SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – I - INTRODUCTION – SCIA5201

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 SCIA5201 - Finite Element Analysis

UNIT-I INTRODUCTION

Boundary Conditions
For structural mechanics problems the boundary conditions may be kinematic, i.e.
where the displacements (and slope, i.e. derivative of displacement), may be prescribed,
or static, i.e. where forces (and moments) may be prescribed. In problems where time
is involved the initial values may have to be specified. Figure 1.1 shows a cantilever
beam AB subjected to a uniformly distributed load. If the vertical deflection w at any
point is taken as a field variable, it must satisfy the differential equation Eq. (1.1), which
is an equilibrium condition,
d4 w
El /dx4 = p
And the solution to the above equation must also satisfy the boundary conditions at A
and B as follows.

Introduction
Kinematic boundary conditions at A: Displacement w=0 and slope

Fig. 1.1 A cantilever beam

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static or force boundary conditions at B: shear force,
d3w
EI =0
dx3

and bending moment

d2w
EI =0
dx2

The variational formulation of the above problem is discussed and the application of
Euler-Lagrange equation to obtain the governing differential equation is illustrated
for the above cantilever beam problem.

APPROXIMATE SOLUTIONS

It is not possible to obtain analytical solution for many engineering problems. An

analytical solution is a mathematical expression that gives the value of the field
variable at any location in the body. For problems involving complex shapes,
material properties and complicated boundary conditions, it is difficult and if many
cases intractable to obtain analytical solution that satisfies the governing differential
equations or gives extreme value to the governing functional. Hence, for mast of the
practical problems the engineer resorts to numerical methods that provide
approximate but acceptable solutions. The three methods that are used are as follows:
(i) Functional approximation (ii) Finite difference method (iii) Finite element method
A brief description of the first two methods is given in the subsequent sections and
then the finite element method is introduced as a powerful numerical method, widely
used in practice.

Functional Approximation

A set of independent functions satisfying the boundary conditions is chosen and a

linear combination of a finite number of them is taken to approximately specify the field
variable at any point. The unknown parameters that combine the functions are found out in
such a way to achieve at best the field condition, which is represented through variational
formulation. The well known classical methods such as Rayleigh- Ritz, Galerkin and
collocation are based on functional approximation but vary in their procedure for
valuating the unknown parameters [6].

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 The Ray-leigh Ritz method is briefly described below. Consider a simply supported beam,
shown in Fig.1.2
subjected to a central concentrated load P and a uniformly distributed load of
intensity

Fig. 1.2 Simply supported beam

In this problem if the deflected shape of the beam is known, the bending moment
and shear force at any cross-section can be determined. Consider the following
approximation to the deflection curve that satisfies the boundary condition.
πx 3πx
W=a1 Sin +a2 (a)
L L

where a1 and a2 are unknown parameters. It is known from the elementary strength
of materials that the strain energy, U, of the beam due to bending is

(b)

Substituting for w from equation (a) into equation (b),

(c)

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 The potential energy due to loads is given by,
L
H= - ∫0 P0 w dx − Pwmax

(d)

The total potential energy, π, of the beam is

(e)

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For stable equilibrium of the body the potential energy attains stationary value. It can be seen
from equation (e) that the total potential energy is now expressed in terms of the parameters
al and a2. Hence, for stationary value of 7T the following conditions must be satisfied,

1
=0 2
=0 (f)

Applying the above conditions to equation (e) we get,

(g)

(h)

Solving the above two equations we get, (i)

(j)

Thus the maximum deflection at the centre of the beam is,

(k)

The maximum deflection practically coincides with the exact value of

The bending moment at

a any point
po n along
a ong the
he beam is given by (l)

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After substituting for the values of at and a2 from equation (i) and (j) into equation
(a) and differentiating, the bending moment, Me, at the centre of the beam, x = L/2,
can be shown to be

(m)

It may be noted that the error in the first term is 9.92 per cent and that in the second term is
0.62 per cent. This error can be reduced by adding more terms to the
approximate (or trial) function for w, i.e. into equation (a). The above procedure can be

extended to the analysis of a three dimensional solid. In general a deformable body

consists of infinite material points and, therefore, it has infinitely many degrees of
freedom. By the Rayleigh-Ritz method such a continuous system is reduced to a system of
finite degrees of freedom. For the case of three dimensional solid, the variation
of the field variables, displacements u, r and w can approximately be represented by the
following trial functions
where ai, th and ci are linearly independent unknown parameters and 0, p (x, y, z), , (x,y,z)
and 1bi (x, v, z), where 2, . . n are continuous functions in x, y and z that satisfy all the
kinematic boundary conditions. By this approximation the body is reduced to have

311 degrees of freedom. Now the potential energy of the body can be expressed by a
functional in terms of these parameters.

As was indicated earlier that for stable equilibrium of the body the potential energy
attains a stationary value and as the potential energy functional is in terms of the
parameters al, bi and ci the following equations must be satisfied.

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we get 3,1 linear algebraic equations to solve the u., known parameters ai, bt and Ci. It may
be noted that the assumed trial functions must be continuous and satisfy all the prescribed
boundary conditions, and no simple guidelines are available to select such functions. Also
the classical approach of arriving at the equations of the type (1.6) is quite cumbersome.
Hence, except in simple situations, this approach could not beused to solve practical
problems. However, the concepts used in Rayleigh-Ritz method, i.e. representing the
variation of the field variable by trial function and finding the unknown parameters through
minimization of potential energy, are well exploited in the finite element method.

Variational method

Variational formulation is the generalized method of formulating the element

stiffness matrix and load vector using the variational principle of solid mechanics.
The strain energy in a structural body is given by the relation

U =1

∭ �εT��σ�dΩ
2
Ω
For a 3D structural problem, stress has six components: {σ }= {σ x,σy,σz,Txy,Tyz,tzx }
Similarly, there are six components of strains: {ε}T ={ εx, εy, εz, γxy, γyz, γzx }
Now the strain displacement relationship can be expressed as {ε } =[B]{d} , where
{d} is the displacement vector in x, y and z directions and [B] is called as the strain
displacement relationship matrix. Again, the stress can be represented in terms of its
constitutive relationship matrix: {σ } =[D]{ε } . Here [D] is called as the constituent
relationship matrix. Using the above relationship in the strain energy equation one
can arrive
1
U= ∭ ��B��d��T �D��B��d�dΩ
2
Ω
Applying the variational principle one can express

{F}= = ∭[ ]T [D][B]dΩ{d}
� �

Now, from the relationship of {F} =[K]{d}, one can arrive at the element stiffness
matrix as:
[K] = ∭�B�T [D][B] dΩ
Ω
Thus, by the use of Variational principle, the stiffness matrix of a structural element
can be obtained as expressed in the above equation.

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Weighted Residual Method

Virtual work and Variational method are applicable and adequate for most of the
problems. However, in some cases functional analogous to potential energy cannot be
written because of not having clear physical meaning. For some applications, such as in
fluid mechanics problem, functional needed for a variational approach cannot be
expressed. For some types of fluid flow problems, only differential equations and boundary
conditions are available. For Such problems weighted residual method can be used for
obtaining the solutions. Approximate solutions of differential equation satisfy only part
of conditions of the problem. For example a differential equation may be satisfied only at
few points, rather than at each. The strategy used in weighted residual method is to first
take an approximate solution and then its validity is assessed. The different
methods in weighted Residual Method are

• Collocation method
• Least square method
• Method of moment
• Galerkin method

The mathematical statement of a physical problem can be defined as: In

domainΩ,
Du−f =0
Where,
D is the differential operator
u = u(x) = dependent variables such as displacement, pressure, velocity,
potential function
x = independent variables such as coordinates of a point f = a
function of x which may be constant or zero

If u is an approximate solution then residual in domainΩ, R =Du−f

According to the weighted residual method, the weak form of above equation will
become

∫ Wi RdΩ � For i= 1,2,3,....n

0
Ω
or

∫ Wi �Du � f�dΩ = 0
Ω

Where weighting function wi= wi(x) is chosen from the approximate basis function
used for constructing approximated solution u.

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RAYLEIGH-RITZ METHOD
In mechanics of solids, our problem is to determine the displacement u of the body
satisfying the equilibrium stresses are related to strains, which, in turn, are related to
displacements. This leads to requiring solution of second order partial differential
equations. Solution of this set of equations is generally referred to as an exact
solution. Such exact solutions are available for simple geometries and loading conditions,
and one may refer to publications in theory of elasticity. For problems of complex
geometries and general boundary and loading conditions, obtaining such solutions is an
almost impossible task. Approximate solution methods usually employ potential
energy or variational methods, which place less stringent conditions on the functions.

Potential Energy
The total potential energy of an elastic body, is defined as the sum of total strain
energy (U) and the work potential:
n = Strain energy + Work potential
(U) (WP)
1
For linear elastic materials., the strain energy per unit volume in the body is σTε.
2
The total strain energy U is given by
U=1 ∫ T
ε dv
2
v
The work potential WP is given by

Wp = - ∫ Tf dV - ∫ UTTds – Σ u Ti Pj
v s i
The total potential for the general elastic body is
n = 12 ∫ TεdV - ∫ TfdV -∫ TdS – Σu Tip i
v v s f
We consider conservative systems here, where the work potential is independent of the path
taken. In other words, if the system is displaced from a given configuration and brought
back to this state, the forces do zero work regardless of the path.

Kinematically admissible displacements are those that satisfy the single-valued nature of
displacements (compatibility) and the boundary conditions. In problems where
displacements are the unknowns, which is the approach in this book, compatibility is
automatically satisfied.

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Galerkins method

Galerkin method is the most widely used among the various weighted residual
methods. Galerkin method incorporates differential equations in their weak form, i.e., before
starting integration by parts it is in strong form and after by parts it will be in weak form, so
that they are satisfied over a domain in an integral. Thus, in case of Galerkin method, the
equations are satisfied over a domain in an integral or average sense, rather than at very
point. The solution of the equations must satisfy theboundary conditions. There are two
types of boundary conditions:

• Essential or kinematic boundary condition

• Non essential or natural boundary condition

As a result, displacement and slope will be essential boundary condition where as

moment and shear will be non-essential boundary condition.

Galerkin's method uses the set of governing equations in the development of an

integral form. It is usually presented as one of the weighted residual methods. For our
discussion, let us consider a general representation of a governing equation on a
region V:
Lu = P (a)
For the one-dimensional rod the governing equation is the differential equation
(EA ) = 0
We may consider L as the operator
EA ( )
operating on u.
The exact solution needs to satisfy (a) at every point x. If we seek an approximate
solution u, it introduces an error ε(x), called the residual:
ε(X) = Lu - P (b) (b)
The approximate methods revolve around setting the residual relative to a weighting
function wi to zero:

∫ Wi(LU - P)dV = 0 i = 1 to n (c)

The choice of the weighting function Wi leads to various approximation methods. In
the Galerkin method, the weighting functions Wi are chosen from the basis functions
used for constructing U. Let u be represented by
u=2∑ =1 QiGi (d)
where Gi i = 1 to n, are basis functions (usually polynomials of x, y, z). Here, we
choose the weighting functions to be a linear combination of the basis functions Gi
Specifically, consider an arbitrary function given by

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 Φ = ∑ =1 iGi (e)

where the coefficients Φi are arbitrary, except for requiring that Φi satisfy
homogeneous (zero) boundary conditions where u is prescribed.

Galerkin's method can be stated as follows:

Choose basis functions Gi · Determine the coefficients Qii in u =∑ =1 i Gi such that

∫ (LU - P) dV = 0 (f)
for every Φ of the type Φ = ∑ iG i where coefficients Φ, are arbitrary except for
requiring that Φ satisfy homogeneous (zero) boundary conditions. The solution of the
resulting equations for Qi then yields the approximate solution U.

Usually, in the treatment of (f) an integration by parts is involved. The order of the
derivatives is reduced and the natural boundary conditions, such as surface-force
conditions, are introduced.

Displacement

In the case of a three dimensional solid or a structure, the displacement at any point
can be expressed by its components u, v and w parallel to the cartesian coordinate
axes x, y and z. The displacement u, v and w are continuous functions of x, y and z.
Any virtual displacement will also be continuous functions and in addition that they
should satisfy the kinematic boundary conditions.

The equilibrium conditions to be satisfied by the stresses within the body and on the
boundary are given in Eqs:

(a)

and

(b)

Multiply the equilibrium Eqs 2.5 by Su and 8v respectively and integrate over the
area of the solid

(c)

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In order to give a physical interpretation to the equation we can consider Su and 8v as
virtual displacements and also expand each one of the terms by using the Green's
theorem in two dimensions. if sb(x, y) and 0(x, y) are continuous functions with their
first and second partial derivatives are also continuous, then according to Green's
theorem,

(d)

Consider the first term

e m oof the
he integral
n eg a in
n eq (c). Le Φ=σx and assume ψ such that
c Let

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Thus Eq. (C) is transformed to

(d)

Eq (d) becomes
eco mes

-δU+δWe =0

δWe= δU

For equilibrium to exist the total external virtual work is equal to the total internal
virtual work. Thisma the-matical statement is a necessary condition for equilibrium.
Again if we apply Green's theorem in the opposite direction

Thus, the principle of virtual displacement can be stated as that a de-formable system
is in equilibrium if the total external virtual work is equal to the total internal virtual
work for every virtual displacement satisfying the kinematic boundary conditions. It
may be noted here that the principle of virtual displacement is an equilibrium
requirement and is independent of the material behaviour.

Shape Function

Based on the shapes elements can be classified as

(i) One dimensional elements

(ii) Two dimensional elements

(iii)Three dimensional elements

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One dimensional elements

These elements are suitable for the analysis of one dimensional problem and may be
called as line elements also. Figure 1.3 shows different types of one dimensional
elements.

Fig 1.3 one dimensional elements

Two Dimensional elements

We need two dimensional elements to solve two dimensional problems. Common

two dimensional problems in stress analysis are plane stress, plane strain and plate
problems. Two dimensional elements often used is three noded triangular element
shown in Fig. 1.4. It has the distinction of being the first and most used element.
These elements are known as Constant Strain Triangles (CST) or Linear
Displacement Triangles.

Fig 1.4 Constant Strain triangle

Six noded and ten noded triangular elements (Fig. 1.5) are also used by the analysts.
Six noded triangular element is known as Linear Strain Triangle (LST) or as
Quadratic Displacement Triangle. Ten noded triangular elements are known as
Quadratic Strain Triangles (QST) or Cubic Displacement Triangles. One can think of
trying the use of still higher order triangular elements like Cubic Strain Triangles and
Quartic Strain Triangles. A simple but less used two dimensional element is the four
noded rectangular element whose sides are parallel to the global coordinate systems
(Fig. 1.7). This systems is easy to construct automatically but it is not well suited to
approximate inclined boundaries.

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Fig 1.5 (a) Linear strain triangle (b) Quadratic Strain triangle

Fig 1.6 (a) Cubic strain triangle (b) Quadratic strain triangle

Fig 1.7 4 noded rectangular element

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Lagrange, Serendipity and iso parametric Elements
Rectangular elements of higher order also can be used. Figure 1.8 shows a family of
Lagrange rectangle in which nodes are in the form of grid points. Figure 1.9 shows
the family of Serendipity rectangles which are having nodes only along the external
boundaries.

Fig 1.8 Lagrange family rectangular elements

Fig 1.9 Serendipity Family rectangular elememts

Quadrilateral Elements are also used in finite element analysis (Fig. 1.10). Initially
quadrilateral elements were developed by combining triangular elements (Fig. 1.11).
But it has taken back stage after isoparametric concept was developed. Isoparametric
concept is based on using same functions for defining geometries and nodal
unknowns. Even higher order triangular elements may be used to generate
quadrilateral elements.

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 Fig 1.10 Quadrilateral element

Fig 1.11 Quadrilateral elements generated using triangular elements

Using isoparametric concept even curved elements are developed to take care of
boundaries with curved shapes (Fig. 1.12).

Fig 1.12 iso parametric two dimensional elements

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Three Dimensional elements
Similar to the triangle for two dimensional problems tetrahedron is the basic element
for three dimensional problems (Fig. 1.13). Tetrahedron is having four nodes, one at
each corner. Three dimensional elements with eight nodes are either in the form of a
general hexahedron or a rectangular prism, which is a particular case of a hexahedron.
The rectangular prism element is many times called as a brick element also. In these
elements also one can think of using higher order elements. (Fig. 1.13).

Fig 1.13 (a) tetrahedron element (b) Rectangular prism element

(c) Arbitary hexahedron element (d) Three dimensional quadratic element

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Minimum potential energy

The minimum total potential energy principle is a fundamental concept used in

physics, chemistry, biology, and engineering. It asserts that a structure or body shall deform
or displace to a position that minimizes the total potential energy, with the lost potential
energy being dissipated as heat. For example, a marble placed in a bowl will move to the
bottom and rest there, and similarly, a tree branch laden with snow will bend to a lower
position. The lower position is the position for minimum potential energy: it is the
stable configuration for equilibrium. The principle has many applications in structural
analysis and solid mechanics.

A binding energy is the energy that must be exported from a system for the system to enter a
bound state. If the potential energy is chosen to be zero when the system is unbound, the
potential energy of the system is negative after it enters a bound state.[1] A bound system
has a lower (i.e., more negative) potential energy than the sum of its
parts—this is what keeps the system aggregated in accordance with the minimum
total potential energy principle.

The total potential energy, is the sum of the elastic strain energy,U, stored in the
deformed body and the potential energy V associated to the applied forces:

= U+V

This energy is at a stationary position when an infinitesimal variation from such

position involves no change in energy:

δ = δ (U+V) = 0

The principle of minimum total potential energy may be derived as a special case of
the virtual work principle for elastic systems subject to conservative forces. The
equality between external and internal virtual work (due to virtual displacements) is:
T T T
∫ U T ds +∫ u fdv = ∫ ε σdv

Where

U = Vector of displacements

T=Vector of distributed forces on the part St of the surface

F=Vector of body forces

In the special case of elastic bodies, the right-hand-side of can be taken to be the
change, , of elastic strain energy U due to infinitesimal variations of real

20
displacements. In addition, when the external forces are conservative forces, the left-
hand-side of can be seen as the change in the potential energy function V of the
forces. The function V is defined as:

V = -∫ Tds - ∫ Tfdv

where the minus sign implies a loss of potential energy as the force is displaced in its
direction. With these two subsidiary conditions, becomes:

-δV = δU

Generation of Stiffness Matrix

The stiffness matrix of a structural system can be derived by various methods like
Variational principle, Galerkin method etc. The derivation of an element stiffness
matrix has already been discussed in earlier lecture. The stiffness matrix is an
inherent property of the structure. Element stiffness is obtained with respect to its axes
and then transformed this stiffness to structure axes. The properties of stiffness matrix
are as follows:
Stiffness matrix is symmetric and square.
In stiffness matrix, all diagonal elements are positive.
Stiffness matrix is positive definite
For example, if K is a symmetric n × n real matrix and x is non-zero column vector,
then K will be positive definite while xTKx is positive.

Global Stiffness Matrix

A structural system is an assemblage of number of elements. These elements are
interconnected together to form the whole structure. Therefore, the element stiffness
of all the elements are first need to be calculated and then assembled together in
systematic manner. It may be noted that the stiffness at a joint is obtained by adding
the stiffness of all elements meeting at that joint. To start with, the degrees of
freedom of the structure are numbered first. This numbering will start from 1 to n
where n is the total degrees of freedom. These numberings are referred to as degrees of
freedom corresponding to global degrees of freedom. The element stiffness matrix
of each element should be placed in their proper position in the overall stiffness
matrix. The following steps may be performed to calculate the global stiffness matrix of the
whole structure.
a. Initialize global stiffness matrix [K] as zero. The size of global stiffness matrix will be
equal to the total degrees of freedom of the structure.
b. Compute individual element properties and calculate local stiffness matrix [k] of that
element.
c. Add local stiffness matrix [k] to global stiffness matrix [k] using proper locations
d. Repeat the Step b. and c. till all local stiffness matrices are placed globally.

21
The steps to be followed in the computer program are shown in the form of flow
chart in Fig. 1.14 for assembling the local stiffness matrix to global stiffness matrix

Fig 1.14 Assembly of stiffness matrix from local to global

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – II - STRESS ANALYSIS – SCIA5201

23
 UNIT-II STRESS ANALYSIS

The problems of solid mechanics may be formulated as three-dimensional

problems and finite element technique may be used to solve them. In many
practical situations, the geometry and loading will be such that the problems
may be formulated to two-dimensional or one-dimensional problems without
much loss of accuracy. The relation between strain and displacement for two
dimensional problems can be simplified as follows.

The above expression can be written in a combined form: (c)

Eq. (c) is the compatibility equation since it states the geometric requirements. This
condition will ensure adjacent elements to remain free from discontinuities such as gaps
and overlaps.

Plane stress problem

The plane stress problem is characterized by very small dimensions in one of
the normal directions. Some typical examples are shown in Fig. 1. In these
cases, it is assumed that no stress component varies across the thickness and the
stress components σz, xz and yz are zero. The state of stress is specified by σx,
σy and xy only and is called plane stress.

Fig. 1 Plane stress example: Thin plate with in-plane loading

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The stress components may be expressed in terms of strain, which is as follows.

The strain components can also be expressed in terms of the stress, which is
given below

It can also be shown that

Plane strain problem

Problems involving long bodies whose geometry and loading do not vary
significantly in the longitudinal direction are referred to as plane strain
problems. Some typical examples are given in Fig. 2. In these cases, a constant
longitudinal displacement corresponding to a rigid body translation and
displacements linear in z corresponding to rigid body rotation do not result in strain.
As a result, the following relations arise.

z = yz = zx =0

The
The cconstitutive
ononss u ve relation
e a on for
o eelastic
as c isotropic material
s o op c ma e a for
o this
h s case
case may
ma y be
be ggiven
ve
by
by

25
The strain components can be expressed in terms of the stress as follows.

(a) Retaining wall (b) Dam

Fig. 2 Plane strain examples

Axisymmetric Problem

Many problems in stress analysis which are of practical interest involve solids of
revolution subject to axially symmetric loading. A circular cylinder loaded by a
uniform internal or external pressure, circular footing resting on soil mass,
pressure vessels, rotating wheels, flywheels etc. The strain displacement
relations in these type of problems are given by

26
The two components of displacements in any plane section of the body along its
axis of symmetry define completely the state of strain and therefore the state of
stress. The constitutive relations are given below for such types of problems.

Triangular element

The triangular element can be used to represent the arbitrary geometry much
easily. On the other hand, rectangular elements, in general, are of limited use as
they are not well suited for representing curved boundaries. However, an
assemblage of rectangular and triangular element with triangular elements near
the boundary can be very effective (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Finite element mesh consisting of triangular and rectangular element

The shape function for triangular elements (linear, quadratic and cubic) with
various nodes (Fig. 4) can be formulated. An internal node will exist for cubic
element as seen in Fig. 4(c).

27
 Fig. 4 Triangular elements
In displacement formulation, it is very important to approximate the variation of
displacement in the element by suitable function. The interpolation function can
be derived either using the Cartesian coordinate system or by the area
coordinates.

Shape function using Cartesian coordinates

Polynomials are easiest way of mathematical operation for expressing variation

of displacement. For example, the displacement variation within the element
can be represented by the following function in case of two dimensional plane
stress/strain problems.

where α0, α1, α2 ….. are unknown coefficients. Thus the displacement vectors at
any point P,in the element (Fig.4) can be expressed with the following relation.

28
 Fig. 4 Triangular element in Cartesian Coordinates

Similarly, for “m” node element having three degrees of freedom at each node,
the displacement function can be expressed as

Hence, in such case,

Now, for a linear triangular element with 2 degrees of freedom, eq. (3.2.3) can
be written in terms of the nodal displacements as follows.

29
Where, {d} is the nodal displacements. To simplify the above expression for
finding out the shape function, the displacements in X direction can be
separated out which will be as follows:

To obtain the polynomial coefficients, {α} the matrix of the above equation are
to be inverted. Thus,

Where, A is the area of the triangle and can be obtained as follows.

30
Thus, the interpolation function can be obtained from the above as:

Such three node triangular element is commonly known as constant strain

triangle (CST) as its strain is assumed to be constant inside the element.

CST is the simplest element to develop mathematically. As there is no

variation of strain inside the element, the mesh size of the triangular element
should be small enough to get correct results. This element produces constant
temperature gradients ensuring constant heat flow within the element for heat
transfer problems.

Shape function for six node element

Fig. 5 shows a triangular element with six nodes. The additional three
nodes (4, 5, and 6) are situated at the midpoints of the sides of the element. A
complete polynomial representation of the field variable can be expressed with
the help of Pascal triangle:

Fig. 5 (a) Six node triangular element (b) Lines of constant values of the
area coordinates

31
Using the above field variable function, one can reach the following expression
using interpolation function and the nodal values.
2 2
∅(x,y) = 0 + 1x+ 2y+ 3x + 4xy+ 5y

Here, the every shape function must be such that its value will be unity if
evaluated at its related node and zero if evaluated at any of the other five nodes.
Moreover, as the field variable representation is quadratic, each interpolation
function will also become quadratic. Fig. 5 (a) shows the six node element with
node numbering convention along with the area coordinates at three corners.
The six node element with lines of constant values of the area coordinates
passing through the nodes is shown in Fig. 5 (b). Now the interpolation
functions can be constructed with the help of area coordinates from the above
diagram. For example, the interpolation function N1 should be unity at node 1
and zero at all other five nodes. According to the above diagram, the value of
L1 is 1 at node 1 and ½ at node 4 and 6. Again, L1 will be 0 at nodes 2, 3 and 5.
To satisfy all these conditions, one can propose following expression:

N (X,Y) = N (L ,L ,L )=L1 L1- 1

1 1 1 2 3
[ ]
2

Evaluating the above expression, the value of N1 is becoming ½ at node 1

though it must become unity. Therefore, the above expression is slightly
modified satisfying all the conditions and will be as follows:

[ ]=L
N1 = 2L 1 L 1-
1
2 1 (2L 1-1)

This assures the required conditions at all the six nodes and is a quadratic
function, asL1 is a linear function of x and y. The remaining five interpolation
functions can also be obtained in similar fashion applying the required nodal
conditions. Thus, the shape function for the six node triangle element can be
written as given below.

32
Such six node triangular element is commonly known as linear strain triangle
(LST) as its strain is assumed to vary linearly inside the element. In case of 2-D
plane stress/strain problem, the element displacement field for such quadratic
triangle may be expressed as so the element strain can be derived from the
above displacement field as follows.

So the element strain can be derived from the above displacement field as
follows.

The above expression shows that the strain components are linearly varying
inside the element. Therefore, this six node element is called linear strain
triangle. The main advantage of this element is that it can capture the variation
of strains and therefore stresses of the element.

33
Construction of Shape Function by Degrading Technique

Sometimes, the geometry of the structure or its loading and boundary conditions
are such that the stresses developed in few locations are quite high. On the other
hand, variations of stresses are less in some areas and as a result, refinement of
finite element mesh is not necessary. It would be economical in terms of
computation if higher order elements are chosen where stress concentration is high
and lower order elements at area away from the critical area. Fig.6 shows
graphical representations where various order of triangular elements are used for
generating a finite element mesh.

Fig. 6 Triangular elements with different number of nodes

Fig. 6 contains four types of element. Type 1 has only three nodes, type 2
element has five nodes, type 3 has four nodes and type 4 has six nodes. The
shape function for 3-node and 6-node triangular elements has already been
derived. The shape functions of 6-node element can suitably be degraded to
derive shape functions of other two types of triangular elements.

Quadrilateral element

Shape Function

The shape function of eight node rectangular element can be derived in similar
fashion as done in case of four node element. The only difference will be on
choosing of polynomial as this element is of quadratic in nature. The derivation
will be algebraically complex in case of using Cartesian coordinate system.
However, use of the natural coordinate system will make the process simpler as

34
the natural coordinates vary from -1 to +1 in the element. The variation of filed
variable ϕ can be expressed in natural coordinate system by the following
polynomial.

It may be noted that the cubic terms ξ3 and η3are omitted and geometric
invariance is ensured by choosing the above expression. Fig. 8 shows the
natural nodal coordinates of the eight node rectangle element in natural
coordinate system.

The nodal field variables can be obtained from the above expression after
putting the coordinates at nodes.

Fig. 8 Natural coordinates of eight node rectangular element

35
Replacing the unknown coefficient αi

Thus, the interpolation function will become

36
The shape functions of rectangular elements with higher nodes can be derived in
similar manner using appropriate polynomial satisfying all necessary criteria.
However, difficulty arises due to the inversion of large size of the matrix
because of higher degree of polynomial chosen. In next lecture, the shape
functions of rectangular element with higher nodes will be derived in a much
simpler way.

Natural coordinates

Natural coordinate system is basically a local coordinate system which allows

the specification of a point within the element by a set of dimensionless
numbers whose magnitude never exceeds unity. This coordinate system is found
to be very effective in formulating the element properties in finite element
formulation. This system is defined in such that the magnitude at nodal points
will have unity or zero or a convenient set of fractions. It also facilitates the
integration to calculate element stiffness.

The natural coordinate system for a triangular element is generally called as

triangular coordinate system. The coordinate of any point Pinside the triangle is
x,y in Cartesian coordinate system. Here, three coordinates, L1, L2 and L3 can
be used to define the location of the point in terms of natural coordinate system.
The point P can be defined by the following set of area coordinates:

1 2 ; 3
L1 = ; L2 = L3 =

Where,
A1= Area of the triangle P23
A2= Area of the triangle P13
A3= Area of the triangle P12
A=Area of the triangle 123

Thus,

A= A1+A2+A3

And

L1+L2+L3 = 1

37
 Therefore, the natural coordinate of three nodes will be: node 1 (1,0,0);
node 2 (0,1,0); and node 3 (0,0,1).

Fig. 9Triangular coordinate system

The area of the triangles can be written using Cartesian coordinates considering
x, y as coordinates of an arbitrary point P inside or on the boundaries of the
element:

38
The relation between two coordinate systems to define point P can be
established by their nodal coordinates as

The inverse between natural and Cartesian coordinates may be expressed as:

The derivatives with respect to global coordinates are necessary to determine

the properties of an element. The relationship between two coordinate systems
may be computed by using the chain rule of partial differentiation as

Where, b1 = y2 – y3; b2 = y3 – y1 and b3 = y1 – y2. Similarly, following

relation can be obtained.

39
Where, c1 = x3 – x2; c2 = x1 – x3 and c3 = x2 – x1. The above expressions are
looked cumbersome. However, the main advantage is the ease with which
polynomial terms can be integrated using following area integral expression.

Where 0! is defined
de ned as unity.
un y

Shape Function using Area Coordinates

The interpolation functions for the triangular element are algebraically complex
if expressed in Cartesian coordinates. Moreover, the integration required to
obtain the element stiffness matrix is quite cumbersome. This will be discussed
in details in next lecture. The interpolation function and subsequently the
required integration can be obtained in a simplified manner by the concept of
area coordinates. Considering a linear displacement variation of a triangular
element as shown in Fig. 10, the displacement at any point can be written in
terms of its area coordinates.

Here, A is the total area of the triangle. It is important to note that the area
coordinates are dependent as L1+L2+L3 = 1 . It may be seen from figure that at
node 1, L1 = 1 while L2 = L3 = 0. Similarly for other two nodes: at node 2, L2 =
1 while L1 = L3 = 0, andL3 = 1 while L2 = L1 = 0. Now, substituting the area
coordinates for node 1, 2 and 3, the displacement components at nodes can be
written as

40
Thus, from the above expression, one can obtain the unknown coefficient:

Fig .10 Area coordinates for triangular element

The above expression can be written in terms of interpolation function as

{N }T {u }i Where,

Similarly, the displacement variation v in Y direction can be expressed as

follows.

41
 Thus, for two displacement components u and v of any point inside the
element can be written as:

Thus, the shape function of the element will become

It is important to note that the shape function Ni become unity at node i

and zero at other nodes of the element. The displacement at any point of the
element can be expressed in terms of its nodal displacement and the
interpolation function as given below.

42
Isoparametric Formulation

The two or three dimensional elements discussed till now are of regular
geometry (e.g. triangular and rectangular element) having straight edge. Hence,
for the analysis of any irregular geometry, it is difficult to use such elements
directly. For example, the continuum having curve boundary as shown in the
Fig. 11 (a) has been discretized into a mesh of finite elements in three ways as
shown.

(a) The Continuum to be discritized (b) Discritization using Triangular Elements (c)
Discritization using rectangular elements (d) Discritization using a combination of
rectangular and quadrilateral elements

Fig. 11 Discretization of a continuum using different elements

43
Figure 11 (b) presents a possible mesh using triangular elements. Though,
triangular elements can suitable approximate the circular boundary of the
continuum, but the elements close to the center becomes slender and hence
affect the accuracy of finite element solutions. One possible solution to the
problem is to reduce the height of each row of elements as we approach to the
center. But, unnecessary refining of the continuum generates relatively large
number of elements and thus increases computation time. Alternatively, when
meshing is done using rectangular elements as shown in Fig 11 (c), the area of
continuum excluded from the finite element model is significantly adequate to
provide incorrect results. In order to improve the accuracy of the result one
can generate mesh using very small elements. But, this will significantly
increase the computation time. Another possible way is to use a combination of
both rectangular and triangular elements as discussed below. But such types of
combination may not provide the best solution in terms of accuracy, since
different order polynomials are used to represent the field variables for different
types of elements. Also the triangular elements may be slender and thus can
affect the accuracy. In Fig. 11 (d), the same continuum is discritized with
rectangular elements near center and with four node quadrilateral elements near
boundary. This four-node quadrilateral element can be derived from rectangular
elements using the concept of mapping. Using the concept of mapping regular
triangular, rectangular or solid elements in natural coordinate system (known as
parent element) can be transformed into global Cartesian coordinate system
having arbitrary shapes (with curved edge or surfaces). Fig. 12 shows the parent
elements in natural coordinate system and the mapped elements in global
Cartesian system.

44
45
 Fig 12 Mapping of isoparametric elements in global coordinate system

Coordinate Transformation

The geometry of an element may be expressed in terms of the interpolation

functions as follows.

Where,

n=No. of Nodes

N =Interpolation Functions

x ,y ,z =Coordinates of Nodal Points of the Element

One can also express the field variable variation in the element as

As the same shape functions are used for both the field variable and description
of element geometry, the method is known as isoparametric mapping. The
element defined by such a method is known as an isoparametric element. This
method can be used to transform the natural coordinates of a point to the
Cartesian coordinate system and vice versa.

46
Numerical integration

Numerical integrations using Gauss Quadrature method can be extended to two

and three dimensional cases in a similar fashion. Such integrations are necessary
to perform for the analysis of plane stress/strain problem, plate and shell
structures and for the three dimensional stress analysis.

Gauss Quadrature for Two-Dimensional Integrals

For two dimensional integration problems the above mentioned method can be
extended by first evaluating the inner integral, keeping η constant, and then
evaluating the outer integral. Thus,

47
Brick Elements
Various orders of elements of the parallelepiped family are shown in Fig. 13
shows the eight-node brick element with reference to a global Cartesian
coordinate system and then with reference to natural coordinate system. The
natural coordinates for the brick element can be relate Cartesian coordinate
system by

Here,2a, 2b and 2care the length, height and width of the element. The
coordinate of the center of the brick element can be written as follows:

The nodal values in natural coordinate systems can be derived which is shown
in Fig. 13 (b). With the above relations variations of x, h &z will be from -1 to
+1. Now the interpolation function can be derived in several procedures as done
in case of two dimensional rectangular elements. For example, the interpolation
function can be derived by inspection in terms of natural coordinate system as
follows:

Fig. 13 Eight node brick element

By using field variable the following terms of the polynomial may be used for
deriving the shape function for eight-node brick element.

48
The above equation is incomplete but symmetric. However, such
representations are quite often used and solution convergence is achieved in the
finite element analysis. Again, the shape functions for three dimensional 8-node
or 27-node brick elements can be derived using Lagrange interpolation
function. For this we need to introduce interpolation function in the ζ-direction.
Thus, for example, the Lagrange interpolation function for a three dimensional 8
node brick element can be obtained from the product of appropriate interpolation
functions in the ξ, η and ζ directions. Therefore, the shape function will become

Thus using the Lagrange interpolation function the shape function at node 1 can
be expressed as

Using any of the above concepts, the interpolation function for 8-node brick
element can be found as follows:

The shape functions of rectangular parallelepiped elements with higher nodes

can be derived in similar manner satisfying all necessary criteria.

49
Shell element

A shell is a curved surface, which by virtue of their shape can withstand both
membrane and bending forces. A shell structure can take higher loads if,
membrane stresses are predominant, which is primarily caused due to in-plane
forces (plane stress condition). However, localized bending stresses will appear
near load concentrations or geometric discontinuities. The shells are analogous
to cable or arch structure depending on whether the shell resists tensile or,
compressive stresses respectively. Few advantages using shell elements are
given below.
1. Higher load carrying capacity
2. Lesser thickness and hence lesser dead load
3. Lesser support requirement
4. Larger useful space
5. Higher aesthetic value.
The example of shell structures includes large-span roof, cooling towers, piping
system, pressure vessel, aircraft fuselage, rockets, water tank, arch dams, and
many more. Even in the field of biomechanics, shell elements are used for
analysis of skull, Crustaceans shape, red blood cells, etc.

Classification of Shells

Shell may be classified with several alternatives. Depending upon deflection in

transverse direction due to transverse shear force per unit length, the shell can
be classified into structurally thin or thick shell. Further, depending upon the
thickness of the shell in comparison to the radii of curvature of the mid surface,
the shell is referred to as geometrically thin or thick shell. Typically, if
thickness to radii of curvature is less than 0.05, then the shell can be assumed as
a thin shell. For most of the engineering application the thickness of shell
remains within 0.001 to 0.05 and treated as thin shell.

Assumptions for Thin Shell Theory

Thin shell theories are basically based on Love-Kirchoff assumptions as

follows.
1. As the shell deforms, the normal to the un-deformed middle surface
remain straight and normal to the deformed middle surface undergo no
extension. i.e., all strain components in the direction of the normal to the
middle surface is zero.
2. The transverse normal stress is neglected.
Thus, above assumptions reduce the three dimensional problems into two
dimensional.

50
Finite Element Formulation of a Degenerated Shell

Let consider a degenerated shell element, obtained by degenerating 3D solid

element. The degenerated shell element as shown in Fig 14 has eight nodes, for
which the analysis is carried out. Let ( , ) are the natural coordinates in the mid
surface. And ς is the natural coordinate along thickness direction. The shape
functions of a two dimensional eight node isoparametric element are:

The position of any point inside the shell element can be written in terms of
nodal coordinates as

Since, ς is assumed to be normal to the mid surface, the above expression can be
rewritten in terms of a vector connecting the upper and lower points of shell as

51
 Fig 14 Local and global coordinates

For small thickness, the vector V3i can be represented as a unit vector tiv3i:

Where, ti is the thickness of shell at ith node. In a similar way, the displacement at any
point of the shell element can be expressed in terms of three displacements and two
rotation components about two orthogonal directions normal to nodal load vector V3i
as,

Where, σi, i are the rotations of two unit vectors v1i & v2i about two
orthogonal directions normal to nodal load vector V3i.The values of v1i and v2i
can be calculated in following way:

The coordinate vector of the point to which a normal direction is to be

constructed may be defined as

In which, iˆ, ˆj, kˆ are three (orthogonal) base vectors. Then, 1i V is the cross
product of ˆi & V3i as shown below

52
Jacobian matrix
The Jacobian matrix for eight node shell element can be expressed as,

Strain displacement matrix

The relationship between strain and displacement is described by

{e}=[B]{d}

Where, the displacement vector will become:

{ d} t ={u1 v1 w1 v11v21 ........u8 v8 w8 }

And the strain components will be

53
Stress strain relation

The stress strain relationship is given by

{σ}=[D]{ε}

{ σ}=[D][B]{d}

Where, the stress strain relationship matrix is represented by

The value of shear correction factor a is considered generally as 5/6. The above
constitutive matrix can be split into two parts ([Db] and [Ds] )for adoption of
different numerical integration schemes for bending and shear contributions to
the stiffness matrix.

54
Element stiffness matrix

Finally, the stiffness matrix for the shell element can be computed from the
expression

[k ]= ∭[ ]T [D][B]dΩ

However, it is convenient to divide the elemental stiffness matrix into two parts:
(i) bending and membrane effect and (ii) transverse shear effects. This will
facilitate the use of appropriate order of numerical integration of each part.
Thus,

[k ]= [k ] b [k ]s

Where, contribution due to bending and membrane effects to stiffness is

denoted as [k]b and transverse shear contribution to stiffness is denoted as [k]s
and expressed in the following form.

Numerical procedure will be used to evaluate the stiffness matrix. A 2 ×2

Gauss Quadrature can be used to evaluate the integral of [k]b and one point
Gauss Quadrature may be used to integrate [k]s to avoid shear locking effect.

Plate Bending Elements

The elastic stability analysis of rectangular plates is discussed in this section.

The total potential energy for plate are expressed as

Here, Fx,Fy,and Fxy, are the in-plane edge load and compressive load is
considered as positive. For, finite element formulation the deflection in
aboveexpression needs to convert in terms of nodal displacements in the
element. to the following form using interpolation functions.

55
Where [N’ x]and [ N’ y]indicate partial derivative of ��� with respect to x and y
respectively. Thus, the equation of buckling becomes

If the in-plane loads have a constant ratio to each other at all time during their
buildup, the above equation can be expressed as follows

The term P∗ is called the load factor, and , and are constants relating the in-
plane loads in the plate member. Solving the above expression, the buckling
mode shapes are possible to determine.

56
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – III - MESHING AND SOLUTION PROBLEMS – SCIA5201

57
 UNIT-III MESHING AND SOLUTION PROBLEMS

The stiffness matrix of the basic element is contained in the new matrix as a
submatrix. The stiffness matrices of higher order elements are built by a similar process if a
higher order element is coded into the finite element program, it includes st iffness
mat rices of all lower order elements. In the process of refinement if a higher order
element is chosen, the previously computed stiffness coefficients would still be valid.
Hence, only a few additional coefficients have to be evaluated. The method is easier than the
conventional p - method of increasing the polynomial order where the computation of the
entire higher order element stiffness matrix is required.

Refinement using hierarchical elements is a-posteriori and appears to be attractive. However

more research work needs to be done in this area.

Mesh refinement
The user needs to select the number of nodes and elements in the model. The selection may be
the one that leads to the best description of the domain geometrically. For example, a curved
surface could be modeled by a series of interconnected flat rectangular facets. The larger the
number of facets, the better is the model. The selection may also be based upon intuition,
past experience and engineering judgment. The mesh obtained may be adequate in some
cases. In other cases, especially when singularities are present, the mesh may not be adequate
to obtain the results to the accuracy desired. In such cases, the meshes need to be refined.

REFINEMENT PROCESS
There are three ways of refining a finite element mesh:

a) The H-method: This method increases the number of elements and hence decreases the
element size while keeping the polynomial order of the shape function constant.

b) The P-method: This method increases the polynomial order of the interpolation function
while keeping the number of elements in the model constant.

c) The R-method: This method redistributes the nodes while keeping the element
number and the polynomial order of the interpolation function constant.

58
H - Method
This method is primarily based on the choice of characteristic length of the elements.
"Characteristic length " is referred to in a generalized sense and is required to define the
element topologically. A linear element requires one characteristic length, whereas an
element of rectangular shape requires two characteristic lengths and a triangular element
requires three characteristic lengths for its definition. In the triangular element the three length
information’s may be any combination of lengths and angles.

Instead of expressing the functional in terms of the position vectors of the nodes it can be
expressed as a function of the element characteristic lengths as

= (ui,hik) (a)

where, hik is the element characteristic length, 1 is the index on the

Characteristic length for element k

Also, note that there will be geometrical constraints on hk. For example, the sum of the
element lengths in a particular direction should be equal to the overall dimension of the
model in that direction.

= u =0 (b)
1
ℎ 2
i =r
ℎ
i k

Solving equation ( b) along with the constraints yield the characteristic lengths and hence
defines the best mesh. Equation (b) is equivalent to cast in the frame work of characteristic
lengths. Therefore the solution as indicated is difficult. A practical procedure using this
method consists of selecting a coarse initial mesh, solving the equilibrium equations and
computing the residue rk on each element. The set of elements with large values of
residues is the region that needs to be refined. The identified region can be refined by sub-
dividing the elements, thus creating new regions, or by deleting all the elements in the region
and replacing them by finer elements. However, the new elements need to be of the same type
as those in the initial mesh. The equations of the new model are solved and the residues are
computed. If the values of the residues are still large, the refinement procedure can be
repeated. Indeed , it could be used iteratively until the solution meets the prescribed accuracy.

59
P - Method
This method is primarily based on the choice of the order of the interpolation function, which
in practice, translates to the choice of element type. For example, in a two dimensional
domain, the basic triangular element with three nodes at the three vertices uses a linear shape
function (p-l). In order to choose quadratic shape functions (p=2), the triangular element with
six nodes, three at the vertices and three at mid-side locations, has to be selected. Similarly,
for cubic functions, an element with nine nodes is selected.

Higher order elements generally provide better description of the domain geometrically. They
are particularly useful in regions where the use of lower order elements would result in a
mesh with poor aspect ratios in those elements. From the point of view of solution accuracy,
higher order elements are usually more accurate than the lower order elements. But this
does not mean that increasing the polynomial order indiscriminately will always provide
point-wise convergence to the exact solution. The argument is based on the theory of
interpolation. Prenter states that this notion on convergence was first dispelled by Meray
and later by Range. He illustrates this with the function f(x) =
1/(1+5x2) being interpolated by Lagrange polynomial of order 5 and 15 with evenly spaced
odes in the interval [-1,1] which display divergence at - 1 and 1. Although the example is for
a continuous interpolation function rather than a piecewise function, as in a finite element
model, it shows that there is good reason to exercise caution in increasing the polynomial
order.

A - priori and a - Posteriori methods

The classification of methods into a-priori and a-posteriori refers to refinement before and
after the solution of the equilibrium equations. In a finite element program the solution
process is one that needs much of computer time. If discretization errors can be
estimated a-priori, then the mesh can be suitably altered to obtain the best accuracy possible
by solving the equations only once. Unfortunately there are no practical priory methods
available. The author has not found any in the literature survey. This study is an attempt to
provide one. There are several aposteriori methods available for refinement.

60
 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – IV -NONLINEAR, VIBRATION AND THERMAL PROBLEMS–

SCIA5201

61
 UNIT IV
NONLINEAR, VIBRATION AND THERMAL PROBLEMS

Nonlinear problems

Various non-linear problems in finite element analysis may be group into the
following three categories.

1. Material non-linear problems

2. Geometric non-linear problems

3. Non-linear boundary or initial conditions

Nonlinear Material Behavior

This is one of the most common forms of nonlinearity, and would include
nonlinear elastic, plastic, and visco elastic behavior. For thermal problems, a
temperature dependent thermal conductivity will produce nonlinear equations.

Large Deformation Theory (Geometric Nonlinearity)

If a continuum body under study undergoes large finite deformations, the

strain-displacement relations will become nonlinear. Also for structural mechanics
problems under large deformations, the stiffness will change with deformation thus
making the problem nonlinear. Buckling problems are also nonlinear.

Nonlinear Boundary or Initial Conditions

Problems involving contact mechanics normally include a boundary

condition that depends on the d e f o r m a t i o n thereby p r o d u c i n g a
n o n l i n e a r formulation. Thermal problems involving melting or freezing (phase
change) also include such nonlinear boundary conditions.

62
 Non linearity in structural problem

GEOMETRIC NONLINEARITY

Relations among kinematic quantities (i.e., displacement, rotation and

strains) are nonlinear

Displacement-strain relation

i. E has a higher-order term

ii. (du/dx) << 1  e(x) ~ E(x).

63
 Domain of integration

i. Undeformed domain W0

ii. Deformed domain Wx

a(u, u)   (u) : (u) d


MATERIAL NONLINEARITY

Linear (elastic) material

{  }  [D ]{ }

Only for infinitesimal deformation

Nonlinear (elastic) material

i. [C] is not a constant but depends on deformation

ii. Stress by differentiating strain energy density U

iii. Linear material:

1 2
U E
2

dU
  E
d

Stress is a function of strain (deformation): potential, path independent

64
Elasto-plastic material (energy dissipation occurs)

i. Friction plate only support stress up to sy

ii. Stress cannot be determined from stress alone

iii. History of loading path is required: path-dependent

Visco-elastic material

i. Time-dependent behavior

ii. Creep, relaxation

Boundary and Force Nonlinearities

Nonlinear displacement BC (kinematic nonlinearity)

Contact problems, displacement dependent conditions

65
 Nonlinear force BC (Kinetic nonlinearity)

NON LINEAR ANALYSIS

Newton-Raphson Method

i. Most popular method

ii. Assume di at i-th iteration is known

iii. Looking for di+1 from first-order Taylor series expansion

P(di1 )  P(di) i KTi (di)  di  F

 P 
Ki (di)
T  
 d 

 : Jacobian matrix or Tangent stiffness

matrix

iv. Solve for incremental solution

KTi di  F  P(di)

v. Update solution

di1  di  di

66
Consistent System Matrices

To do dynamic and vibration finite element analysis, you need at least a

mass matrix to pair with the stiffness matrix. As a general rule, the construction of
the master mass matrix M largely parallels of the master stiffness matrix K. Mass
matrices for individual elements are formed in local coordinates, transformed to
global, and merged into the master mass matrix following exactly the same
techniques used for K. In practical terms, the assemblers for K and M can be
made identical. This procedural uniformity is one of the great assets of the Direct
Stiffness Method. A notable difference with the stiffness matrix is the possibility of
using a diagonal mass matrix based on direct lumping. A master diagonal mass
matrix can be stored simply as a vector. If all entries are nonnegative, it is easily
inverted, since the inverse of a diagonal matrix is also diagonal. Obviously a
lumped mass matrix entails significant computational advantages for calculations
that involve M−1. This is balanced by some negative aspects that are examined in
some detail later.

Mass Matrix Construction

The master mass matrix is built up from element contributions, and we start
at that level. The construction of the mass matrix of individual elements can be
carried out through several methods. can be categorized into three groups: direct
mass lumping, variational mass lumping, and template mass lumping. The last
group is more general in that includes all others. Variants of the first two
techniques are by now standard in the FEM literature, and implemented in all
general purpose codes.

Direct Mass Lumping

The total mass of element e is directly apportioned to nodal freedoms,
ignoring any cross coupling. The goal is to build a diagonally lumped mass matrix
or DLMM, denoted here by MeL .As the simplest example, consider a 2-node
prismatic bar element with length L, cross section area A, and mass density ρ,
which can only move in the axial direction x,. The total mass of the element is Me
= ρ AL. This is divided into two equal parts and assigned to each end

67
Dynamic condensation
The accuracy of the resulting reduced model is generally very low for
dynamic problems. To achieve reasonably accurate results, the masters must be
chosen with great care and number of masters should be greater than the number of
modes interested. To alleviate the limitations, the inertia effects could be
partially or fully included in the condensation. The corresponding condensation
approaches are generally called dynamic condensation
The equation of motion is cast as a shifted Eigen problem. A shift value, f, is
introduced into the set of equations describing the dynamic system, thus

The terms are rearranged to group the constant term f times the mass
matrix with the stiffness matrix to yield

Then let a new system matrix [D] be used to describe the ‘effective’ stiffness
matrix as

This ‘effective’ stiffness equation

can be partitioned into the ‘a’ active DOF and the ‘d’ deleted or omitted DOF to
form two equations given as

Assuming that the forces on the deleted DOF are zero, then the second equation
can be written as

which can be solved for the displacement at the deleted DOF as

68
The first equation can be written as

and upon substituting for the ‘d’ deleted DOF this equation becomes

This can be manipulated to yield the desired transformation to be

Using this transformation, the reduced stiffness can be written as

This same transformation can be applied to the mass matrix given by

THERMAL ANALYSIS

One dimensional conduction

69
Two-Dimensional Conduction

dT dT
qx  Kxx   K zz 
dx dz

Ein  Egen  U  Eout

qinX  A  dt  qinZ  A  dt  Q  A  dx  dt
 U  qoutX  A  dt  qoutZ  A  dt
Finite Element 2-D Conduction
Select Element Type

i. 1-d elements are lines

ii. 2-d elements are either triangles, quadrilaterals, or a mixture as shown
iii. Label the nodes so that the difference between two nodes on any element
is minimized.
Finite Element 2-D Conduction

1. Assume (Choose) a Temperature Function

70
71
 Stiffness matrix is general term for a matrix of known coefficients being
multiplied by unknown degrees of freedom, i.e., displacement OR temperature,
etc. Thus, the element conduction matrix is often referred to as the stiffness
matrix.

2. Assemble Element Equations, Apply BC’s

F K t

From here on virtually the same as structural approach. Heat flux

boundary conditions already accounted for in derivation. Just substitute into
above equation and solve for the following:

3. Solve for Nodal Temperatures

4. Solve for Element Temperature Gradient & Heat Flux

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 SCHOOL OF BUILDING AND ENVIRONMENT
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT – V -DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND SOFTWARE APPLICATION– SCIA5201

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 UNIT V
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS AND SOFTWARE APPLICATION

Dynamic equation of motion

In dynamic problems the displacements, velocities, strains, stresses and
loads are all time dependent. The procedure involved in deriving the FE equations
of a dynamic problem can be stated by the following steps:

1. Idealize the body into E finite elements

2. Assume the displacement model of element e as

3. Derive the element characteristic (stiffness and mass) matrices and

characteristic (load) vector.

4. Assemble the element matrices and vectors and derive the overall system
equations of motion.
5. Solve the equation of motion by applying the boundary conditions.

Consistent and lumped mass matrices

The above mass matrix is called as “consistent” mass matrix of the
element. It is called consistent because the same displacement model that is used
for deriving the element stiffness matrix is used to for the derivation of mass
matrix.
It is interest to note that several dynamic problems have been and are
being solved with simpler forms of mass matrices. The simplest form of mass matrix
that can be used is that obtained by placing point (concentrated) mass mi at node
point I in the directions of assumed displacement degrees of freedom.

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 The concentrated masses refer to translational and rotational inertia of the
element and are calculated by assuming that the material within the mean
locations on either side of the particular displacement behaves like a rigid body
while the remainder of the element does not participate in the motion.
Thus, this assumption excludes the dynamic coupling that exists between
the element displacements and hence the resulting element mass matrix is purely
diagonal and is called the “lumped” mass matrix.

Natural frequencies and mode shapes

The oscillatory motion occurs at certain frequencies known as natural
frequencies or characteristic values, and it follows well defined deformation
patterns known as mode shapes and characteristic modes.

AXIALLY LOADED BAR

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REFERENCE BOOKS

1. BhavikattiS.S., “Finite Element Analysis”, New Age Publishers, 2007.

2. KrishnamoorthyC.S., “Finite Element Analysis: Theory and Programming”, Tata
McGraw-Hill, 1995.
3. David Hutton, “Fundamentals of Finite Element Analysis”, Tata McGraw Hill
PublishingCompany Limited, New Delhi, 2005.
4. Bathe, K.J., “Finite Element Procedures in Engineering Analysis”, Prentice Hall Inc.,
1996.
5. Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L., “The Finite Element Method”, McGraw Hill, 1987.
6. Chandrupatla, R.T. and Belegundu, A.D., “Introduction to Finite Elements in
Engineering”, Prentice Hall of India, 1997.
7. Moaveni, S., “Finite Element Analysis Theory and Application with ANSYS”, Prentice
Hall Inc.,1999.
8. http://www.mech.port.ac.uk/sdalby/mbm/CTFRProg.htm.9.http://www.me.mtu.edu/~bett
ig/MEEM4405

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