What Are Irreversible Processes?

An irreversible process can be defined as a process in which the system and the surroundings do not
return to their original condition once the process is initiated. Take an example of an automobile engine
that has travelled a distance with the aid of fuel equal to an amount ‘x’. During the process, the fuel burns
to provide energy to the engine, converting itself into smoke and heat energy. We cannot retrieve the
energy lost by the fuel and cannot get back the original form. There are many factors due to which the
irreversibility of a process occurs, namely:

1. The friction that converts the energy of the fuel to heat energy
2. The unrestrained expansion of the fluid prevents from regaining the original form of the fuel Heat
transfer through a finite temperature, the reverse of which is not possible as the forward process,
in this case, is spontaneous
3. Mixing of two different substances that cannot be separated as the intermixing process is again
spontaneous in nature, the reverse of which is not feasible.

Thus, some processes are reversible while others are irreversible in nature, depending upon their ability
to return to their original state from their final state.

Examples of Irreversible Processes

A few examples of Irreversible Processes are:

 Relative motion with friction

 Throttling
 Heat transfer
 Diffusion
 Electricity flow through a resistance

Nanomachine (nanite)

A nanomachine, also called a nanite, is a mechanical or electromechanical device whose dimensions are
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measured in nanometers (millionths of a millimeter, or units of 10 meter).

Nanomachines are largely in the research-and-development phase, but some primitive devices have

been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately 1.5 nanometers across, capable of

counting specific molecules in a chemical sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines will likely

be in medical technology, where they could be used to identify pathogens and toxins from samples of

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body fluid. Another potential application is the detection of toxic chemicals, and the measurement of their

concentrations, in the environment.

The microscopic size of nanomachines translates into high operational speed. This is a result of the

natural tendency of all machines and systems to work faster as their size decreases. Nanomachines

could be programmed to replicate themselves, or to work synergistically to build larger machines or to

construct nanochips. Specialized nanomachines called nanorobots might be designed not only to

diagnose, but to treat, disease conditions, perhaps by seeking out invading bacteria and viruses and

destroying them.

Another advantage of nanomachines is that the individual units require only a tiny amount of energy to

operate. Durability is another potential asset; nanites might last for centuries before breaking down. The

main challenge lies in the methods of manufacture. It has been suggested that some nanomachines

might be grown in a manner similar to the way plants evolve from seeds.

Nanomachines represent one of the most fascinating topics in of nanotechnology. These tiny devices
provide diverse opportunities towards a wide range of important applications, ranging from targeted
delivery of drug payloads to environmental remediation. This book addresses comprehensively the latest
developments and discoveries in the field of nano- and microscale machines. It covers the evolution of
nanomachines in general from a historical perspective, the fundamental challenges for motion at the
nanoscale, different categories of biological and synthetic nano/microscale motors based on different
propulsion mechanisms, ways for controlling the movement directionality
and regulated speed, followed by detailed of major areas for which nanomachines has the potential to
make a transformational impact. It ends with a futuristic look at nano/microscale machines and into their
impact on the society.

Nature has evolved various forms of biological nanomachines - small-scale devices composed of
chemically reacting biological molecules. Simply referred to as bionanomachines in this book, they
consist of molecules that are abundantly found in living organisms, such as carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids. They are in the nanometer to micrometer range and thus not visible to the
human eye. They are machines capable of biochemical interaction with molecules. Figure 2.1 shows
some examples of bio-nanomachines, including protein molecules that catalyze chemical reactions (i.e.,
enzymes), regulate flow of molecules (transport channels), or produce motion using chemical energy
(motor proteins); deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules that store genetic
information; vesicles that mediate the transport of protein molecules within cells; and viruses that infect
biological cells to replicate. Bio-nanomachines in this book also extend to cellular organelles that provide
specific functions within cells and even whole cells that are built from billions of bio-nanomachines
capable of interacting with a wide variety of molecules in the environment.

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A single bio-nanomachine can be viewed as a functional unit that interacts with molecular signals [1,2]. A
bio-nanomachine may respond to input signals by transmitting output signals, changing its internal state,
or modifying its functionality. For instance, an enzyme, a catalyst of chemical reactions, responds to
specific substrate molecules by producing product molecules. A DNA molecule, a storage of genetic
information, responds to molecular signals in the cell by changing its state by switching on and off
particular genes.

Nanomachines are very small machines, the dimensions or components of which are measured in
nanometers. A nanomachine may be larger than 1,000 nanometers, but usually no larger than 10,000
nanometers (10 microns). Designing and fabricating nanomachines is a goal in the large and well-funded
discipline of nanotechnology, though many workers in nanotechnology take the less ambitious route of
designing passive nanoscale materials. A nanomachine refers to an active, functioning system with
nanoscale components.

The human body is filled with nanomachines, arguably making up most of its mass. A cell might be
considered a nanomachine because it consists of nanoscale components. An even more obvious
nanomachine would be ribosomes, molecular factories that synthesize proteins. Ribosomes are about 20
nanometers in diameter. Other biological nanomachines would be bacteria and viruses.

Currently, nanomachines are still essentially in the research-and-development phase, though researchers
are very hopeful for their long-term potential. One nanomachine, announced in April 2008 by researchers
from the Nano Machine Center at the California NanoSystems Institute at UCLA, can releases anti-cancer
drugs within the cell when activated by light. The machine, called a nanoimpeller, consists of mesoporous
silica nanoparticles with its pores coated in azobenzene, a chemical that can switch between two
different positions depending on exposure to light. The interior of the nanoimpeller was filled with an anti-
cancer drug, then introduced into human cancer cells in culture, where they were coaxed by light
exposure to release their payload. Varying the intensity and wavelength of the light gave the researchers
precise control over their nanomachine.

Other interesting nanomachines have been built by Nadrian Seeman's lab at the New York University
Department of Chemistry. Using DNA, Dr. Seeman has produced active grid arrays that alternate
between configurations, and even a DNA "walker" that can move forward on molecular "legs." Seeman's
lab has demonstrated the versatility of DNA as a building material for nanomachines.

Though nanomachines are just in the research stage, their largest long-term impact could be in the areas
of manufacturing, medicine, and the military. If nanomachines could be coaxed into self-replicating, or
could be built in large quantities using self-assembly, and programmed into cooperating to create objects,
they could be formed into a custom manufacturing system with far more capabilities than anything in
existence today. Such a hypothetical desktop device has been called a nanofactory.

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 https://dataconomy.com/2022/03/14/what-nanomachines-promise-for-the-humanity/

What is a nanomachine?
The smallest being virus-sized, nanomachines are orders of magnitude smaller than a human cell, which
is usually measured in micrometers (one-millionth of a meter). Researchers and engineers have turned to
natural biological technology for inspiration while developing nanorobots since most robotic construction
techniques would be impossible at this scale. We already have billions of organic nanobots inside us all
the time, powering the many functions of our cells. Ribosomes, for example, are organic versions of
biological machines at the nanoscale.

Nanites aren’t your typical mechanical robots. They are not constructed of metals or other materials that
spring to mind when you think about a robot. Instead, nanomachines are built from DNA or other
biological materials that seamlessly interact with biologic environments in specific ways to accomplish
certain results.

How do nanobots work?

The health sector is where nanobots are primarily used. However, they’re utilized in various sectors,
including climate control and the military. Medical applications include healing wounds, atomic-scale
surgical equipment, and going through the body to discover and treat problems. They can also decrease
toxicity and extend the drug’s sustained release period.
Types of nanites
Today’s molecular machines operate due to external stimuli, such as chemical reactions, temperature
changes, or radio waves. Nanobots can be seen in many different forms:

 Switch type nanomachines using things like temperature, UV light, or chemical reactions to change from
an off position to an on through the process of conformational changes.
 Nanomotors use nanotechnology to move and control molecules in the surrounding environment.
Nanomotors can utilize the energy created by the conformational change to produce physical movement
in neighboring molecules, making the nanomotor more complex than the nanorobotic switch.
 Nanorobotic shuttles are machines that transport specific drugs or chemicals to a certain
destination. Scientists are attempting to connect these with nanomotors to control their movement
in biological environments more precisely.
 Nanorobotic cars are the most advanced nanodevices to date. These machines look and work
like regular cars, but they are tiny to operate in biological environments. The four-wheeler can
move with light or chemistry. Scientists are still working on better controlling these devices, and
light seems to be the answer.
The goal of these various nanorobotic components is to build collective nanomachines that collaborate to
achieve goals on a macro level. In a manner comparable to an ant colony, a group of nanomachines can
move things or overcome obstacles that would be impossible for a single individual. Collective

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nanomachines will perform tasks far beyond the capabilities of even the most complex components we
have now.

Nanomachines in health and medicine

Organisms are predictable closed systems. Scientists have been able to predict how compounds will
react once introduced into the system and build tiny gadgets that can execute complex activities
undetectable to the naked eye.

Nanomachines can disrupt the cellular barrier of a tumor, causing an increase in permeability and
retention (EPR effect) through the vascular endothelial cell gap. This action is targeted at the detection of
cancer at the cellular level. The long reach paired with the ability to pass through several anatomic
barriers and films allows for greater drug efficacy for current medications. The EPR function is beneficial
for medical imaging since it uses magnetic or contrast nanorobots that may be easily guided to the tissue
or structure of interest to enhance existing imaging technology.

Researchers have already built tiny robots powered by the human body that can store data, detect their
surroundings, and carry out computations. Autonomous DNA nanomachines can perform biological
activities in live cells, such as detecting a particular microRNA sequence found in breast cancer cells. As
some nanites may recognize breast cancer cells in trace amounts, it is expected that they will be able to
find target molecules missed by other methods in the future.

What is DNA origami?

DNA origami is a popular nanotechnology method with a wide range of applications. It refers to the
practice of building DNA strands into specific two- and three-dimensional shapes through annealing
templates that include hundreds of DNA strands. DNA origami is a popular nanotechnology method with a
wide range of applications. It refers to the practice of building DNA strands into specific two- and three-
dimensional shapes through annealing templates that include hundreds of DNA strands. This approach is
typically used to engineer cancer-fighting nanobots. However, this technique is only marginally more
accurate than standard chemotherapy. The nanobots are challenging to control once they enter a living
creature and are too tiny to be detected using conventional X-ray equipment.

Future of nanomachines
Nanotechnology is expected to provide us with extraordinary new augmented abilities, with molecular
machines allowing us to sense and interact with our surroundings in ways that haven’t been possible.
Futurist Ray Kurzweil predicted in 2005 that nanotechnology will enable humans to live forever by 2040,
giving us superhuman powers. He believes nanobots might replace native blood cells and back up
memories while also replenishing aging cells, essentially curing dementia.

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Similarly, Dr. Robert Freitas, a nanotechnology expert at the University of Texas at Austin’s College of
Pharmacy and Technology, claimed that by 2050, these tiny robots will organize our blood supply. They’ll
be able to repair wounds or even cause new tissue growth in parts of the body where large veins have
been blocked off.
The application of nanobots to consumer technology has also been discussed, such as a smart window.
That idea would take the form of windows coated with nanobots that can automatically clean the glass
and regulate the room temperature for greater energy efficiency. But then again, these are still early days
for such a technology.

Most researchers and experts think nanorobotic applications will be incorporated into everyday social
activities by the 2030s. Researchers must address problems such as communication, swarm behavior,
mass production, biocompatibility, biodegradability, and control of nanorobots in deep tissues to realize
the nanomachine revolution.

Nanomachines represent one of the most fascinating topics in of nanotechnology. These tiny devices
provide diverse opportunities towards a wide range of important applications, ranging from targeted
delivery of drug payloads to environmental remediation.

https://www.news-medical.net/life-sciences/What-are-DNA-Nanomachines.aspx

What are DNA Nanomachines?

DNA has very high specificity, so that a particular DNA sequence will always bind to its complementary
DNA sequence. This can, therefore, be used to design nanomachines with high specificity by using
specific DNA sequences. It is even possible to create branches off a DNA double helix, which makes it
possible to create 3D structures.

It can be considered that some biological processes are driven by biological machines, and researchers
have sought to use naturally occurring machines as the basis of molecular machines that can potentially
connect the molecular world to the macroscopic world.

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In 2019, researchers built a one-wheeled vehicle out of DNA rings. The two rings are linked like a chain
and can well be recognized. At the center is T7 RNA Polymerase. Image Credit: Julian Valero, The
University of Bonn.

DNA nanomachines?

Because it is possible to precisely shape DNA, it is feasible to position a functional group in a precise
location; for example, this has been done to create molecular electronic circuits, near-field optical devices
and enzyme networks. So, is it possible to make biological nanomachines based around DNA?

DNA is not the obvious choice for biological nanomachines. Larger structures like proteins are able to
carry out catalytic reactions and RNA has the ability to form weak bonds and thus secondary structures,
which in turn can stabilize structures. However, DNA has an advantage that its structure is simple,
therefore it is easy to control how the nanomachine is assembled.

Types of DNA nanomachines

Molecular switches

This is the simplest of the DNA nanomachines, which alternate between two states according to changes
in its environment, or by signaling.

Rotational movement can be produced from DNA by changing how the DNA strand twists. C-G
nucleotides within DNA can be flipped between the “right-handed” B-form and the “left-handed” Z-form.
Low temperature and high salt concentration can induce this switch. An early DNA nanomachine used
this mechanism to change the angle between two DNA “tiles”.

Linear motion can also be made by utilizing how DNA twists; Yang and co. created a DNA nanomacine
made of a closed DNA loop attached to the arms of a Holliday junction, which is a four-arm structure
containing identical DNA sequences at opposite arms. Changes in the isomerization between the
matching base-pairs, by breaking at one side and then re-forming on the other, can allow this Holliday
junction to migrate.

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In the study by Yang and co., the intercalating dye ethidium bromide was used to change the
conformation of the DNA loop. This causes the DNA strand to lengthen and partially unwind. Migration at
the Holliday junction relieved the stress caused by the conformational change caused by ethidium
bromide.

There is also the possibility of using these devices to report on changes in the environment; for example,
conformational change can be triggered by changes in pH. In this scenario changes in pH could result in
the binding of a single-stranded DNA to a DNA double helix, resulting in a triple helix. There is a
possibility that, in the future, by using a combination of these sensors it might be possible to create a
smart drug delivery system.

Clocked walkers

The DNA nanomachines described abvoce were based on one conformational change, but what could be
achieved if multiple conformational changes were possible? A simple example consists of three single-
stranded DNA anchors with a double-stranded DNA scaffold.

Each of these anchors have unique DNA sequences, which can act as “controls”, and when specific DNA
fragments attach to the scaffold this can cause a conformational change to straighten a specific anchor.
This can then result in a directional movement along a linear track.

Molecular motors

Molecular motors already exist, such as myosin, and these use energy generated by ATP hydrolysis as
power. This has been the inspiration behind trying to create molecular motors based on DNA; for
example, energy generated by breaking the phosphodiester bonds of the DNA backbone can potentially
be used as a power for molecular motors.

An example of a DNA nanomachine

Ma and co. investigated the use of a DNA nanomachine which can function in a cell. This DNA
nanomachine is powered by ATP. The components of the DNA nanomachine were assembled on a gold
nanoparticle.

A hairpin-locked swing arm was added to the gold nanoparticle and this included a “start”. The start is
triggered by an intracellular target molecule, which causes the swing arm to move. A double-stranded
DNA track then responds to the moving swing arm. The authors also noted that this can be used to
visualize microRNA in living cells.

Sources

Bath, J., Turberfield, A. DNA nanomachines. Nature Nanotech 2, 275–284 (2007).

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 b b
Pei-Qiang Ma, Cheng-Pin Liang , He-Hua Zhang , Bin-Cheng Yin * and Bang-Ce Ye, A highly
integrated DNA nanomachine operating in living cells powered by an endogenous stimulus. Chem. Sci.,
2018, 9, 3299-3304.

https://hackernoon.com/nanomachines-the-game-changer-in-pervasive-healthcare-6i3a34w6

Nanomachines: The Game Changer in Pervasive Healthcare

Biological nanomachines are nano-sized tools used for the monitoring, diagnostic, and treatment of
disease at the molecular scale. Biological nanomachines adopt the structure and communication
principles of natural biological cells. From a communication engineering perspective, bionanomachines
are computational devices that work at a nanoscale to perform simple functionalities like environmental
sensing to more complex functionalities like actuation and manipulating the environment (i.e., human
body).

These devices have limited computation power and memory due to their nano size. Yet, their minute size
is an edge for many novel applications, as they can be concealed and implanted in hard to access areas
(such as deep inside the tissue of the human body) in a non-invasive manner. These machines are non-
invasive and are made up of biodegradable material.

The Role of Biological Nanomachines in Pervasive Healthcare

Bionanomachines are resource-constrained devices and cannot perform complex tasks alone. Thus,
bionanomachines communicate with each other to share information and execute designated tasks,
forming a ‘biological nanonetwork’.

Healthcare and biomedical applications are some of the most promising use cases of nanonetworks,
along with many other applications in industrial, environmental, and military domains.

Some of the envisioned biomedical applications of nanonetworks include targeted drug delivery (TDD),
continuous health monitoring, and tissue engineering.

Nanonetworks are envisioned to lead the world to a sophisticated healthcare experience. With the
nanosensors and micro-robots patrolling inside the human body to collect physiological parameters, there
is no need to go to labs to draw blood samples and wait for results.

Even better, if nano actuators are connected to the nano \sensors, they can repair the detected
malfunctioning in the body there and then. Biological nanomachines promise maximum therapeutic
effects with very limited adverse effects. Other macro-scale therapeutics like chemotherapy not only kills
the cancerous cells but also destroys the healthy cells of the human body. Whereas, nanotechnology-
based TDD only targets the tumor sites.

The potential benefits of nanonetworks can be increased when they are connected to external networks
such as the internet. Connecting in body network with external networks enables pervasive healthcare,
where a healthcare provider can monitor the patient remotely from the comfort of their home.

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The healthcare provider can demand physiological parameters like Blood pressure, glucose, ECG at any
time, and can administer commands according to received parameters remotely. Additionally, after the
recent pandemic of Covid-19 and the lockdown regime, there has been an accelerated interest in
exploring remote therapeutics.

Architecture of Bionanomachines

Nanomachines can be fabricated using novel nanotechnology material (i.e., like carbon nanotubes and
graphene nanoribbons) and by reprogramming biological materials like cells, viruses, bacteria,
bacteriophage, erythrocytes, leukocytes, and stem cells or by artificially synthesizing biomolecules like
liposome, nanosphere, nanocapsule, micelle, dendrimer, fullerene, and deoxyribonucleic (DNA) capsule.

Certain design and development factors must be considered during the fabrication of nanomachines.
These factors include the size, shape, stability, and biodegradability of the system.

In biomedical applications, nanomachines are introduced into the blood vessels, from where they traverse
to their targeted location. The smallest blood vessel is a capillary that is 5-10 micrometer in size; hence
the upper bound of nanomachines must be set accordingly.

On the other hand, nanomachines that are less than 5nm can be easily filtered out by kidneys. Thus, the
size of the nanomachine must be propped. Channel characteristics like blood vessel geometry,
elimination, adhesion, reaction, extracellular viscosity must be taken into account as well while fabricating
nanomachines.

Components of Nanomachines

A bionanomachine is comprised of several hardware constituents. All the software and programming of
the nanomachine is included in the information processing unit. The components of nanomachine are
presented below:

Information Processing Unit

The information processing unit contains the programming part of nanomachine, which interprets
command and process data. The functionality and behavior of nanomachine are coded in this unit. The
information processing unit is capable of performing only trivial operations, like Boolean operations using
only one transistor.

Information processing unit for nanomachines is made up of nano-sized transistors like a single atom or
quantum dots. Researchers from Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory have provided a proof of
concept for the smallest transistor which has a gate length of just one nanometer. The processing unit is
analogous to the nucleus of the cell.

Power Unit

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Biological cells already exhibit the natural behavior of energy harvesting. A component of the biological
cell called mitochondria releases Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) as a chemical energy supply to charge
the cell.

Communication Unit

Communication is the basic functionality in any network, Likewise, the communication unit defines its
capability of nanomachine to communicate with the environment. Nanomachines react in response to
external stimuli produced by other nanomachines. To accomplish this, gap junctions located on the outer
surface of the cell enables communication with the extracellular environment.

Memory Unit

The memory unit is narrowly associated with the information processing unit. Nanodevice needs a
memory unit to store sensed data or memory can be used for some configuration and instruction set to be
executed. Some nanomachines might not require memory at all because nanomachines are not
supposed to perform complex computations. The nucleus of the cell can act as a long-term memory unit
and the cytoplasm can perform the short-term memory functionality.

Sensors and Actuators

Sensors continuously interact with the environment by collecting the chemical, physical and biological
changes in the environment. Actuators work closely with the sensors by manipulating the environment in
response to the sensed data. In biological cells, sensing is done by a natural process like ligand-receptor
binding, or cilia can be used as a sensing antenna. Gap junction channels are used for actuation.

Locomotion Unit

Locomotion is the ability of nanomachines to move around in the environment. The locomotion can be
passive via molecular diffusion into the environment or active via molecular motors.

Nanotechnology in medicine is going to have a major impact on the survival of the human race.

- Bernard Marcus

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