Science Reviewer 1

Chapter 1
ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

In 1819, Hans Christian Oersted, a professor in the University of Copenhagen, discovered during a
class demonstration that a current carrying wire caused a nearby magnetized compass needle to
deflect. This observation fired up tremendous research on electromagnetism. As a result, the effect
on the motion of conductors placed within a magnetic field (such as in the operation of electric
motors) was also experimented much and paved the way for practical electricity.

Twelve years after this discovery, Michael Faraday conducted his famous induction ring experiment
showing that current can be produced by sources of changing magnetic fields. This is the key
principle to practical generation of electricity. The next activities should help you demonstrate and
explain the operation of electric motors and electric generators that basically work because of the
existing relationship between magnetism and electricity.

Magnetism is commonly attributed to ferromagnetism and electromagnetism depending on the

material and moving charges. Every atom and all moving charges are in constant motion and
therefore has a bit of magnetism due to magnetic spins and domains creating a net magnetic field.

A magnet has two magnetic poles (north and south seeking poles). Unlike poles attract while like
poles repel.

Stroking with a permanent magnet is one of the ways to induce or cause magnetism in an object
that can be magnetized. The polarity of the induced magnetism in the object is opposite to the
polarity of the nearer end of the permanent magnet. Attraction happens after magnetic induction
occurs (magnets attract metals after the metal was induced by magnet).

A magnet attracts, but do not repel unmagnetized ferromagnetic materials such as iron, nickel,
cobalt and some of its alloys like steel and alnico.

Both forces of attraction and repulsion is possible between magnets and between a magnet and a
temporarily magnetized object.

A magnetic field surrounds a magnet. Within this region, the magnet affects another magnet and
other objects that can be magnetized.

The magnetic field is strongest at the poles where the magnetic lines of induction (flux) are closest.
The magnetic field pattern can be shown using iron filings that align along magnetic lines of
induction.

The magnetic lines of induction leave the north-pole and enter the south-pole in close loops and
can be indicated by the north pole of a compass.

The earth acts like a giant bar magnet and has a magnetic field similar to it.

Electricity is a form of energy resulting from the existence of charged particles (such as electrons
or protons), either statically an accumulation of charge or dynamically as a current.

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A charge has an electric field around it where other charges will experience an electromagnetic
force. Like charges repel while unlike charges attract.

Moving charges or current in a wire produces a magnetic field.

An electromagnet is a coil of wire that uses current to produce a strong magnetic field.

The magnetic field patterns of a disk magnet, an electromagnetic nail, a current carrying straight
conductor, and a current carrying coil are similar to that of the single bar magnet.

The magnetic field pattern between the poles of a U-shaped magnet resembles the field pattern
between unlike poles of two bar magnets. Compasses aligned along the magnetic field show that
the lines point from the north to the south poles and back forming close loops.

If the two bar magnets with two unlike poles which are close in between is brought together, the
magnetic field pattern will resemble that of the single bar magnet. Lines from one pole enter the
other pole.

Most refrigerator magnets have a pattern of alternating bands of magnetic field.

If the direction of the current is known, the direction of the magnetic field that is perpendicular to
it and the magnetic force that is perpendicular to both current and magnetic field can be
determined by applying the hand rules.

Using the right hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field follows the direction of the right hand
fingers when the right thumb points in the direction of the conventional current (from positive to
negative).

Using the left-hand rule, the direction of the magnetic field follows the direction of the left hand
fingers when the left thumb points in the direction of the real flow of current (from negative to
positive).

The magnetic field is strongest at the center of a current-carrying coil. The magnetic field
increases in direct proportion to the number of turns in a coil.

The end of the current-carrying coil where the magnetic lines of induction come out acts as the
north pole of the coil.

A magnetic field exerts a force on a current-carrying conductor. Using the right-hand rule, the
direction of this force is in the direction where the palm faces.

The motor effect is shown when a current-carrying conductor within a magnetic field moves in the
direction of the force. The force on a moving current-carrying conductor may be varied by changing
the magnetic field.

An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into rotational mechanical energy. A
simple DC motor can be assembled using a single coil that rotates in a magnetic field. The direct

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current in the coil is supplied via two brushes. The forces exerted on the current-carrying wire
creates a rotation-causing force on the coil.

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. A simple
electric generator is made when a coil or any closed loop of conductor moves through or cuts across
magnetic field lines. The coil will experience an induced voltage or an electromotive force that
will cause a pulsating direct current (DC) to be generated. The pulsating direct current fluctuates in
value but does not change direction.

Electromagnetic induction is a process in which electric current is generated in a conductor by a

moving or changing magnetic field.

A changing magnetic field occurs when there is relative motion between a source of a magnetic
field and a conductor; it does not matter which moves.

A changing magnetic field may also arise from a changing nearby current.

The amount of voltage (EMF) induced when a conductor and a magnetic field are in relative motion
depends on (a) the length L of the conductor or the number of turns in the coil, (b) the strength and
orientation of the magnetic field B relative to the conductor, and (c) The relative velocity v of the
changing magnetic field.

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Chapter 2
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE SPECTRUM

The electric and magnetic fields together accelerating electrons produce electromagnetic
waves. These waves are a combination of electric and magnetic fields. A changing magnetic field
produces an electric field and a changing electric field produces a magnetic field. As accelerated
electrons produce an electric field of a wave, the varying electric field produces the wave’s magnetic
field. Both the electric field and the magnetic field oscillate perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of the propagating wave.

All electromagnetic waves can travel through a medium but unlike other types of waves, they can
also travel in vacuum. They travel in vacuum at a speed of 3 X 108 m/s and denoted as c, the speed
of light. The wave speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by the following equation: v=λf
where v is the wave speed, or c (speed of light) expressed in meters per second, the frequency f is
expressed in Hertz and the wavelength λ is expressed in meters.

Since all the EM waves have the same speed and that is equal to the speed of light, as wavelength
decreases, the frequency of the wave increases. Through the years, the advancement on the
knowledge about electromagnetic waves led us to a modern technological world.

The Electromagnetic Spectrum is a continuum of electromagnetic waves arranged according to

frequency and wavelength. It is a gradual progression from the waves of lowest frequencies to the
waves of highest frequencies. According to increasing frequency, the EM spectrum includes radio
waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays. These waves do
not have exact dividing region.

The different types of electromagnetic waves are defined by the amount of energy carried by the
photons. Photons are bundles of wave energy. The energy of a photon is given by the equation: E=hf
where h is the Planck’s Constant and f is the frequency of the EM wave. The value of the Planck’s
constant is 6.63 x 10-34 J/s. From among the EM waves, the gamma rays have photons of high
energies while radio waves have photons with the lowest energies. With regards to wavelength,
radio waves can be likened to the size of a football field while gamma rays are as small as the nuclei
of an atom.

Radio Waves

Radio waves have the longest wavelength in the electromagnetic spectrum. They are produced by
making electrons vibrate in an antenna. They are used to transmit sound and picture information
over long distances.

Radio waves have a very wide range of wavelengths. The whole region of the radio waves is divided
into smaller regions or wavebands. Each waveband is allocated by law to a specific radio service.
Low frequency waves are suitable for communication over great distances. But the curvature of
the earth limits the range to about 80 kilometers. To extend the range, a repeater is used. The
repeater receives the signal and re-transmits it to the receiving station. High frequency waves can
be reflected by the ionosphere. This enables the waves to be transmitted over great distances.
Medium and high frequency waves are used for broadcasting by local radio stations.

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In a radio station, sound is converted by a microphone into patterns of electric current variations
called audio-frequency (AF) signals. High frequency radio waves called radio-frequency (RF) carriers
can be modulated to match the electronic signal. In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the
radio waves (RF carrier) changes to match that of the audio-frequency signal. This is used in
standard broadcasting because it can be sent over long distances (AM radio). Very high frequency
waves provide a higher quality broadcasting including stereo sound. In this process, instead of the
amplitude of the RF carrier, it is the frequency of the waves that changes to match that of the signal.
This is called frequency modulation (FM radio).

Microwaves

Microwaves can penetrate the atmosphere of the earth. This is the reason why they are used for
satellite communications. Communication satellites travel around the earth at an altitude of
35,000 km above the equator. They move at a speed of 11 300 km/h and revolve around the earth
every 24 hours, the same rate as the rotation of the earth. This makes them appear to be stationary
when seen on Earth. Antennae are mounted to point in fixed directions towards these satellites.
Microwaves signals are transmitted by an antenna to a satellite which amplifies and re-transmits
the signal to an antenna in other parts of the world. This is how we communicate with the rest of the
world.

Microwaves have short wavelengths and are reflected by small objects. This property is used in
radars. Radar is the acronym of radio detection and ranging. A radar system is consisting of an
antenna, transmitter, and a receiver. The antenna whirls around continuously to scan the
surrounding area. The transmitter sends out a narrow beam of microwaves in short pulses. A distant
object reflects some of the signal back to the receiver. The direction to which the signal was received
gives the direction of the object. The distance of the object can be calculated from the time lag
between the transmitted pulse and the reflected pulse.

Terrestrial Communication. Microwaves are used to transmit television news coverage from mobile
broadcast vehicles back to the station. The news crew can also set up a small antenna to send
signals to a communication satellite. This is how news is broadcasted and watched live around the
world.

Microwave oven. In a microwave oven, foods absorb certain microwave frequencies very strongly.
The microwaves penetrate the food being heated. It will agitate the water molecules within the food,
thus creating molecular friction which then produces heat that will cook it.

Infrared

Infrared radiation lies beyond the red end of the visible light. It is emitted by all objects. The amount
and wavelength of radiation depend on temperature. Below 500°C, an object emits only infrared
radiation. Above 500°C, an object glows and emits both infrared and some visible light (red visible
light). Our bodies radiate infrared and under infrared camera or a night vision goggle, our images
appear in variety of colors. The differences in color determine the differences in temperature. For
example, shades of blue and green indicate regions of colder temperature; and red and yellow
indicate warmer temperature.

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Applications of IR radiation:

1. Infrared photographs taken from a satellite with special films provide useful details of the
vegetation on the Earth’s surface.
2. Infrared scanners are used to show the temperature variation of the body. This can be used for
medical diagnosis.
3. Infrared remote controls are used in TVs, video, cassette recorders, and other electronic
appliances.
4. Night-vision goggles use IR.
5. Autofocus cameras have transmitter that sends out infrared pulses. The pulses are reflected by
the object to be photographed back to the camera. The distance of the object is calculated by the
time lag between the sending and receiving of pulses. The lens is then driven by a built-in motor to
adjust to get the correct focus of the object.

The Visible Spectrum

When white light passes through a prism, it is separated into its constituent colors: the red, orange,
yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet. These colors do not distinctly separate but they continuously
change from red to violet. Red color has the longest wavelength from among these colors and violet
has the shortest.

Our eyes are sensitive to electromagnetic waves of wavelengths that ranges from 4 x10-7 m to 7 x10-
7
m. This is the range of wavelengths of white light. Thus, the spectrum of white light is therefore
called the visible spectrum.

The Wavelength of the Different Colors of Light

Red 622 to 700 nm
Orange 597 to 622 nm
Yellow 577 to 597 nm
Green 492 to 577 nm
Blue 455 to 492 nm
Violet 390 to 455 nm

Ultraviolet Radiation

Ultraviolet radiation lies just beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum. Ultraviolet waves have
shorter wavelengths than the visible light and carry more energy.

The sun is our main source of ultraviolet radiation but there are also artificial sources of UV light.
Ultraviolet radiation in UV lamps are used by banks to check the signature on a passbook. The
signature is marked on the passbook with fluorescent ink. It becomes visible when viewed under an
ultraviolet lamp. These lamps are also used to identify fake banknotes.

Ultraviolet radiation is also used in sterilizing water from drinking fountains. Some washing powder
also contains fluorescent chemicals which glow in sunlight. This makes your shirt look whiter than
white in daylight.

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Ultraviolet radiation in sunlight produces vitamin D in the skin and gives us tanning effect. But since
UV rays have high energy, it could be harmful to some extent. It could burn the skin and hurt our
eyes. Overexposure to UV radiation may cause skin cancer. Suntan or sunscreen lotions serve as
filters to protect the body from ultraviolet radiation.

X-rays

X-rays come just after the ultraviolet rays. They are of shorter wavelength but carries higher energy
than the UV. X-rays are produced using an X-ray tube. They are emitted when fast moving electrons
hit a metal target. X-rays were discovered by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgenin 1895. Long wavelength
X-rays can penetrate the flesh but not the bones. They are used in X-ray photography to help
doctors look inside the body. They are useful in diagnosing bone fractures and tumors.

Gamma Rays

Gamma rays lie at the other end of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are shortest in wavelength
and highest in frequency. They carry the highest amount of energy, thus, they are more dangerous.
Gamma rays are emitted by stars and some radioactive substances. They can only be blocked
with lead and thick concrete. Gamma rays are very strong that they can kill living cells.

Gamma rays are used to treat cancer through the process called radiotherapy. They are also used
for sterilization of drinking water.

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Chapter 3
MIRRORS AND LENSES

Reflection is the bouncing off of light rays when it hits a surface like a plane mirror.

Incident Ray. The ray of light approaching the mirror represented by an arrow approaching an optical
element like mirrors.

Reflected Ray. The ray of light which leaves the mirror and is represented by an arrow pointing away
from the mirror.

Normal Line. An imaginary line that can be drawn perpendicular to the surface of the mirror at the
point of incidence where the ray strikes the mirror.

The Law of Reflection states that the angle of the incident ray with respect to the normal line is
equal to the angle of the reflected ray with respect to the normal line.

Plane Mirror. When you face the plane mirror, you will notice that when you raise your right hand, the
image will raise its left hand. This effect is known as the mirror left-right reversal. The left side of the
object appears as the right side of the image and the right side appears as the left. This also explains
why the word “AMBULANCE” in an ambulance car is flipped.

Types of Reflection:

1. Specular/ Regular Reflection. This is a reflection of light on smooth surfaces such as mirrors or
a calm body of water

2. Diffused/Irregular Reflection. This is a reflection of light on rough surfaces such as clothing,

paper, wavy water, and the asphalt roadway.

Reflection on Spherical Mirrors. A curved mirror is a reflecting surface in which its surface is a
section of sphere. There are two kinds of curved mirrors, the concave and the convex mirrors. A spoon
is a kind of a curved mirror with both concave and convex surfaces.

Two Kinds of Spherical Mirrors:

1. The Concave Mirror. It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges away from the light
source. It is called Converging Mirror because the parallel incident rays converge or meet/intersect
at a focal point after reflection.

2. The Convex Mirror. It is a curved mirror in which the reflective surface bulges towards the light
source. It is called Diverging Mirror because the parallel incident rays diverge after reflection. When
extending the reflected rays behind the mirror, the rays converge at the focus behind the mirror.

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Images Formed by Curved Mirrors

In locating the image formed in curved mirror graphically, three important points are considered.
Center of Curvature, C - the center of the sphere of which the mirror is part. Its distance from the
mirror is known as the radius. Vertex, V - the center of the mirror. Focal Point/ Focus, F – the point
between the center of the curvature and vertex. Its distance from the mirror is known as the focal
length, f. Images formed in a curved mirror can be located and described through ray diagramming.
The P - ray, F - ray, C - ray, and the V - ray are the four Principal Rays in curve mirrors.

1. P - Ray. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis is reflected passing through the focus, F.
2. F - Ray. A ray of light passing through the focus, F is reflected parallel to the principal axis.
3. C - Ray. A ray of light passing through the center of curvature, C reflects along its own path.
4. V - Ray. A ray of light directed to the vertex reflects at equal angle from the principal axis.

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed beyond c is located between c
and f, inverted, smaller and is real

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed at c is located at c, inverted, same
size and is real

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed between c and f is located beyond
c, inverted, bigger and is real

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed at f is located at infinity or no
image is formed.

The image formed by a concave mirror when the object is placed between f and v is located at the
back of the mirror, upright, bigger and is virtual.

At any location in front of the convex mirror, the image formed is always located at the back of the
mirror, upright, smaller and is virtual.

Refraction of Light in Lenses

Types of Lenses

1. Convex Lens. It is thicker in the center than edges. It forms real images and virtual
images depending on position of the object. It is also called Converging Lens because the light that
passes through it tends to converge at a particular point called the focal point.

2. Concave Lens. It is thicker at the edges and thinner in the center. It forms upright and reduced
images. It is also called Diverging Lens because the light that passes through it tends to diverge at
a particular point called the focal point.

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Images Formed by Lenses

In locating the image formed in lenses graphically, two important points are considered. Vertex, V
The geometric center of the lens. Focal point/ Focus, F – point where light rays converge (or
appears to converge) when parallel light rays pass through a lens. Its distance from the vertex is
called the focal length. The ‘Three Most Useful Rays’ in Lenses are the following:

1. P - Ray. A ray of light parallel to the principal axis is refracted passing through the principal
focus, F behind the lens.
2. F - Ray. A ray of light passing through the focus, F in front of the lens is refracted parallel to the
principal axis.
3. V - Ray. A ray of light passing through the exact center of the lens (vertex) continue to travel in
the same direction.

The image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed beyond 2f’ is located between 2f
and f, inverted, smaller and is real.

The image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed at 2f’ is located at 2f, inverted,
same size and is real.

The image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed between 2f’ and f’ is located
beyond f, inverted, bigger and is real.

The image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed at f’ is located at infinity or no
image is formed.

The image formed by a convex lens when the object is placed between f’ and v is located on the
same side of the lens as the object, upright, bigger and is virtual.

At any location in front of the concave lens, the image formed is always located on the same side
of the lens as the object, upright, smaller and is virtual.

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