Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Fuel
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fuel

Experimental study on the performance of a liquefied petroleum gas engine

according to the air fuel ratio
Seungchul Woo a, Juho Lee a, Kihyung Lee a, b, *
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi 15588, Republic of Korea
b
BK21 FOUR ERICA-ACE Center, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi 15588, Republic of Korea

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The global market of the internal combustion engine is decreasing, and powertrain energy sources will diversify
Alternative fuel in the next 5–10 years. Alternative fuels are some of the technologies that can be applied immediately to low-
Liquefied petroleum gas fuel pollutant internal combustion engines. Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) is a representative low-pollutant fuel, and
Air fuel ratio
its use is increasing worldwide. Therefore, in this study, the fuel consumption, combustion, pollutant emissions,
Lean combustion
and efficiency performance of an LPG engine were tested and analyzed by adjusting the air fuel ratio, which is the
main control parameter of the spark-ignition engine. Finally, the fuel efficiency and pollutant emission perfor­
mance improved simultaneously by adjusting the air fuel ratio in detail from 1.1 to 1.2. This phenomenon can be
applied to internal combustion engine vehicles and LPG-hybrid electrical vehicles and generator engines.

1. Introduction in 2020 are shown in Fig. 1. Most GHGs from internal combustion engine
vehicles are produced during engine operation. However, EVs and
With the development of internal combustion engines, the pollutant FCEVs do not generate GHGs during operation, but GHGs are generated
emissions and greenhouse gases (GHGs) from vehicles has been in the process of generating electricity or hydrogen, which is an energy
continuously reduced. Nevertheless, fossil fuel depletion and environ­ source for powertrains. In the future, compared with the fuel supply
mental pollution have been continuously becoming severe problems, methods, between the method in which electricity or hydrogen are
and the related regulations are being strengthened [1–6]. To cope with produced through the reduction of GHGs and supplied to EVs or FCEVs
the regulations of pollutant emissions and GHG emissions, automobile and the method in which e-fuel or synthetic fuels created from new
manufacturers in each country actively research low pollution and high- renewable energy is supplied to the internal combustion engine, the
efficiency automobiles such as natural gas vehicles (NGVs), 48 V mild GHGs from the internal combustion engines is expected to be at the same
hybrid electric vehicles (MHEVs), hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug- level as that of EVs. In addition, in the testing of pollutant emissions, the
in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs), introduction of the LCA analysis should also be considered. As the reg­
and electric vehicles (EVs). In this study, the actual emissions of low- ulations for pollutant emissions became strengthened, the nitrogen
pollution automobiles (EVs, PHEVs, and FCEVs) cannot be quantita­ oxide (NOx) emissions of diesel vehicles during driving were signifi­
tively evaluated using a conventional GHG measurement method that cantly reduced, and the same achievement was accomplished for gaso­
measures exhaust emissions. Therefore, the introduction of a policy line cars after the adoption of the three-way catalyst (TWC). For EVs,
based on life cycle assessment (LCA) is considered to reduce GHG NOx is emitted during the electricity generation process, and it is
emissions at a global level. An LCA is an analysis method that can generated during hydrogen charging for FCEVs. Therefore, the reduc­
quantify the effect of production until disposal of products such as raw tion in NOx emissions through the reduction of pollutant emissions from
material and energy consumption and generation of pollutants and internal combustion engines was greater than the NOx reduction effect
waste material on the environment and human health. When applied to by the distribution of EV cars in some regions. For example, if we
automobiles, it measures the change in the carbon dioxide (CO2) emis­ consider NOx generated from thermal power generation, considering
sion measurement from tank-to-wheel to well-to-wheel analysis. The the LCA, EVs in Germany indirectly emitted more NOx than diesel cars in
LCA analysis results for European Union (EU) passenger cars conducted 2016. Therefore, considering LCA analysis, the pollutant emissions from

* Corresponding author at: Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, Ansan, Gyeonggi 15588, Republic of Korea.
E-mail address: [email protected] (K. Lee).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2021.121330
Received 5 May 2021; Received in revised form 19 June 2021; Accepted 22 June 2021
Available online 1 July 2021
0016-2361/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Fig. 1. Life-cycle analysis of typical C-segment passenger vehicles in 2030 (sum of colored bars) compared with current (grey bars) for different conventional and
renewable fuels by life-cycle phase.

Fig. 2. Test engine with a dynamometer.

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Table 1 Table 3
Specifications of test engine and dynamometer. Specifications of exhaust gas analyzer.
Test engine Description Specification

Description Specification Model HORIBA MEXA9100DEGR

Measuring principle CO, CO2 NDIR
Type Inline DOHC
HC FID
Number of cylinders 3
NOx CLD
Bore × Stroke (mm) 71 × 84
Repeatability with ± 1% of full scale per 8 h
Displacement (cc) 998
Zero/Span drift with ± 1% of full scale per 8 h
Compression ratio 10.5
Valve type DOHC 4vales
Rated power (hp/rpm) 74/6200
Rated torque (kg⋅m/rpm) 9.6/3500 Table 4
Cooling system Pressurized pump Test conditions.
Fuel system LPI
Description Condition
Dynamometer
Engine speed (rpm) 1500, 2000, 2500, 3000
Description Specification Engine load (kg.m) 2, 4, 6
Air fuel ratio 0.7, 0.8, 0.9, 1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.4
Model Hwangwoong Mechatronics DYTEK130
Type Eddy current, load cell
Max. power 130 kW
Max. torque 35 kg⋅m internal combustion engine vehicles could be relatively more than those
Rotor inertia 0.14 kg/m2 of low-pollution vehicles depending on the environment of the country
or region, and policy for low-pollution vehicles can be reasonably set
only when GHG and pollutant emissions are considered during power

Table 2
Specifications of used LPG injector.
1. Connector
2. Injector
3. Icing tube
4. Icing tip

Number of holes [–] Single

Fuel pressure (average/max.) [bar] 8 ~ 15/30
Peak current [A] 1.55

Engine control system for adjusting air fuel ratio.

Fig. 3. User interface of the MoTeC ECU manager.

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Fig. 4. Brake specific fuel consumption of test engine according to air fuel ratio.

Fig. 5. Coefficient of variation of the net indicated mean effective pressure of test engine according to air fuel ratio.

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Fig. 6. Pumping mean effective pressure of the test engine according to air fuel ratio.

Fig. 7. Brake specific unburned hydrocarbon emissions of test engine according Fig. 8. Brake specific carbon monoxide emissions of test engine according to
to air fuel ratio. air fuel ratio.

generation in automobile manufacturing. In addition, instead of devel­ liquefied natural gas (LNG), ethanol, and methanol [11–16].
oping and distributing forceful low-pollution automobiles, new renew­ Biodiesel has been developed as an alternative to existing diesel fuel
able energy and high-efficiency powertrains should be developed as a and is manufactured from renewable vegetable oils or animal fats. It is
priority [7–10]. not toxic, unlike diesel, it can be decomposed by microorganisms, and it
emits fewer pollutant emissions after combustion. However, because it
2. Liquefied petroleum gas as an alternative fuel has a limitation of lubricity and a higher freezing point at approximately
− 5 ◦ C, it is mixed with diesel in most applications [15,17,18].
Diverse technologies for low-pollution and high-efficiency internal Recently, alcohol as an alternative fuel to overcome fossil fuel
combustion engines have been developed. Among these, as a represen­ depletion and environmental pollution is being researched. Methanol is
tative technology to overcome fossil fuel depletion and to reduce envi­ manufactured by industrial methods, whereas ethanol can be extracted
ronmental pollution caused by pollutant emissions, alternative fuels from plants. Methanol has the advantage of having a high octane
have been actively researched. Representative alternative fuels include number, but a reduction plan for formaldehyde present in exhaust gas is
biodiesel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), compressed natural gas (CNG), required. Ethanol has almost no toxicity, is easy to handle, and can be

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

Fig. 9. Brake specific nitrogen oxides emissions of test engine according to air fuel ratio.

Fig. 10. Volumetric efficiency of test engine according to the air fuel ratio.

applied in conventional engines without significant changes. However, a purely in alcohol-driven automobiles as flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs)
reduction plan for acetaldehyde among exhaust gases is required. [19–21].
Currently, a large amount of ethanol has been distributed in the USA and Natural gas contains a low sulfur and water content than gasoline,
Brazil, and it is mixed with gasoline at arbitrary ratios rather than used and it is a low-pollution fuel that provides a high heating value.

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

gaseous form at room temperature, but it can be liquefied at low pres­

sure. When liquified, its volume is reduced by more than 1/240.
Therefore, it can be easily stored and transported. LPG comprises rela­
tively simple hydrocarbon compounds. Therefore, it is a low-pollution
fuel compared with gasoline or diesel. However, the fuel efficiency is
low owing to the small heating value per unit volume [24–26].
Among the various alternative fuels, LPG is the third most used fuel
for automobiles after gasoline and diesel, and it is exhibiting a steady
increase on the global market. Since 2000, the number of automobiles
fueled by LPG has increased on an average of approximately 10%
annually. As LPG is proposed as a measure to address climate change, its
usage is rapidly increasing in Europe, including Italy, Germany, and
Turkey [27–32].
The improvement points demanded by the customer side for LPG
vehicles are the power and fuel efficiency. Low power problems of LPG
vehicles occurred when a vaporizer-type fuel control system, which was
implemented in the first and second generation LPG systems, was used.
After the introduction of precise electronic controls based on the air fuel
Fig. 11. Combustion efficiency of the test engine according to the air fuel ratio. ratio, the power performance of LPG vehicles is almost equal to that of a
gasoline engine. In particular, LPG can have a larger compression ratio
However, as a gas at room temperature, its storage and transportation than gasoline because it has a high octane number. Hence, if an engine is
are difficult. In the 20th century, LNG technology could freeze natural developed exclusively for LPG, it is not unsatisfactory in terms of power.
gas to − 162 ◦ C to create cryogenic natural gas, whose volume could be Despite this, the problem of low fuel efficiency compared with gasoline
compressed to 1/600. Making a cryogenic vessel small to utilize LNG is or diesel is difficult to resolve using the conventional system. Further­
difficult and its cost is high. CNG is a compressed type of natural gas with more, the internal pressure is limited to less than the specific level of
high pressure through the technology to apply this LNG in automobiles. fully charging the fuel tank owing to safety challenges. Therefore, cus­
CNG is the compressed form of LNG that has been transported in cryo­ tomers would recharge fuel frequently; thus, the demand for fuel effi­
genic vessels and vaporized and compressed, and its volume increases by ciency would continuously occur. Therefore, to supply LPG vehicles to
approximately three times during this process. Therefore, the drivable general customers not by policy, a new technology should be introduced
distance would be very shortened after a one-time charging; thus, it is to both resolve exhaust gas emission regulation and increase fuel effi­
used in intra-city buses in most areas [22,23]. ciency simultaneously [31].
LPG is another type of gaseous fuel, as is natural gas. Unlike natural Despite the advantages of LPG fuel, most of the studies on internal
gas, LPG is produced during the mining or purification of crude oil and is combustion engines to which LPG fuel is applied have approached as an
used in a mixture of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10). LPG exists in a alternative fuel for gasoline fuel. Considering the powertrain market and
tightening regulations in the modern society, LPG fuel is no longer

Fig. 12. Fuel conversion efficiency of the test engine according to the air fuel ratio.

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

classified as a type of alternative fuel but should be considered as a main (ISFC), as well as the mass fraction burned (MFB) and pressure–volume
fuel type for next generation powertrain market. In addition, consid­ curves, could be acquired. In addition, injection, ignition, and cam po­
ering the additional exhaust gas regulations currently being considered, sition sensor (CMP) signals were measured to obtain the engine control
such as ammonia, nitrous oxide, and methane, research on precise status according to the CKP. These data were used as base data for
control of LPG engines is essential. Therefore, in this study, the char­ application in the M800 ECU. All the measured values via the indicator
acteristics of the existing LPG engines were analyzed to improve LPG- monitoring program from AVL were collected, and the combustion
exclusive engines, as LPG is a low-pollutant fuel, and to apply a new pressure and CKP signal were converted to the desired variables and
technology. In particular, the test was conducted by changing the air logged. A spark-plug-type cylinder pressure sensor from Kistler (6115A)
fuel ratio, which is one of the main control parameters of the spark- was used to measure the combustion pressure. The current probe was
ignition (SI) engine. The test conditions were selected based on actual installed to obtain injection and ignition signals, and the CMP signal was
engine operating conditions. The characteristics of fuel consumption, measured by directly obtaining the engine sensor values.
combustion, pollutant emissions, and efficiency according to the air fuel To measure pollutant emissions from the engine, a MEXA-9100DEGR
ratio for each operating condition were measured and analyzed. exhaust gas analyzer from HORIBA that could measure HC, CO, CO2, O2,
and NOx was used (Table 3). The sample gas was collected at the inlet of
3. Experimental setup and procedure the TWC to measure the pollutant emissions of the unpurified exhaust
gas.
3.1. Test engine and dynamometer
5. Test condition
To maintain pace with the trend of small engines, a 1.0 L inline 3-cyl­
inder LPG injection (LPI) engine was selected as the test engine. It was The test was performed under the conditions listed in Table 4 to
set to the dynamometer system (Fig. 2), and LPG fuel from an ordinary determine the performance change caused by adjusting the air fuel ratio.
LPG station was used. The specifications of the test engine and dyna­ The test was performed at an engine speed of 1500–3000 rpm, at which
mometer are listed in Table 1. The engine control unit (ECU) provided the actual engine was primarily operated with an engine load of 2–6 kg.
by the manufacturer was used as the base test. Subsequently, it was m. The air fuel ratio was increased from 0.8 at 0.1 intervals during the
replaced with a controllable ECU to adjust the air fuel ratio and engine test, and the control was attempted until the condition of the leanest
control values. Therefore, the M800 ECU made by MoTeC was used for condition at which the engine could be operated stably. The test was
the engine control. The LPG injector of the test engine used the product performed after only changing the minimum control parameters to
provided by the manufacturer, and the specifications are shown in the adjust the air fuel ratio. Other parameters were fixed to minimize per­
Table 2. formance changes that could be caused by other parameters. The in­
To adjust the air fuel ratio of the test engine, the control parameters jection timing of the fuel supplied to the engine was fixed at the end of
of the engine must be modified. The base data to compare system per­ injection for the same reason.
formance were obtained by controlling the engine through the con­
ventional ECU offered from the manufacturer, and an M800 ECU 6. Results and discussion
(MoTeC, Ltd.) that can change the control parameters of the engine to
adjust the air fuel ratio was used. The SI engine controlled the air fuel ratio to 1.0 to be optimized for
The M800 ECU is a universal engine controller, and real-time engine pollutant emissions. In this study, the conventional ECU was replaced
control and programming are possible. It has a hardware flatform with with a controllable ECU (M800, MoTeC) to adjust the air fuel ratio to
various upgrade options such as electronic throttle control, continuous enable the control parameters to be calibrated. Therefore, the brake-
variable valve timing, and lambda control according to the engine type. specific fuel consumption was measured according to the air fuel
In addition, eight auxiliary outputs are available; thus, adjustment of the ratio. The fuel consumption was converted to brake specific fuel con­
fuel pump step is possible, which made this program suitable for the test sumption (BSFC) to analyze the efficiency with output power according
engine. The M800 was operated using a dedicated program with an to the testing conditions, and the results are presented in Fig. 4. The
intuitive user interface (Fig. 3). Therefore, the parameters could be BSFC decreased as the engine load was increased, similar to the results of
easily calibrated. the base performance test of the fuel consumption, as well as according
to the increase in the air fuel ratio. As the air fuel ratio decreased, the
4. Measurement of engine performance supplied fuel quantity increased, the air fuel ratio increased, and the
BSFC increased. When the air fuel ratio was increased, the throttle po­
A Coriolis type mass flowmeter was used to measure the fuel con­ sition sensor (TPS) signal was also increased to produce the same power
sumption of the test engine. In the fuel supply system in the LPG engine, to not decrease the BSFC below a specific level. The BSFC had the lowest
the fuel was supplied from the fuel tank to the engine, and the remaining value at an air fuel ratio of 1.1–1.3, excluding the low-load conditions.
fuel was returned to the fuel tank and circulated again. A mass flow­ The coefficient of variation of the IMEP is one of the indices that
meter was installed at the supply and return paths at the outlet of the determined the implementation possibility when the engine control
fuel regulator. The differences in the measured values from the two parameters were adjusted. A higher coefficient of variation indicates
points were calculated to estimate the fuel consumption in real time. The unstable combustion, and the coefficient of variation of the IMEP in the
Coriolis flowmeter converts the phase difference of the vibration base performance test of the engine was lower than 3%. Fig. 5 shows the
waveform, which is generated by the distortion of the two tubes inside, coefficient of variation of the IMEP measurement results according to
into the mass flow rate. It basically measures masses; measurement is the operating conditions. The coefficient of variation of the IMEP was
not affected by changes in conditions such as temperature, pressure, less than 3%, which was the highest value in the base performance test
density, and viscosity; thus, it is suitable for measuring fuel flow rates under most operating conditions. However, it increased rapidly when
[33,34]. the air fuel ratio exceeded 1.3. Simultaneously, the operation of the
An AVL Indimicro combustion analyzer was used to evaluate the engine became unstable.
combustion conditions. The combustion analyzer measured the cylinder When lean combustion was applied, a greater amount of air was
pressure and crankshaft position sensor (CKP) signal in real time; thus, required to produce the same output as against the engine, which was
values related to the engine combustion status, such as the indicated controlled by the theoretical air–fuel ratio, thereby increasing the TPS.
power (Pi), indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP), pumping mean Because the air resistance of the air–fuel mixture became small, it
effective pressure (PMEP), and indicated specific fuel consumption resulted in a lower pumping loss. Such benefits or losses owing to

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

changes in the intake resistance were quantitatively analyzed by com­ speed exceeded 2000 rpm, the threshold limit of the air fuel ratio that
parison with the PMEP (Fig. 6). The PMEP decreased with an increase in could increase the efficiency was increased. Generally, the fuel con­
the air fuel ratio under all testing conditions. This trend was caused by version efficiency increased with the air fuel ratio, followed by a
lean combustion. decrease. This result might be due to the low combustion efficiency
To evaluate the effect of air fuel ratio changes on the combustion, under rich and lean conditions.
exhaust gases such as HC, CO, and NOx were measured, and then each
ηf = ηt × ηc = (Pb /(mfuel
˙ × QHV,fuel ))×ηc
emission gas was converted to brake specific emissions (BSEs). The
BSHC was generated with incomplete or lean combustion. Therefore,
where,
when the air fuel ratio was low, the more HCs were because more
incomplete combustion occurred as shown in Fig. 7. However, when the ηf : fuel conversion efficiency
air fuel ratio was high, more HCs were generated owing to lean com­
bustion. However, even if the air fuel ratio was adjusted to approxi­ Pb : brake power
mately 1.1–1.2 depending on the operating conditions, the HCs did not
increase when compared with that with an air fuel ratio of 1.0. In mfuel
˙ : mass flow rate of fuel
addition, engines operating in extremely lean conditions would be
adversely affected by pollutants. Fig. 8 revealed that the BSCO occurred QHV,fuel : lower heating value of fuel
when oxygen was absent in the combustion chamber. Therefore, this
was not produced when the air fuel ratio was higher than 1.1. 7. Conclusion
NOx emission is one of the largest limitations of the theoretical air­
–fuel ratio control mode. Nitrogen in the air, supplied through lean The objective of this study was to acquire and analyze a database to
combustion, reacts with oxygen under high-temperature and high- improve the performance of engines using LPG, which is a low-pollutant
pressure conditions in the combustion chamber and is oxidized into fuel. To adjust the air fuel ratio of the test engine, the control system was
NOx. Generally, NOx was generated the most at the theoretical air–fuel changed from a conventional ECU to an M800 ECU. The LPG engine was
ratio as shown in Fig. 9 and decreased steeply at a lean or rich air fuel evaluated by changing the air fuel ratio, which was one of the main
ratio. The BSNOx results indicated that the most NOx was produced near variables of the SI engine. Finally, the characteristics of fuel consump­
the air fuel ratio of 1.1. Therefore, even if emissions such as HC, CO, and tion, combustion, pollutant emissions, and efficiency were evaluated
H2 were decreased at an air fuel ratio of 1.1, the air fuel ratio could not and analyzed on an actual engine bench. Based on the above experi­
be controlled to 1.1. In some conditions, although the air fuel ratio was ments, the following conclusions were drawn:
increased, both the fuel efficiency and NOx characteristics could be
improved. (1) The fuel consumption according to the air fuel ratio was
Various engine efficiencies can change according to the air fuel ratio. measured. The fuel consumption value was converted to BSFC to
Therefore, various efficiencies were measured and evaluated according compare the efficiency with the output power. As the air fuel ratio
to air fuel ratios. As lean combustion was adopted in the SI engine, the increased, the BSFC decreased. However, the BSFC increased
largest change was the increase in TPS to achieve the same power. again when the air fuel ratio was higher than 1.2–1.3. When the
Therefore, if the power was the same, the flow rate of the intake air air fuel ratio was in the range of 1.1–1.2, and the condition at
increases. Thus, the pumping loss decreased, resulting in an increase in which the air fuel ratio was 1.0 in the conventional engine was
the volumetric efficiency (Fig. 10). This trend was the same as the PMEP, compared, the BSFC improved in some specific conditions.
which was measured previously. Therefore, when the air fuel ratio was adequately adjusted, the
The combustion efficiency is a measure of how effectively the heat fuel efficiency could be increased compared with the conven­
content of a fuel is transferred into usable heat. The combustion effi­ tional system.
ciency calculated by the formula below was used to obtain the fuel (2) The combustion stability was investigated according to the
conversion efficiency, which represented the fuel efficiency of the en­ adjustment of the air fuel ratio through the coefficient of varia­
gine, and was closely related to the air fuel ratio. The combustion effi­ tions of the IMEP. The limitation of lean combustion was deter­
ciencies based on the operating conditions are shown in Fig. 11, and mined under the condition of an air fuel ratio of 1.3, at which the
these were changed only according to the air fuel ratio, unlike other coefficient of variation was measured as 3%.
testing results. The highest combustion efficiency was achieved when (3) BSHC increased when combustion was incomplete owing to the
the air fuel ratio was 1.1, followed by a slight decrease. lack of air or generated partial-quench zones of flames caused by
Σi wi QHV,i the excessive lean fuel supply. Therefore, the BSHC had the
ηc = 1 − (
mfuel
(
˙ / m˙air + mfuel
˙
))
QHV,fuel lowest value when the air fuel ratio was 1.0–1.1.
(4) BSCO increased when combustion was incomplete owing to the
where, lack of air in the combustion chamber. It increased rapidly when
the air fuel ratio was lower than 1.1.
ηc : combustion efficiency (5) BSNOx increased owing to the oxidation of nitrogen in air at high
temperature and high pressure in the combustion chamber. The
wi : mass fraction of exhaust gas components x BSNOx level was the highest when the air fuel ratio was 1.1,
according to the operating conditions. It was lower than the
QHV,x : Lower heating values of exhaust gas components x conventional condition when the air fuel ratio was higher than
m˙x :mass flow rate of x 1.1–1.2.
Fuel conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio between the useful (6) The TPS signal was increased to achieve the same power with
mechanical work produced by the engine and the theoretical energy increasing air fuel ratio. Therefore, PMEP decreased and volu­
content of the fuel mass and can be calculated by the following formula. metric efficiency increased with increasing air fuel ratio. The
The converted fuel conversion efficiency considering all the combustion combustion efficiency changed according to the air fuel ratio,
efficiency and thermal efficiency can be calculated by the following with the highest at an air fuel ratio of 1.1. It decreased with an air
formula, and the trend shown in Fig. 12. When the engine speed was fuel ratio of 1.3. Therefore, the fuel conversion efficiency also
low, the air fuel ratio should be maintained at 1.1–1.2, and if the engine

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S. Woo et al. Fuel 303 (2021) 121330

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