Termofluidos III

Universidad de Pamplona

Ph.D. James R. Vera-Rozo

[email protected]
 Thermodynamics: An Engineering
Approach, 9 th Edition
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2020

Ph.D. James R. Vera-Rozo

[email protected]

Copyright © McGraw-Hill Education. Permission

required for reproduction or display.
 Objectives
• Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat pumps and the measure of
their performance.
• Analyze the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Analyze the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Review the factors involved in selecting the right refrigerant for an application.
• Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat pump systems.
• Evaluate the performance of innovative vapor-compression refrigeration
systems.
• Analyze gas refrigeration systems.
• Introduce the concepts of absorption-refrigeration systems.

3
 REFRIGERATORS
AND HEAT PUMPS
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires special
devices called refrigerators.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially the
same devices; they differ in their objectives only.

for fixed values of QL and QH

The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat (QL)
from the cold medium; the objective of a heat pump is
4
to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.
The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrigeration cycle
operating between TL and TH. THE REVERSED
However, it is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles since
processes 2-3 and 4-1 are not practical because CARNOT CYCLE
Process 2-3 involves the compression of a liquid–vapor mixture,
which requires a compressor that will handle two phases, and
process 4-1 involves the expansion of high-moisture-content
refrigerant in a turbine.

Both COPs increase as

the difference between
the two temperatures
decreases, that is, as TL
rises or TH falls.

Schematic of a
Carnot refrigerator
and T-s diagram of
the reversed Carnot
cycle. 5
THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration
systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized
completely before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling
device.

This is the most

widely used cycle
for refrigerators, A-
C systems, and
heat pumps.
Schematic and T-s diagram for the ideal 6
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
 The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible (throttling) process to
make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added benefits cannot
justify the added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance

An ordinary
household
The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-
refrigerator. 7
compression refrigeration cycle.
 ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE

An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one in several ways,
owing mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various components, mainly due to fluid
friction (causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings. The COP
decreases as a result of irreversibilities.
DIFFERENCES
Non-isentropic
compression
Superheated vapor at
evaporator exit
Subcooled liquid at
condenser exit
Pressure drops in
condenser and
evaporator
Schematic and T-s diagram for the actual
vapor-compression refrigeration cycle. 8
 EJEMPLO 1

Un refrigerador usa refrigerante 134a como su fluido de trabajo y opera en el

ciclo ideal de refrigeración por compresión de vapor. El refrigerante se
evapora a 5 °F y se condensa a 180 psia. Esta unidad proporciona una carga de
enfriamiento de 45,000 Btu/h. Determine el flujo másico de refrigerante y la
potencia que necesitará esta unidad.

Usando software EES (u otro), repita el problema si se usa amoniaco en lugar

de refrigerante 134a.
EJEMPLO 2
Un refrigerador comercial con refrigerante 134a como fluido de
trabajo se usa para mantener el espacio refrigerado a 30 °C
rechazando su calor de desecho a agua de enfriamiento que entra
al condensador a 18 °C a razón de 0.25 kg/s y sale a 26 °C. El
refrigerante entra al condensador a 1.2 MPa y 65 °C y sale a 42
°C. El estado a la entrada del compresor es de 60 kPa y 34 °C y
se estima que el compresor gana un calor neto de 450 W del
entorno. Determine:

a) la calidad del refrigerante a la entrada del evaporador,

b) la carga de refrigeración,
c) el COP del refrigerador
d) la carga de refrigeración teórica máxima para la misma
entrada de potencia al compresor.
 SELECTING THE RIGHT REFRIGERANT
• Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia,
hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene, etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the air-conditioning of aircraft), and even
water (in applications above the freezing point).
• R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90 percent of the market.
• The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it is toxic).
• R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C systems in buildings.
• R-134a (replaced R-12, which damages ozone layer) is used in domestic refrigerators and freezers, as well as
automotive air conditioners.
• R-22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of commercial buildings, and large
industrial refrigeration systems, and offers strong competition to ammonia.
• R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used in commercial refrigeration systems such
as those in supermarkets.
• CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by destroying the protective ozone layer and
thus contributing to the greenhouse effect that causes global warming. Fully halogenated CFCs (such as R-11,
R-12, and R-115) do the most damage to the ozone layer. Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer have
been developed.
• Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection of a refrigerant are the temperatures of
the two media (the refrigerated space and the environment) with which the refrigerant exchanges heat.
11
 SELECTING THE RIGHT REFRIGERANT

13
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0140700719304773
HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS

The most common energy source for heat pumps

is atmospheric air (air-to- air systems).
Water-source systems usually use well water and
ground-source (geothermal) heat pumps use
earth as the energy source. They typically have
higher COPs but are more complex and more
expensive to install.
A heat pump can be
used to heat a house in Both the capacity and the efficiency of a heat
winter and to cool it in pump fall significantly at low temperatures.
summer. Therefore, most air-source heat pumps require a
supplementary heating system such as electric
resistance heaters or a gas furnace.
Heat pumps are most competitive in areas that
have a large cooling load during the cooling
season and a relatively small heating load during
the heating season. In these areas, the heat pump
can meet the entire cooling and heating needs of
14
residential or commercial buildings.
 INNOVATIVE VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
• The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and it is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
• The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems are simple, inexpensive,
reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
• However, for large industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is the major
concern.
• Also, for some applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is
inadequate and needs to be modified.
• For moderately and very low temperature applications some innovative refrigeration
systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems
• Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor
15
• Liquefaction of gases
 Cascade Refrigeration Systems
Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures, and the temperature range
they involve may be too large for a single vapor-compression refrigeration cycle to be practical.
The solution is cascading.

Cascading improves the

COP of a refrigeration
system.
Some systems use three or
A two-stage cascade refrigeration system four stages of cascading.
16
with the same refrigerant in both stages.
Multistage Compression
Refrigeration Systems

When the fluid used

throughout the cascade
refrigeration system is
the same, the heat
exchanger between the
stages can be replaced
by a mixing chamber
(called a flash chamber)
since it has better heat
transfer characteristics.

A two-stage compression refrigeration

system with a flash chamber. 17
 Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single Compressor
Some applications require refrigeration at more than one temperature. A practical and
economical approach is to route all the exit streams from the evaporators to a single
compressor and let it handle the compression process for the entire system.

18
Schematic and T-s diagram for a refrigerator–freezer unit with one compressor.
 Liquefaction of Gases
Many important scientific and engineering processes at cryogenic temperatures (below about 100°C) depend on
liquefied gases including the separation of oxygen and nitrogen from air, preparation of liquid propellants for
rockets, the study of material properties at low temperatures, and the study of superconductivity.

The storage (i.e., hydrogen)

and transportation of some
gases (i.e., natural gas) are
done after they are
liquefied at very low
temperatures. Several
innovative cycles are used
for the liquefaction of
gases.

Linde-Hampson system
for liquefying gases. 19
 GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLES

The reversed Brayton cycle (the gas

refrigeration cycle) can be used for
refrigeration.

Simple gas refrigeration cycle.

20
The gas refrigeration cycles have lower
COPs relative to the vapor-compression
refrigeration cycles or the reversed
Carnot cycle.
The reversed Carnot cycle consumes a
fraction of the net work (area 1A3B)
but produces a greater amount of
refrigeration (triangular area under B1).

An open-cycle aircraft cooling system.

Despite their relatively low COPs, the gas

refrigeration cycles involve simple, lighter
components, which make them suitable for
aircraft cooling, and they can incorporate
regeneration

21
Without regeneration, the lowest turbine inlet temperature is T0, the temperature of the
surroundings or any other cooling medium.
With regeneration, the high-pressure gas is further cooled to T4 before expanding in the
turbine.
Lowering the turbine inlet temperature automatically lowers the turbine exit temperature,
which is the minimum temperature in the cycle.

Extremely low temperatures can be achieved by

repeating regeneration process.

Gas refrigeration cycle with regeneration.

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ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS

When there is a source of inexpensive

thermal energy at a temperature of
100 to 200°C is absorption
refrigeration.
Some examples include geothermal
energy, solar energy, and waste heat
from cogeneration or process steam
plants, and even natural gas when it is
at a relatively low price.

Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle. 23

• Absorption refrigeration systems (ARS) involve the absorption of a refrigerant by a transport medium.
• The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system, where ammonia (NH3) serves as the
refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport medium.
• Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride systems, where water serves
as the refrigerant. These systems are limited to applications such as A-C where the minimum
temperature is above the freezing point of water.
• Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major advantage: A liquid is compressed
instead of a vapor and as a result the work input is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat
supplied to the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis.
• ARS are often classified as heat-driven systems.
• ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration systems. They are more
complex and occupy more space, they are much less efficient thus requiring much larger cooling
towers to reject the waste heat, and they are more difficult to service since they are less common.
• Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal energy is low and is
projected to remain low relative to electricity.
• ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations. 24
 The COP of actual absorption
refrigeration systems is usually less
than 1.
Air-conditioning systems based on
absorption refrigeration, called
absorption chillers, perform best when
the heat source can supply heat at a
high temperature with little
temperature drop.

Determining the
maximum COP of an
absorption
refrigeration system.
25
 EJEMPLO 3
Un sistema de refrigeración por compresión de dos etapas opera con refrigerante 134a
entre los límites de presión de 1.4 y 0.10 MPa. El refrigerante sale del condensador como
líquido saturado y se estrangula a una cámara de autoevaporación a 0.4 MPa. El
refrigerante que sale del compresor de baja presión a 0.4 MPa también se conduce a la
cámara de vaporización instantánea. El vapor de la cámara de vaporización instantánea se
comprime luego a la presión del condensador mediante el compresor de alta presión, y el
líquido se estrangula a la presión del evaporador. Suponiendo que el refrigerante sale del
evaporador como vapor saturado y que ambos compresores son isentrópicos, determine:
a) la fracción del refrigerante que se evapora cuando se le estrangula a la cámara de
vaporización instantánea,
b) La tasa de remoción de calor del espacio refrigerado para un flujo másico de 0.25kg/s
a través del condensador
c) el coeficiente de desempeño
 EJEMPLO 4
Un sistema de refrigeración en cascada de dos etapas
debe dar enfriamiento a -40 °C operando el
condensador de alta temperatura a 1.6 MPa. Cada
etapa opera en el ciclo ideal de refrigeración por
compresión de vapor. El sistema superior de
refrigeración por compresión de vapor (VCRS, por sus
siglas en inglés) usa agua como fluido de trabajo, y
opera su evaporador a 5 °C. El ciclo inferior usa
refrigerante 134a como fluido de trabajo y opera su
condensador a 400 kPa. Este sistema produce un
efecto de enfriamiento de 20 kJ/s. Determine los flujos
másicos de R-134a y agua en sus ciclos respectivos, y
el COP total de este sistema en cascada.
 EJEMPLO 5
La figura muestra un sistema de refrigeración de compresión de vapor de dos
etapas con amoníaco como fluido de trabajo. El sistema utiliza un
intercambiador de calor de contacto directo para lograr el enfriamiento
intermedio. El evaporador tiene una capacidad de refrigeración de 30
toneladas y produce vapor saturado a 220 °F en su salida. En la primera
etapa del compresor, el refrigerante se comprime adiabáticamente a 80 psia,
que es la presión en el intercambiador de calor de contacto directo. El vapor
saturado a 80 psia entra en la segunda etapa del compresor y se comprime
adiabáticamente a 250 psia. Cada etapa del compresor tiene una eficiencia
isentrópica del 85%. No hay caídas de presión significativas a medida que el
refrigerante pasa a través de los intercambiadores de calor. El líquido
saturado ingresa a cada válvula de expansión.
Determine
(a) la relación de los caudales másicos, 𝑚ሶ 3 /𝑚ሶ 1 .
(b) la potencia de entrada a cada etapa del compresor, en hp.
(c) el coeficiente de rendimiento.
 EJEMPLO 6
La figura muestra un sistema de refrigeración por compresión de vapor de
dos etapas con dos evaporadores y un intercambiador de calor de contacto
directo. El vapor saturado de amoníaco del evaporador 1 ingresa al
compresor 1 a 18 psia y sale a 70 psia. El evaporador 2 funciona a 70 psia,
y se encuentra como vapor saturado estado 8. La presión del condensador
es 200 psia, y el refrigerante sale del condensador como líquido saturado.
Cada etapa del compresor tiene una eficiencia isentrópica del 80%. La
capacidad de refrigeración de cada evaporador se muestra en la figura.
Dibuje el diagrama T-s del ciclo y determine:
(a) las temperaturas, en °F, del refrigerante en cada evaporador.
(b) la potencia de entrada a cada etapa del compresor, en caballos de
fuerza.
c) el coeficiente global de desempeño (COP).
d) Desarrolle el ejercicio ahora con R134a.
d) Desarrolle una gráfica variando la capacidad de enfriamiento del
evaporador primario y segundario vs COP para ambos refrigerantes.
Summary

• Refrigerators and Heat Pumps

• The Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The Ideal Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
• Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Cycle
• Selecting the Right Refrigerant
• Heat Pump Systems
• Innovative Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Systems

31
 TAREA

•CAP 11 Termodinámica de Cengel

•CAP 9 Termodinámica FUNDAMENTALS

OF ENGINEERING THERMODYNAMICS
Moran