
Example: μιλανο “middle” < *madyāna(ka)-
2.3.1.5 Plosives + Trill
*dr
*dr > lr (or dr)

Old Iranian *dr had developed to <λρ> = [lr], <δδρ> = [dr] and <δρ> = [đr]. It seems
that [lr] is older than [dr] and [đr]. A good example showing this development is the
word λρογο/δδρογο < *druwa-ka- “good health”. λρογο occurs very often in old
texts between 359 and 472 A.D., whereas δδρογο is attested in a document from 700
A.D. (document T).36 Another example is λρωγο/δδρωγο “falsehood” < *drauga-.
35 Sims-Williams used the term “affectionate suffix” for -ακο/-ικο. This suffix is used in two
words in Bactrian, as in the word in the above example and also in ζαδακο/ζαδικο “child”
(Sims-Williams 2007: 210). It seems that in this case, Bactrian does not have a palatalized final
consonant. If we accept that this is the same affectionate suffix as -ak in Persian, then in this
case, we have a combination of two suffixes, that is, -aka-ka-, and for this reason, the outcome
is -ακο/-ικο and not -αγο or -ιγο. The same situation can be observed in κασοκο “little” <
*kasu-ka-. In this regard, it also seems that we have a suffix as *-aka-ka-; otherwise, the out-
come should be κασογο.
36 δδρογο is also attested in another document (jh). The date of this document is not clear, but
according to Sims-Williams, jc-ji are all shown to be late by the doubling of δ before palatal
vowels and the use of the letter transliterated Δ. Cf. Sims-Williams 2007: 26.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
HIRVIKANGAS (tuntemattomalle)
Olen saanut määräyksen vangita teidät.
TUNTEMATON (hämmästyen)
Ja niistä syystä?
HÄRMÄ
Varkaudesta.
HELLA
Ooh!
(Vaipuu jakkaralle istumaan.)
LÖVENBORG
Mutta sehän on mahdotonta!
ÄÄNIÄ
Se ei ole totta! — Se on erehdys! — Tämä on hävytöntä

mielivaltaa!
(Melua.)
HÄRMÄ
Hiljaa! Täällä puhuu vain yksi kerrallaan!
LÖVENBORG
No, selittäkää sitten edes.
HIRVIKANGAS
Minä vangitsen teidät luutnantti Härmän ilmiannon johdosta. Teitä

syytetään yhtiölle kuuluvan rahalähetyksen avaamisesta ja 500
markan anastamisesta.
HÄRMÄ
Herra Tynjälä voi todistaa, että niin on tapahtunut.
TYNJÄLÄ (hämillään)
Se on kyllä totta… mutta…
HÄRMÄ
Ei mitään muttaa! Asiahan on selvä. Pistäkää helyt miehen käsiin.
HIRVIKANGAS (viittaa poliisille, joka asettaa käsiraudat

tuntemattoman käsiin. Kaikki karkkoutuvat hänen ympäriltään.)
NÄRVÄNEN
No jo meni mies piloille.
KARMALA (päätään pudistaen)
Täällä ymmärretään kyllä kaikenlaisia koiruuksia, muttei

varkautta…
EEVA (Tynjälälle)
Voi, Yrjö, onko se mahdollista?
TYNJÄLÄ (pudistaa synkännäköisenä päätään.)
HELLA
Ei, ei, tämä on hirveä erehdys!
TUNTEMATON (kirkkaasti)
Saan kai minäkin puhua?
HIRVIKANGAS
Tietysti.
TUNTEMATON
Ensiksikin kiellän jyrkästi tehneeni mitään sellaista.
HÄRMÄ
Todistakaa se.
TUNTEMATON
Todistamisvelvollisuus on teidän eikä minun.
HIRVIKANGAS
Sitähän ei kukaan kielläkään.
TUNTEMATON
No, todistakaa sitten, että tuo kadonnut summa oli lähetyksessä
saadessani sen.
HÄRMÄ (ilkeästi)
Ei niin nopeasti herrani. Mitäs todistavat murretut sinetit?
TUNTEMATON
Tässä tapauksessa sitä, etteivät ne ole ehjiä olleetkaan.
HÄRMÄ
Heittiö! Tahdotteko te uskotella, että kukaan sulkee lähetyksen

sinetillä välittämättä kulkeeko se eheänä vai ei.
TUNTEMATON (painavasti)
Niin… jos se oli tarkoitettukaan lähettää eheänä.
HELLA (äkkiä älyten asian)
Minä aavistan jotain. Oo, niin kurjaa!
HIRVIKANGAS
Tämä väittely on turhaa. Tutkintohan sen selvittää.
HELLA (isälleen)
Minä uskon, että hän on syytön. Älä anna heidän vangita häntä.
LÖVENBORG
Käsittämätöntä tämä minustakin on. Noin ei seiso syyllinen.
HELLA
Maksa heille tuo summa ja sano, että he laskevat hänet vapaaksi.

Olemmehan hänelle kiitollisuudenvelassa niin paljosta.
LÖVENBORG
Se on totta. — Kuulkaahan herrat, jos minä maksan hänen

puolestaan kaikki, niin voittehan laskea hänet vapaaksi?
HIRVIKANGAS
Kyllä, jos ilmiantaja luopuu kanteestaan.
LÖVENBORG
Tietysti hän luopuu. Mitä sanoo luutnantti?
HÄRMÄ
Olen pahoillani, mutta pelkään, ettei minulla ole siihen oikeutta.
LÖVENBORG
Miksei ole? Suoritanhan minä kaiken.
HÄRMÄ
Ei, minä en voi. Katsokaas, yksi viisisatanen ei paljoakaan merkitse

yhtiölle. Mutta asian periaatteellinen puoli, nähkääs.
LÖVENBORG
Hiiteen kaikki periaatteet! Juuri viisisataset muodostavat teidän

yhtiön periaatteet. Mitään muita ei sillä ole… Suostutteko vai ette?
HELLA
Suostukaa minun tähteni! Hänhän pelasti henkeni ja tahtoisimme

sen jollain tavalla hänelle palkita. Ottakaa korvaus kaikesta ja
laskekaa hänet vapauteen.
HÄRMÄ (tekopyhästi)
Teidän jalomielisyytenne on kyllä kaunista, mutta onko se viisasta?

Te saatte minut vain tuskalliseen asemaan, neiti… Minä en
todellakaan voi.
LÖVENBORG (suuttuneesti)
Tuntuapa siltä kuin olisi teistä hyvin tähdellistä saada tuo mies
vankilaan.
HÄRMÄ
Mutta mitä te ajattelette minusta?
LÖVENBORG
Niin, sitä minä, hitto soikoon, ajattelen enkä voi muuta!
TUNTEMATON (lujasti)
Älkää tuhlatko enemmän sanoja tuolle miehelle! Hän ei ole sen
arvoinen.
HELLA
Mutta kuinka käy sitten teidän?
TUNTEMATON
Minä kiitän teitä hyvästä tarkoituksestanne. Mutta tätä miestä

vastaan taistellaan toisilla keinoilla.
HÄRMÄ
Kylliksi jo suunsoittoa! Viekää mies säilyyn.
HIRVIKANGAS
Asiasta on ensin laadittava pöytäkirja. Te, konstaapeli, pidätte

silmällä vangittua. Ja ehkä me menemme tuonne toiseen
huoneeseen.
(Lövenborg. Hella, Eeva ja Härmä, poistuvat vasemmalle.)
12:des kohtaus.
Tuntematon, Tynjälä, Vikki-Kalle y.m.
TUNTEMATON (istuen etualalle)
Vai niin… tuo mies toimii ripeämmin kuin luulinkaan.
TYNJÄLÄ (lähestyen)
Tahtoisin hiukan puhua kanssanne.
TUNTEMATON
Niin minäkin.
TYNJÄLÄ
En tunne teitä, mutta olen pitänyt teitä rehellisenä miehenä.
TUNTEMATON
Siinä ette ole erehtynytkään.
TYNJÄLÄ (katsellen häntä terävästi)
Kumminkin on tapahtunut asioita, jotka todistavat aivan toista.
TUNTEMATON (on kestänyt katseen)
Siltä todellakin näyttää.
TYNJÄLÄ
Mitenkä selitätte tämän?
TUNTEMATON
Minusta tämä tapaus olisi jonkun muun selvitettävä kuin minun.

Toin teille lähetyksen sellaisena kuin sain sen, edes tuntematta sen
sisällystä!
TYNJÄLÄ
Mitenkä tämä on sitten tapahtunut?
TUNTEMATON
Se on viholliseni työtä.
TYNJÄLÄ
Hyvä Luoja, sehän on kamalaa!
TUNTEMATON
Minut tahdotaan raivata pois tieltä.
TYNJÄLÄ
Minä aavistin sitä!… Mutta kuinka voitte todistaa sen?
TUNTEMATON
Se käy vaikeaksi. Tuo konna on punonut juonensa liiankin hyvin.

Ja tämän kaiken sain siitä, etten uskonut ihmistä tarpeeksi
huonoksi… Mutta täytynee kai koettaa.
TYNJÄLÄ
Voinko auttaa teitä?
TUNTEMATON
Kyllä. Minun on sidottuna vaikea toimia puolestani… Voitteko antaa

minulle valtakirjan, jolla voin teidän nimessänne hankkia eräitä
todistuskappaleita?
TYNJÄLÄ
Kyllä, jos se on tarpeellista!
TUNTEMATON
Se on välttämätöntä. — Haluaisin myöskin puhutella Vikki-Kallea.
TYNJÄLÄ
Minä sanon hänelle…
(Menee pöydän luo kirjoittamaan ja sanoo jotain Vikki-Kallelle.

Kalle lähestyy tuntematonta.)
TUNTEMATON
Tahdotteko tehdä matkan kaupunkiin?
VIKKI-KALLE
No, miksei… hienolla maksulla.
TUNTEMATON
Hankitte postikonttorin kirjoista todistetut otteet, joista näkyy

viimeisten kolmen kuukauden aikana yhtiölle tänne toimitetut
rahalähetykset.
VIKKI-KALLE
Mutta jos ne eivät anna.
TUNTEMATON
Esitätte valtakirjan ja sanotte, että ne tulevat oikeudenkäyntiä

varten.
VIKKI-KALLE
No sillä tavalla?
TUNTEMATON
Tuokaa sitten paperit herra Tynjälälle. Ymmärrättekö?
VIKKI-KALLE
Kyllä vaan!
TUNTEMATON
Hyvä on. Lähtekää heti ja tulkaa mahdollisimman pian takaisin!
VIKKI-KALLE
No, en minä kilometrillä paljon vanhene, kun hyvät sukset saan!
(Ottaa lyhyen palttoon päälleen.)
TYNJÄLÄ (tulee paperi kädessään)
Tässä on tuo paperi!

TUNTEMATON
Antakaa se hänelle.
(Tynjälä antaa paperin Kallelle.)
NÄRVÄNEN
Hei, Vikki, mihin sinä lähdet?
VIKKI-KALLE
Asioille vaan!
(Menee ulos.)
TUNTEMATON
Nyt olen paljon levollisempi! Nyt herra luutnantti, voin tehdä

vastasiirtoni!
TYNJÄLÄ
Luuletteko sen onnistuvan?
TUNTEMATON
On pienen pieni mahdollisuus! Voin ainakin lyödä korttini,, kun

olen varma, että saan ne käsiini. Tuo konna ei ehdi sekottamaan
jälkiään.
(Tynjälä menee vasemmalle.)

13:mas kohtaus.
Edelliset; Tuntematon. Hella.
HELLA (tulee hänen luokseen)
Hyvä Jumala, mitä tämä oikein merkitsee?
TUNTEMATON
Että minulla on tunnoton vihollinen.
HELLA (kauhistuen)
Sehän on hirmuista! Miksi ette sano sitten, että hän vainoo teitä?
TUNTEMATON
Sitä en tee!
HELLA
Minkätähden? Eihän teidän tarvitse säästää häntä!
TUNTEMATON
Ei häntä, vaan toista!
HELLÄ
Teidän täytyy sanoa heille totuus!
TUNTEMATON (katsoen häntä pitkään)

Lapsi!… Silloinhan minun täytyisi sanoa myöskin; miksi hän vainoo
minua… Ja sitä ette kai tahtone.
HELLÄ
Hyvä Jumala!… Siis minun tähteni!
TUNTEMATON
Tämä maailma tahtoo niin mielellään nähdä pahaa kaikessa. Se

vahingoittaisi mainettanne.
HELLA
Ja te kantaisitte ennemmin kahleita kuin antaisitte minua alttiiksi

sellaisille. Oi, te olette liian jalomielinen!
TUNTEMATON
Ei puhuta siitä enää.
HELLA
Mutta kuinka… kuinka käy sitten teidän?
TUNTEMATON
Minulla on eräs pieni toive. Ja voin ainakin taistella puolestani!
HELLA (liikutettuna)
Te olette niin hyvä! Ja minä olen ollut teille niin kiittämätön!…

(Härmä ja toiset tulevat sisään.)
14:jäs kohtaus.
Edelliset, Härmä, Hirvikangas, y.m.
HÄRMÄ
No, näyttää siltä kuin pysyisitte kiinni!
TUNTEMATON (kylmästi)
Se vain näyttää siltä.
HIRVIKANGAS
No niin, te seuraatte nyt minua.
TUNTEMATON
Seis! Minä en ole vielä puhunut kaikkea.
HÄRMÄ
Mitä! tahdotte sitten?
TUNTEMATON
Vielä kerran kysyä, että aijotteko edelleenkin pysyä keksityssä

syytteessänne?
HÄRMÄ
Te kuulitte sen jo.
TUNTEMATON
No, hyvä! Nyt puhumme sitten eräistä toisista viisisatasista, joita

te ette tyhmyydessänne osannut vierittää muiden niskoille.
HÄRMÄ (vimmastuneena)
Mitä sinä uskallat, konna!
TUNTEMATON (hiljaa jäätävän kylmästi)
Puhumme nyt eräistä laskuista. Mutta on ehkä viisainta tehdä se

kahdenkesken.
HÄRMÄ (säpsähtäen)
Sitä te ette voi!
TUNTEMATON
Varmasti.
HÄRMÄ (masentuneena)
Saanko pyytää läsnäolevia poistumaan ja jättämään meidät

kahdenkesken.
Hänellä on jotain puhuttavaa.
(Toiset poistuvat hyvin ällistyneinä.)
15:des kohtaus.
Härmä, Tuntematon.
HÄRMÄ (menee ja tarkastaa onko ovi kiinni)
No, puhukaa, te kiusankappale.
TUNTEMATON
Te iskette nopeasti, herra. Mutta olkoon menneeksi. Olen ryhtynyt

vastaiskuun.
HÄRMÄ
Ja luulette keksineenne sellaisen?
TUNTEMATON (painavasti)
Se putoaa nyt.
HÄRMÄ (tulisesti)
Sitä ette uskalla.
TUNTEMATON
Minun asemassani uskaltaa ihminen mitä tahansa. Vai luuletteko

kenties, että säästän teitä?
HÄRMÄ
Hornanhenkien nimessä, mitä te tarkoitatte?
TUNTEMATON
Nuo murretut sinetit tuskin riittävät todistamaan syylliseksi
puhdasmaineista miestä… varsinkin, jos ilmiantaja on ollut
pidätettynä kavalluksesta.
HÄRMÄ (suunniltaan vihasta ja pelosta)
Se on kirottu valhe!
TUNTEMATON (kylmästi)
On turhaa väitellä asiasta, joka voidaan koska tahansa todistaa.
HÄRMÄ
Mitä te sitten tahdotte?
TUNTEMATON
Kysyä, mitä siitä seuraisi, jos nuo menneet asiat kaivetaan

kätköistään?
HÄRMÄ (koettaen tyyntyä)
No niin, nuo asiat ovat jo vanhentuneet ja sovitetut. Niillä ette

pitkälle pääse, hyvä herra.
TUNTEMATON
Mutta ne ovat joka tapauksessa haitallisia miehelle, joka

tavoittelee ylimetsäherra Lövenborgin tytärtä. Te menetätte
toimenne.
HÄRMÄ
Ennenkuin niin pitkälle tullaan, olette te virunut kuukausia
tutkintovankeudessa. Ja silloin on myöskin saatu selvyys herra
tuntemattomasta. Te menetätte jotain muuta.
TUNTEMATON (raudankylmästi)
No niin, me pelaamme korkeata peliä… Ehkä on parasta, että lyön

viimeisen valttini.
HÄRMÄ (levottomasti.)
Ja mikä se sitten on?
TUNTEMATON
Eräs salaisuus, joka ei ole vanhentunut eikä sovitettu. Jos minä

nyt ilmoittaisin näille miehille, jotka ovat tottuneet sovelluttamaan
erämaan lakia niin uskomattoman helposti, että…
(Kuiskaa jotain hänen korvaansa.)
HÄRMÄ (kuin ukkosen iskemänä)
Perkele!… Sitä te ette voi!
TUNTEMATON
En… Tällä kertaa tyydyn vain ostamaan sillä vapauteni.
HÄRMÄ (mittaillen kuohuissaan lattiaa)
Te ette voi sitä näyttää toteen.
TUNTEMATON
Varmasti. Ja teen sen myöskin. Siis ratkaiskaa, kumpi meistä silloin
tulee raivatuksi pois. Mutta tehkää se pian!
HÄRMÄ
Odottakaa…
(Menee ovelle.)
Nyt voitte tulla,
(Kaikki tulevat sisään.)
16:des kohtaus.
Edelliset. Hirvikangas, Lövenborg y.m.
HÄRMÄ (hämillään)
Olen tullut toisiin ajatuksiin ja olen päättänyt sovinnollista tietä

ratkaista tämän asian.
HIRVIKANGAS
Niinkö…?
HÄRMÄ.
Asia ei ole kumminkaan niin selvä. Enkä viitsi ruveta oikeudessa

rimpuilemaan.
HIRVIKANGAS
Laskemmeko hänet sitten vapaaksi?
HÄRMÄ
Tehkää niin, kumminkin sillä ehdolla; että hän poistuu näiltä

mailta.
HIRVIKANGAS
Luonnollisesti hän suostuu siihen.
(Viittaa poliisille, joka menee irroittamaan käsirautoja.)
TUNTEMATON (temmaten kätensä pois)
Ei niin kiireesti! Minä en luovu näistä koristuksista, ennenkuin

tämä herra on juhlallisesti selittänyt minut syyttömäksi!
HÄRMÄ (vimmoissaan)
Te Vaaditte liikoja! Varokaa!
TUNTEMATON (lujasti)
Sen minä järkähtämättä vaadin ja oleskelen myöskin missä minua

miellyttää.
HÄRMÄ (vastenmielisesti)
No, olkoon sitten! Minä uskon, että on tapahtunut erehdys… ja

että hän on syytön.
TUNTEMATON
No niin, nyt saatte ottaa nämä pois. Nämä eivät sovi, todellakaan
rehelliselle ihmiselle!
(Poliisi irroittaa kahleet.)
KARMALA
Näyttääpä siltä kuin syytetystä olisi tullut tuomari.
LÖVENBORG
Te, herra Härmä, vaihdatte kovin nopeasti periaatteita.
HÄRMÄ (myrkyllisenä)
En luullut teillä olevan syytä valittaa sitä.
LÖVENBORG
Eipä olekaan. Parempi vain, että kunnon mies pelastui

ikävyyksistä.
(Pudistaa epäilevästi päätään.)
HÄRMÄ (kiukkuisesti tuntemattomalle)
Meidän välimme ei ole vielä lopussa.
TUNTEMATON (jäykästi)
Ei. Se on vasta alussa.
TYNJÄLÄ
Olipa hyvä, että asia päättyi näin.
TUNTEMATON
Se ei päättynyt vielä… Pelkäänpä, että tästä tulee vieläkin

pahempaa.
HELLA (puristaen tuntemattoman kättä)
Olen niin sanomattoman iloinen, että, pelastuitte… . Minä kiitän

teitä!
LÖVENBORG
Ja nyt emännät, joko iso pannu on valmis? Minä tarjoan kahvit

koko joukolle!
KAIKKI
Hyvä! Hyvä!
LÖVENBORG
Siirtykäämme siis tuonne toiseen huoneeseen joka sorkka!
(Kaikki poistuvat vasemmalle, jonne Vappu vie rison kahvipannun.)
HÄRMÄ (istuen jakkaralle; synkästi)
Tuo mies syöksee minut turmioon… Hän tietää liian paljon… Hänet
täytyy raivata pois keinoilla millä tahansa…
(Kuuluu liikettä lattian alta; säpsähtää.)
Mitä se on?
(Menee kirstun luo ja kuuntelee.)
Ahaa! Siellä on joku.
(Ottaa revolverin taskustaan ja avaa luukun.)

Ahaa, te käytätte myyrän teitä, huomaan minä! Tulkaapas ylös
sieltä.
17:mäs kohtaus.
Härmä, Salametsästäjä.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ (kömpien esille viluissaan; pyssy kädessä)
Joutuivat koirat jäljilleni!… Ja unohtivat minut tuonne.
HÄRMÄ (silmäillen häntä terävästi)
Hirvenkaataja… vai mitä?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Kuinka paikalle sattuu!
HÄRMÄ
Ja salaviinakauppias ehkä? Tunnustakaa pois vaan, älkää yhtään

ujostelko.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ (irvistellen)
No? vähän kutakin… Eihän sitä auta köyhän.
HÄRMÄ
Eikä teillä taida olla erikoista halua tavata poliisia?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Miksi hitossa muuten olisin ryöminyt tuonne palelemaan.
HÄRMÄ
No, ei ole hullummaksi! Taidatte käsitellä hyvin tuota pyssyänne?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
No, auttavasti. — Mutta ette suinkaan te ole ruununmiehiä?
HÄRMÄ
Miltä kannalta asian ottaa. — Älkää sentään pelästykö… minä en

ole vaarallinen!
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
En minä yhtä miestä pelkääkään.
HÄRMÄ (menee ovelle, kuuntelee ja palaa sitten takaisin)
Taidatte olla sellainen mies kuin tarvitsen… mitä?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Se riippuu tehtävästä.
HÄRMÄ
Se ei ole vaikeata lujahermoiselle miehelle…. Ja te voisitte ansaita

paljon.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Kuinka paljon?
HÄRMÄ
Vähintäinkin viisisataa.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Ja mikä se tehtävä sitten on?
HÄRMÄ (katsoen häntä terävästi)
Vain onnistunut vahingonlaukaus.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ (säpsähtäen)
Laukaus!… Ei, ei, se voisi olla liian vaarallista!
HÄRMÄ
En luullut teidänlaiselle erämaankävijälle mitään liian vaaralliseksi,

kun vain on kysymyksessä raha.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Summa on liian pieni niin vaikeasta tehtävästä.
HÄRMÄ
No, tuhat sitten. Riittääkö se?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
Eikö sentään enemmän?
HÄRMÄ
Tulimmaista! Pidätkö huutokauppaa kanssani, mies! Sinulle olisi

terveellistä muistaa, että voisin toimittaa sinut nimismiehen käsiin!
Hän on tuolla sisällä.
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ (levottomasti)
Älkää hitossa tehkö sitä!
HÄRMÄ
Miettikää. Teitä uhkaa vähimmässä mitassa viidensadan markan

sakko tai vankila, jos nyt joudutte kiinni. Toisessa tapauksessa
ansaitsette kaksi kertaa niin paljon. Saadaksenne sen muulla tavoin,
saatte aika paljon heilua ja palella… Onko vaikeata valita?
SALAMETSÄSTÄJÄ
No, olkoon. Missä minua sitten tarvitaan?
HÄRMÄ
Minä tapaan teidät huomenaamulla kello kuusi tässä lähistöllä.

Silloin kuulette. Mutta menkää nyt joutuen!
(Salametsästäjä poistuu kiireesti.)
— — No, nyt herra tuntematon!

NELJÄS NÄYTÖS.
(Näyttämö sama. On iltapuoli päivää.)
1:nen kohtaus.
Hella, Vappu, Sanna.
HELLA (istuu pöydän luona ja nousee huoaten)
Ei vieläkään… ei vieläkään kuulu! Ja kello on jo kuusi.
(Menee akkunaan.)
VAPPU
No, ovathan nuo saattaneet yöpyäkin sinne Korpiselkään.
SANNA
Usko sinä sellaista! Tämä viipyminen ei ole tavallista, sanokaa

minun sanoneeni.
HELLA (kääntyen)
Te siis luulette siellä tapahtuneen jotain?
SANNA (vakuuttavasti)
Mikä sen tiesi, mitä piru hullulla teettää. Eihän siitä ole pitkä aika,
kun täällä eräs kaupustelija hävisi samalla tavalla.
HELLA
Eikö hänestä sittemmin mitään kuulunut?
SANNA
Keväällä löydettiin ruumis joesta. Sanovat, ettei se sinne kädettä

joutunut.
HELLA
Ush, niin kauheata!
VAPPU (kärsimättömästi)
No, kaakota nyt siinä, vanha kana! Peloitat lapsen ryövärijutuillasi.
SANNA
Enhän minä tahdo sanoa päälliköstä sellaista. Onhan hän hieno

herra.
HELLA (kiivaasti)
Roisto hän on! Minä kyllä tunnen hänet!
SANNA

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*ntč > ndz ....................................................................................................... 45

*-šm- > hm ...................................................................................................... 51

*rm > rm ......................................................................................................... 57

*-āwi- > ā ........................................................................................................ 63

Personal pronoun ............................................................................................. 127

8. Chapter Eight: The verb ................................................................................... 183

1. κηρ-“do, make”. .......................................................................................... 222

1 Following Sims-Williams 1989: 233.

Frankfurt am Main, 2014 Saloumeh Gholami

1 Leriche 1989: 339.

Northern Afghanistan.10 The archaeological discoveries relating to this period point

1.2 Bactrian language and script

Bactrian is an intermediary Middle Iranian language, because it possesses the char-

Table 1 shows an overview of the Iranian languages:

Table 1. Overview of the Iranian languages

Old Western Eastern

In Achaemenian times, in the fifth century B.C., written communication between

10 Sims-Williams 1989b: 344.

1.3 Bactrian sources

17 Sims-Williams 1989b: 345.

The other inscriptions

39 Sims-Williams and Cribb 1996: 97.

2. Lists and accounts

5. Fragments of documents of uncertain type

1.4 Aims and assumptions

60 Cf. Sims-Williams 2007: 170–171.

In the same year, Yoshida wrote a review of Sims-Williams’ Bactrian

64 Sims-Williams 2011: 23–38.

2.2 Simple consonants

In this section, the development of PIr. simple consonants in different positions is

2.2.1 PIr. plosives

2.2.1.1 PIr. *p, *t, *k

Table 2. Proto-Iranian plosives

PIr. Initial position Internal position

*-p- > v and b

*t > d,( đ?)

9 Sims-Williams 1998: 197.

*-k- > g12

2.2.1.2 PIr. *b, *d, *g

2.2.1.3 PIr. *č, *ǰ

22 Sims-Williams 2007: 39.

2.2.2 PIr. fricatives and affricates

2.2.2.1 PIr. *f, *θ, *x

Table 3. Proto-Iranian fricatives and affricates

PIr. Both initial and internal position

PIr. *f and *x are preserved in Bactrian, and *θ has developed to h:

26 According to Sims-Williams, (ǝ) ʦid, Sims-Williams 2011: 247.

2.2.2.2 PIr. *s, *z

30 According to Sims-Williams *faru-tara-.

2.2.3 PIr. Sonorants

Table 4. Proto-Iranian Sonorants

PIr. Both initial and internal position

2.2.3.1 PIr. *m, *n

*-r- > -r-

2.2.4 Summary of the system of consonants

Table 5. The basic consonantal system

bilabial/ dental alveolar palatal velar/

2.3 Consonant clusters

Table 6. Consonant clusters

PIr. Bac. script Phonetic value Details in Chapter

PIr. Bac. script Phonetic value Details in Chapter

PIr. Bac. script Phonetic value Details in Chapter

2.3.1 Combination with plosives

2.2.1.1 PIr. p, t, *k

2.2.1.2 PIr. b, d, *g

2.2.1.3 PIr. č, ǰ

2.2.2.1 PIr. f, θ, *x

PIr. f and x are preserved in Bactrian, and *θ has developed to h:

2.2.2.2 PIr. s, z

2.2.3.1 PIr. m, n