Quarter 3: PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12 - reviewer

CHAPTER 1
1) The Origin of the Light Elements
§ Light Elements are elements present during the initial formation of the universe, with the heavier
elements being later formed in massive stars.
§ Light elements - include hydrogen (1H) and its isotope deuterium (2H), helium -3 (3He), helium -4
(4He), and lithium -7 (7Li).
§ As the universe expanded, the temperature decreased, forming a stabilized number of protons and
neutrons; with protons outnumbering the neutrons in a 7:1 ratio. After about a minute, temperature
had further decreased, just enough for protons and neutrons to collide and stick together, forming the
nuclei of deuterium. Occasional collisions of these nuclei led to the formation of helium nuclei and
rarely lithium nuclei. As temperature continued to fall rapidly and with a high number of protons in the
early universe, Hydrogen made up the highest abundance of about 95% while Helium constituted the
5%; trace amounts are accounted for lithium nuclei.
2) The Origin of the Heavy Elements
§ Stellar nucleosynthesis, Nucleosynthesis in stars, the process responsible for the formation of heavy
elements
§ The two key processes of stellar nucleosynthesis are nuclear fusion and neutron capture.
§ Protons can also be combined with neutrons to form heavier nuclei in the process called nuclear
fusion.
§ The atoms formed in the Big Bang merged into large clouds of gas. These clouds began to contract
under their own gravity, leading to star formation
3) Understanding the Lifespan of Stars
§ Nuclear reactions involve the release of a huge amount of energy that keeps the star hot, which mostly
involve the conversion of hydrogen and helium – elements which are major components of stars and
form basis for synthesis of heavier elements.
§ SMALL/ Average stars: nuclear reactions can merely transform hydrogen into helium. (Red Dwarf)
§ MEDIUM-SIZED stars: our Sun falls under this category, wherein later in their lives, their hydrogen
atoms get depleted; they then convert helium into carbon and oxygen. (our Sun)
§ MASSIVE stars: stars greater than five times in mass than our Sun. (Red Giant, Red Super Giant)
§ The more massive the star is the faster it burns its fuel
§ As stars age, huge stars with depleted cores and exhausted fuel supplies undergo supernova. This
results in the formation of the other natural elements heavier than iron.
§ Two main types of nuclear reactions that release large amount of energy:
o NUCLEAR FUSION - combining of light elements to form heavier nucleus.
- Provides energy in stars
o NUCLEAR FISSION - splitting of heavy elements into lighter nuclei,
- releasing a large amount of energy in the form of heat and radiation
§ NUCLEAR FUSION REACTION IN STARS
o Exothermic reactions inside the stars that convert hydrogen to helium.
o Include the proton-proton chain reaction (p-p chain) or hydrogen burning and the
carbon-nitrogen-oxygen cycle (CNO Cycle).
o p-p chain – involves fusion of four (4) hydrogen nuclei to form a helium nucleus
o CNO Cycle – occurs in massive stars; transforms four (4) protons into helium nucleus
using carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen as catalysts.
o Tri-alpha process – happens in red giant stars; converts three Helium-4 into Carbon
* Formation of iron are exothermic (releasing energy) while reactions that form elements
heavier than iron are endothermic (consumes energy)
o Burning phases involving heavier elements/ Triple Alpha Processes:
o HELIUM Burning – occurs in the deep core of stars once the temperature hits about 108
K once a star has used up the hydrogen in its core (Hydrogen to Helium)
o CARBON and OXYGEN Burning - carbon burning is a set of nuclear fusion reactions that
take place in the cores of massive stars; always, a source of oxygen in stars. (Helium to
Carbon)
o SILICON Burning - establishes equilibrium reactions that lead to an inner core of a star
that is rich in iron and nickel.
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§ NEUTRON CAPTURE – elements heavier than iron ( Fe) cannot be produced by nuclear fusion but can
only be assembled through the capture of neutrons, thus creating a heavier isotope of a particular
element.
o BETA DECAY - creating a heavier nuclei.
o NEUTRON CAPTURE PROCESSES
• s - process – refers to slow addition of neutrons
• r – process – refers to rapid addition of neutrons

CHAPTER 2

1) Early Atomic Theory

§ Ancient GREEKS – thought of atoms as moving particles that differed in shape and size, and
which could join together.
§ Thales of Miletus (ca. 624 – 546 BCE) thought of water (H2O) as the ultimate substance that
constituted matter; believed that water could change into any kind of matter.
§ Empedocles of Agrigentum (492 – 432 BCE) considered air, water, earth and fire as the four
essential elements that could possibly be the source of everything – all kinds of matter
§ Heraclitus - known for the importance he placed on change and his view that fire is the
fundamental substance of the universe.
§ Leucippus (5th century BCE) considered as the first atomist, introduced the theory of atomism,
which posited that the whole universe is made up of solid atoms constantly moving through
void, or empty space.
§ Democritus (460 – 370 BCE), dubbed as the Father of Atomism, expanded Leucippus atomic
hypothesis; he considered atoms to be solid and indestructible. He thought that the universe
has merely atoms an empty space, which he called the void. He suggested that atomos, or
atomon—tiny, indivisible, solid objects—make up all matter in the universe.
§ Aristotle (384-322 BC), one of the most influential Greek philosophers, believed that water, air,
fire, and earth were the fundamental elements while hot, cold, dry, and wet were the four
properties that combined to produce these fundamental elements.
2) The Alchemist
§ Alchemy - The idea of changing one substance into another substance, which prospered
through the 1700s
§ Early alchemists were mainly skillful with metals, creating cheap imitations of gold and silver,
believed that base metals can be converted into gold; alchemists eventually believed that
consuming the transmuted gold is the secret to immortality, thus calling it the Elixir of Life or
the Philosopher’s Stone
3) Observations that led to the Modern Atomic Theory
§ Antoine- Laurent Lavoisier founded the Law of Conservation of Mass (states that in a chemical
reaction, mass neither created nor destroyed)
§ Ernest Lawrence – American physicist; In 1937, He synthesized element with atomic number
43 using a linear particle accelerator.
§ John Dalton (1766 -1844) – proponent of DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY; computed for the
relative masses of several elements which eventually led him to introduce the first “table of
elements”
o According to Dalton’s Atomic Theory:
1) All matter is made up of atoms – extremely minute, indestructible, and invisible
particles
2) All atoms of a certain element are identical in size, atomic weight and chemical
properties.
3) Atoms of an element differ from the atoms of other elements.
4) Atoms can be neither be created nor destroyed. This also means that they
cannot be divided into smaller particles.
5) In any chemical reaction, atoms of the reactants can be separated, combined,
or be rearranged, but never destroyed, to form new molecules as products.
§ Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
o Proponent of Rutherford’s Planetary Model of the Atom
o Famous for “gold foil” experiment, alpha particle scattering experiment.
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o According to his model of an atom:
1) All the positive charge and mass of an atom is concentrated at the center.
2) The center of an atom is called nucleus.
3) The size of the nucleus is very small as compared to the size of the atom.
4) The electrons of an atom revolve around the nucleus, they do not contribute to
the mass of the nucleus.
§ Neils Bohr (1885 – 1962)
o Bohr’s Atomic Model, which postulates that Electrons assume only definite orbits
around the nucleus of an atom
§ Nuclear Model of an Atom –
§ It states that an atom has a central nucleus, hence the label “nuclear” model.
§ In the nucleus, protons and neutrons are situated. The nucleus is at the center of
the atom.
§ Since only protons and neutrons are at the nucleus, the overall charge of the
nucleus is positive.
§ Because electrons, with almost negligible mass, are the ones outside the atom,
atom is treated as mostly an empty space.
o Atoms that have excess of positive (protons) or negative (electrons) charge are called
CATIONS and ANIONS, respectively.

3) Nuclear Reactions
§ Mass Number = protons (p) + neutrons (n)
§ Neutrons: The number of neutrons can be calculated
by subtracting the atomic number (Z) from the mass
number (A). (n=A-Z)
§ In a neutral atom, atomic number is equal to protons,
and protons is equal to electrons

§ Writing Nuclear Reactions

§ Nuclear Reactions - is written in terms of chemical symbols and formulas
§ Principles In Writing Nuclear Reactions
o Fundamental particles involved in the reaction must be properly written.
o Reactants are written on the left side of the arrow, while
products on the right side. The arrow, therefore,
symbolizes the transformation of reactant into products.
o The sum of the mass number as well as the atomic
number on both sides of the equation must be equal to
satisfy the Law of Conservation Mass.
o Coefficients must be placed in front of the formula or
symbol to balance the mass number and atomic number.
o Finalize your balanced reaction by inspection. Make sure
that the net atomic number, atomic mass, and charge are
equal on both sides of the chemical reaction.

The first nuclear reaction produced in the laboratory by Rutherford.

Nitrogen-14 was bombarded by alpha particles to produce Oxygen-17.
 Quarter 3: PHYSICAL SCIENCE 12 - reviewer

CHAPTER 3

1.) Molecular Shape and Molecular Polarity

§ Atoms of the same or different elements combine by chemical bonds to form MOLECULES.
§ The attraction between atoms or ions in a molecule is called CHEMICAL BOND.
o Types:
1) Ionic bond – metal atom donates electron to non-metal atom
2) Covalent. – two non-metals share electrons
3) Metallic. – electrons move freely between metal atoms
§ To form a chemical bond, elements either share or transfer their valence electrons to produce a
more stable configuration.
o VALENCE ELECTRONS are the electrons in the outermost shell of an atom or the
electrons farthest from the nucleus.
o For neutral atoms, the number of valence electrons is equal to the atom's main group
number.
o Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) - VSEPR theory a model used to predict
3-D molecular geometry based on the number of valence shell electron bond pairs
among the atoms in a molecule or ion.
§ A molecular shape is the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms or bonding groups around a
central atom; Molecular shape affects molecular polarity
o Carbon Dioxide having a linear shape, has a polar bond (C=O) and has no lone pair in its
central atom, yet it is non-polar molecule since its bonds are arranged so that dipoles
cancel each other.
o Water molecules (H2O), having a bent-shape, a polar H-O bond, and two lone pairs that
do not cancel each other, is a polar molecule.
o Polar molecules are soluble in water while non-polar molecules are not
§ Knowing the molecular geometry/ shape of molecules is one of the most important keys in
determining molecular polarity
§ Lewis Formula/Structure - Provides information about the relative location of atoms, how they
are bonded together, and the number of covalent bonds present. For example, water – H2O

§ Another examples: computing the valence electrons, drawing the Lewis Structure, determining
the molecular geometry:
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§ ELECTRONEGATIVITY –
o refers to the relative ability of a bonded atom to attract shared electron pairs
o the greater the electronegativity difference, the more polar bond is.
o EXAMPLE:
For a diatomic moelcule: HF For polyatomic molecule: CHCl3

Electronegativity- H – 2.20, : F – 3.98

Electronegativity difference (absolute value)

ΔEN = 2.20 - 3.98 = - 1.78 = 1.78 POLAR