Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach

Seventh Edition in SI Units

Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles
McGraw-Hill, 2011

Chapter 11
REFRIGERATION CYCLES

Mehmet Kanoglu
University of Gaziantep

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
• Introduce the concepts of refrigerators and heat pumps
and the measure of their performance.
• Analyze the ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Analyze the actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.
• Review the factors involved in selecting the right
refrigerant for an application.
• Discuss the operation of refrigeration and heat pump
systems.
• Evaluate the performance of innovative vapor-
compression refrigeration systems.
• Analyze gas refrigeration systems.
• Introduce the concepts of absorption-refrigeration
systems.
2
 REFRIGERATORS AND
HEAT PUMPS
The transfer of heat from a low-temperature
region to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Another device that transfers heat from a
low-temperature medium to a high-
temperature one is the heat pump.
Refrigerators and heat pumps are essentially
the same devices; they differ in their
objectives only.

The objective of a refrigerator is to remove heat

for fixed values of
(QL) from the cold medium; the objective of a heat
QL and QH
pump is to supply heat (QH) to a warm medium.
3
THE REVERSED CARNOT CYCLE
The reversed Carnot cycle is the most efficient refrig. cycle operating between TL and TH.
It is not a suitable model for refrigeration cycles since processes 2-3 and 4-1 are not practical
because Process 2-3 involves the compression of a liquid–vapor mixture, which requires a
compressor that will handle two phases, and process 4-1 involves the expansion of high-
moisture-content refrigerant in a turbine.

Both COPs increase as

the difference between the
two temperatures
decreases, that is, as TL
rises or TH falls.

Schematic of a
Carnot refrigerator
and T-s diagram
of the reversed
Carnot cycle. 4
THE IDEAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the ideal model for refrigeration
systems. Unlike the reversed Carnot cycle, the refrigerant is vaporized completely
before it is compressed and the turbine is replaced with a throttling device.

This is the most

widely used cycle
for refrigerators,
A-C systems, and
heat pumps.

Schematic and T-s

diagram for the ideal
vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.
5
The ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle involves an irreversible (throttling)
process to make it a more realistic model for the actual systems.
Replacing the expansion valve by a turbine is not practical since the added
benefits cannot justify the added cost and complexity.
Steady-flow
energy balance

An ordinary
household
refrigerator.

The P-h diagram of an ideal vapor-

compression refrigeration cycle.
6
ACTUAL VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION CYCLE
An actual vapor-compression refrigeration cycle differs from the ideal one owing
mostly to the irreversibilities that occur in various components, mainly due to fluid
friction (causes pressure drops) and heat transfer to or from the surroundings.
The COP decreases as a result
of irreversibilities. DIFFERENCES
Non-isentropic compression
Superheated vapor at evaporator exit
Subcooled liquid at condenser exit
Pressure drops in condenser and evaporator

Schematic and
T-s diagram for
the actual
vapor-
compression
refrigeration
cycle. 7
SECOND-LAW ANALYSIS OF VAPOR-
COMPRESSION REFRIGERATION CYCLE
The maximum COP of a refrigeration cycle operating
between temperature limits of TL and TH

Actual refrigeration cycles are not as efficient as ideal ones like the Carnot cycle
because of the irreversibilities involved. But the conclusion we can draw from Eq.
11–9 that the COP is inversely proportional to the temperature difference TH - TL
is equally valid for actual refrigeration cycles.
The goal of a second-law or exergy analysis of a refrigeration system is to
determine the components that can benefit the most by improvements.
This is done identifying the locations of greatest exergy destruction and the
components with the lowest exergy or second-law efficiency.
Exergy destruction in a component can be determined directly from an exergy
balance or by using

8
Note that when TH = T0,
which is often the case for
refrigerators, ηII,cond = 0
since there is no
recoverable exergy in this
case.
9
 The exergy rate associated
with the withdrawal of heat
from the low-temperature
medium at TL at a rate of QL
This is equivalent to the power that can be
produced by a Carnot heat engine receiving heat
from the environment at T0 and rejecting heat to
the low temperature medium at TL at a rate of QL.

Note that when TL = T0, which is often the case for heat pumps,
ηII,evap = 0 since there is no recoverable exergy in this case.
10
 Total exergy
destruction

Second-law (exergy) efficiency

T0 = TH for a
refrigeration cycle

This second-law efficiency definition accounts for all

irreversibilities associated within the refrigerator, including the
heat transfers with the refrigerated space and the environment. 11
SELECTING THE RIGHT REFRIGERANT
• Several refrigerants may be used in refrigeration systems such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), ammonia, hydrocarbons (propane, ethane, ethylene,
etc.), carbon dioxide, air (in the air-conditioning of aircraft), and even water (in
applications above the freezing point).
• R-11, R-12, R-22, R-134a, and R-502 account for over 90 percent of the market.
• The industrial and heavy-commercial sectors use ammonia (it is toxic).
• R-11 is used in large-capacity water chillers serving A-C systems in buildings.
• R-134a (replaced R-12, which damages ozone layer) is used in domestic
refrigerators and freezers, as well as automotive air conditioners.
• R-22 is used in window air conditioners, heat pumps, air conditioners of commercial
buildings, and large industrial refrigeration systems, and offers strong competition
to ammonia.
• R-502 (a blend of R-115 and R-22) is the dominant refrigerant used in commercial
refrigeration systems such as those in supermarkets.
• CFCs allow more ultraviolet radiation into the earth’s atmosphere by destroying the
protective ozone layer and thus contributing to the greenhouse effect that causes
global warming. Fully halogenated CFCs (such as R-11, R-12, and R-115) do the
most damage to the ozone layer. Refrigerants that are friendly to the ozone layer
have been developed.
• Two important parameters that need to be considered in the selection of a
refrigerant are the temperatures of the two media (the refrigerated space and the
environment) with which the refrigerant exchanges heat. 12
HEAT PUMP SYSTEMS The most common energy source for
heat pumps is atmospheric air (air-to-
air systems).
Water-source systems usually use
well water and ground-source
(geothermal) heat pumps use earth as
the energy source. They typically have
higher COPs but are more complex
and more expensive to install.
Both the capacity and the efficiency of
a heat pump fall significantly at low
temperatures. Therefore, most air-
source heat pumps require a
supplementary heating system such
as electric resistance heaters or a gas
furnace.
Heat pumps are most competitive in
areas that have a large cooling load
during the cooling season and a
relatively small heating load during the
heating season. In these areas, the
heat pump can meet the entire cooling
and heating needs of residential or
A heat pump can be used to heat a house in commercial buildings.
13
winter and to cool it in summer.
INNOVATIVE VAPOR-COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
• The simple vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is the most widely used
refrigeration cycle, and it is adequate for most refrigeration applications.
• The ordinary vapor-compression refrigeration systems are simple,
inexpensive, reliable, and practically maintenance-free.
• However, for large industrial applications efficiency, not simplicity, is the
major concern.
• Also, for some applications the simple vapor-compression refrigeration
cycle is inadequate and needs to be modified.
• For moderately and very low temperature applications some innovative
refrigeration systems are used. The following cycles will be discussed:
• Cascade refrigeration systems
• Multistage compression refrigeration systems
• Multipurpose refrigeration systems with a single compressor
• Liquefaction of gases

14
Cascade Refrigeration Systems
Some industrial applications require moderately low temperatures, and the
temperature range they involve may be too large for a single vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle to be practical. The solution is cascading.

Cascading
improves the
COP of a
refrigeration
system.
Some systems
use three or
four stages of
cascading.

A two-stage cascade refrigeration system

with the same refrigerant in both stages. 15
Multistage When the fluid used throughout the cascade
refrigeration system is the same, the heat
Compression exchanger between the stages can be
Refrigeration Systems replaced by a mixing chamber (called a flash
chamber) since it has better heat transfer
characteristics.

A two-stage compression refrigeration

system with a flash chamber. 16
 Multipurpose Refrigeration Systems with a Single
Compressor
Some applications require refrigeration at more than one
temperature. A practical and economical approach is to route all
the exit streams from the evaporators to a single compressor and
let it handle the compression process for the entire system.

Schematic and T-s diagram for a refrigerator–freezer unit with one compressor. 17
 Many important scientific and engineering
Liquefaction of Gases processes at cryogenic temperatures (below
about -100°C) depend on liquefied gases
including the separation of oxygen and nitrogen
from air, preparation of liquid propellants for
rockets, the study of material properties at low
temperatures, and the study of superconductivity.

The storage (i.e., hydrogen) and

transportation of some gases (i.e., natural
gas) are done after they are liquefied at very
low temperatures. Several innovative cycles
are used for the liquefaction of gases.

Linde-
Hampson
system for
liquefying
gases.
18
GAS REFRIGERATION CYCLES
The reversed Brayton cycle (the gas refrigeration
cycle) can be used for refrigeration.

Simple gas refrigeration cycle. 19

The gas refrigeration cycles have
lower COPs relative to the vapor-
compression refrigeration cycles or
the reversed Carnot cycle.
The reversed Carnot cycle
consumes a fraction of the net work
(area 1A3B) but produces a greater
amount of refrigeration (triangular
area under B1).

An open-cycle aircraft cooling system.

Despite their relatively low COPs, the

gas refrigeration cycles involve simple,
lighter components, which make them
suitable for aircraft cooling, and they
can incorporate regeneration

20
Without regeneration, the lowest turbine inlet temperature is T0, the
temperature of the surroundings or any other cooling medium.
With regeneration, the high-pressure gas is further cooled to T4 before
expanding in the turbine.
Lowering the turbine inlet temperature automatically lowers the turbine
exit temperature, which is the minimum temperature in the cycle.

Extremely low temperatures can be achieved

by repeating regeneration process.

Gas refrigeration cycle with regeneration. 21

ABSORPTION REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
Absorption
refrigeration is
economical when
there is a source of
inexpensive thermal
energy at a
temperature of 100
to 200°C.
Some examples
include geothermal
energy, solar energy,
and waste heat from
cogeneration or
process steam
plants, and even
natural gas when it is
at a relatively low
price.
Ammonia absorption refrigeration cycle.
22
• Absorption refrigeration systems (ARS) involve the absorption of a
refrigerant by a transport medium.
• The most widely used system is the ammonia–water system, where
ammonia (NH3) serves as the refrigerant and water (H2O) as the transport
medium.
• Other systems include water–lithium bromide and water–lithium chloride
systems, where water serves as the refrigerant. These systems are limited
to applications such as A-C where the minimum temperature is above the
freezing point of water.
• Compared with vapor-compression systems, ARS have one major
advantage: A liquid is compressed instead of a vapor and as a result the
work input is very small (on the order of one percent of the heat supplied to
the generator) and often neglected in the cycle analysis.
• ARS are often classified as heat-driven systems.
• ARS are much more expensive than the vapor-compression refrigeration
systems. They are more complex and occupy more space, they are much
less efficient thus requiring much larger cooling towers to reject the waste
heat, and they are more difficult to service since they are less common.
• Therefore, ARS should be considered only when the unit cost of thermal
energy is low and is projected to remain low relative to electricity.
• ARS are primarily used in large commercial and industrial installations.
23
 The COP of actual absorption
refrigeration systems is usually less
than 1.
Air-conditioning systems based on
absorption refrigeration, called
absorption chillers, perform best
when the heat source can supply
heat at a high temperature with little
temperature drop.

Determining the
maximum COP of
an absorption
refrigeration system.
24
Summary
• Refrigerators and Heat Pumps
• The Reversed Carnot Cycle
• The Ideal Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Actual Vapor-Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Second-law Analysis of Vapor-Compression
Refrigeration Cycle
• Selecting the Right Refrigerant
• Heat Pump Systems
• Innovative Vapor-Compression Refrigeration
Systems
• Gas Refrigeration Cycles
• Absorption Refrigeration Systems
25