ABSTRACT

Antibiotic resistance is when bacteria change to resist antibiotics that used to

effectively treat them. This makes certain bacterial infections difficult to treat.

Overuse and misuse of antibiotics cause antibiotic resistance. You can help

combat this global health problem by taking these drugs only when your provider

says they’re necessary.

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 INTRODUCTION

The term antibiotic has its origin in the word antibiosis (i.e. against life).

Antibiotics are chemical substances obtained from various species of

microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes) that suppress the growth of other

microorganisms and eventually may destroy them. The probable points of

difference amongst the antibiotics may be physical, chemical, pharmacological

properties, antibacterial spectra, and mechanism of action. They have made it

possible to cure diseases caused by bacteria, such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and

meningitis, and they save the lives of millions of people around the world.

CLASSIFICATION

Antibiotics are classified on the basis of their mechanism of action and by its

chemical nature. Classification Based on

MECHANISM OF ACTION

1. Agents that inhibit the synthesis of bacterial cell wall: These include the

penicillins and cephalosporins that are structurally similar and dissimilar agents,

such as cycloserine, vancomycin, bacitracin and the imidazole antifungal agents.

2. Agents that act directly on the cell membrane of the microorganisms, affecting

permeability, and leading to leakage of intracellular compounds: These include

polymyxin, polyene antifungal agents, nystatin, and amphotericin B that bind to

cell wall sterols.

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3. Agents that affect the function of 30s and 50s ribosomal subunits to cause

reversible inhibition of protein synthesis: These include tetracyclines,

erythromycins, chloramphenicol, and clindamycin.

4. Agents that bind to the 30s ribosomal subunit and alter protein synthesis: These

include aminoglycosides that leads to cell deaths eventually.

5. Agents that affect nucleic acid metabolism: Such as rifamycins, which inhibit

DNA dependent RNA polymerase.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

1. β-lactam antibiotics

2. Aminoglycoside antibiotics

3. Tetracycline antibiotics

4. Polypeptide antibiotics

5. Macrolide antibiotics

6. Lincomycins

7. Other antibiotics

What is antibiotic resistance?

Antibiotic resistance occurs when bacteria change so that antibiotic medicines

can’t kill them or stop their growth. As a result, bacterial infections become

extremely difficult to treat. Antibiotic resistance is a type of antimicrobial

resistance. Fungi, parasites and viruses can also develop drug resistance.

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Your body doesn’t develop antibiotic resistance — bacteria do. When antibiotic

resistance happens, fewer antibiotics are effective against a particular bacterium.

Other antibiotics often help, but it’s important to have as many treatment options

available as possible. It’s also important to begin effective treatment as quickly

as possible for serious infections. If it takes longer for providers to find a

medication that will treat an antibiotic-resistant infection, the outcome can be

more serious.

Antibiotic resistance is dangerous because it reduces treatment options for people

who are sick. It may also delay effective treatment. As a result, you may face:

 Increased risk of severe, extended illness or death.

 Severe medication side effects.

 Longer hospital stays.

 More medical appointments.

 Increased medical costs

WHAT CAUSES ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE?

Bacteria naturally become resistant to medications over time. But certain factors

can speed up the process, including:

 Overuse of antibiotics. Taking antibiotics when you don’t need them

contributes to antibiotic resistance. For instance, viruses cause most sore

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 throats. Antibiotics won’t help. It’s important only to take antibiotics when

your provider says they’re necessary and prescribes them.

 Misuse of antibiotics. Bacteria take advantage of any opportunity to

multiply. If you forget to take one or more antibiotic doses, stop treatment

too soon or use someone else’s medicine, bacteria start reproducing. As

they multiply, they can change (mutate). Mutated bacteria become

increasingly resistant to medicine. Antibiotics can kill the bacteria that

haven’t mutated to resist treatment, but they leave the resistant bacteria

behind.

 Spontaneous resistance. Sometimes, the genetic makeup (DNA) of a

bacterium changes or mutates on its own. The antibiotic doesn’t recognize

this newly changed bacterium and can’t target it the way it should. Or, the

change helps the bacteria fight off the medicine’s effects.

 Transmitted resistance. You can pass a contagious drug-resistant

bacterial infection to someone else. That person now has an infection that

won’t respond to an antibiotic. Usually, there’s a treatment that will work.

But as time passes, the resistant bacteria may be harder to treat.

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WHO IS MOST AT RISK FOR ANTIBIOTIC-RESISTANT

INFECTIONS?

Antibiotic-resistant infections can affect anyone. But certain groups are more at

risk due to their health status or living environment. People more vulnerable to

these types of dangerous infections include:

 Babies, especially those born early.

 Adults over age 65.

 People experiencing homelessness or living in crowded conditions.

 People who have compromised immune systems.

 People who take antibiotics long term.

WHY IS ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE A PROBLEM?

Antibiotic resistance is a concern because it removes tools from the toolkit

healthcare providers use to treat you when you’re sick. If certain bacteria can

resist certain medications, providers need to find other medications to help you

get better. And this isn’t always easy. But to fully understand why antibiotic

resistance matters, it helps to learn how it affects us all on a global scale.

Antibiotic resistance is a global public health problem. That means it can affect

you because it can affect everyone. But individual people don’t become resistant

to antibiotics. Specific types of bacteria do.

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 That’s because, as we all use antibiotics to treat bacterial infections, those bacteria

start to adapt. Think of a friend who likes to throw surprise parties. The first time,

they could easily surprise you or someone else in your group. But after a while,

you pick up on their plans and can sense when a surprise is coming. So, your

friend has to work really hard to make a surprise happen — and they might not

be able to at all.

HOW CAN WE COMBAT ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE?

Healthcare providers and policymakers must do a good amount of the heavy

lifting to change things on a global scale. But that doesn’t mean you’re powerless.

There’s a lot you can do, too. Here are a few tips:

 Practice good hygiene. Protecting yourself from infection can help you avoid

bacterial infections that need antibiotics. The more we use antibiotics as a society,

the more the problem of antibiotic resistance can grow. Handwashing is one

important step you can take. Your healthcare provider can offer additional advice.

 Only take antibiotics when you need them. Antibiotics don’t work against viral

infections. But sometimes, bacterial and viral infections can have similar

symptoms. So, you might think you need antibiotics when you don’t. If you’re

sick, talk to your provider about the type of medication you need and why.

 Get the vaccines your healthcare provider recommends. Currently, there

aren’t vaccines for most bacteria that cause antibiotic-resistant infections. An

exception is the pneumococcal vaccine. This protects you against pneumococcal

people, especially children under age 2 and adults age 65 and older. Other

vaccines are also important, including those (like the flu shot) that protect against

viral infections. Avoiding viral infections can prevent symptoms that may prompt

unnecessary antibiotics.