❖ Farming based Livelihood Systems 3 (2+1)

UNIT III: Types of traditional and modern farming systems. Components of

farming system/ farming-based livelihood systems- Crops and cropping systems

• INTRODUCTION
• Farming is an integral part of the Indian economy.
• Traditional farming is as a primitive method of farming, which is still being used
by half of the world’s farming population.
• It involves the application of indigenous knowledge, traditional tools, natural
resources, organic fertilizers, and cultural beliefs of the farmers.
• Traditional farming evolved over foremost thousands of years of agriculture as a
sustainable system and in equilibrium with the surrounding ecosystems.
• Traditional farmers passed on the indigenous knowledge about farming practices
and related aspects across generations verbally and through practice.
• With the passing years, the human population increased at a tremendous pace and
food security became a major challenge. Although production multiplied several
folds due to Green Revolution, but it had its own implications.
• The excessive use of fossil fuels, natural resources, agrochemicals, and
machinery exposed the ecological integrity of agroecosystems to a greater risk.
Therefore, with the growing environmental issues, such as climate change,
population explosion, natural resource degradation and biodiversity loss,
sustainable food production is the need of the hour. Traditional farming is
receiving attention worldwide for being a source of sustainable food production
in times of global environmental crises.
• The preservation of indigenous knowledge of traditional farming is advantageous
in maintaining the biodiversity, enhancing food-security, and protecting natural
resources.

➢ Definition of Farming Systems

A farming system is a method or way of farming that integrates natural
resources, inputs, crops, livestock, and labour to meet the needs of society and
ensure sustainable agricultural practices.
➢ Importance of Farming Systems
• Ensures food security
 • Conserves natural resources
• Improves livelihoods of farmers
• Enhances agricultural productivity

▪ Classification of Farming Systems

Farming systems can be broadly categorized into two types:
1. Traditional Farming Systems
2. Modern Farming Systems

1. TRADITIONAL FARMING
Traditional farming is defined as a primitive way of farming that involves
the use of labour-intensive, traditional knowledge, tools, natural resources like
land, water, and soil, organic fertilizer, and old customs and cultural beliefs of the
farmers to cultivate crops and rear animals for food and other products without
the use of modern technologies.
➢ Types of Traditional farming:

➢ SHIFTING CULTIVATION (slash-and-burn cultivation):

The burning procedure is carried out just before the onset of the rainy
season in order to destroy pests and to fertilize the land with ash.
 • When the soil shows signs of exhaustion, the land is left uncultivated and allowed
to grow again into a forest and, till then, the farmer moves to another plot.
• The cleared plot is cultivated for 2–3 years and then left fallow for approximately
10–20 years.
• Disadvantage of this system includes its implications on the environment in
terms of deforestation and air pollution caused due to burning of the forests.
• Mainly practiced in Northeast India (Jhum cultivation).
➢ AGROFORESTRY:
Agroforestry involves the practice of planting trees along with crops.
• It has a potential for mitigation of the effects of climate change, food security,
and crop productivity.
• It plays a role in improving soil quality, water retention, carbon sequestration,
agrobiodiversity, and ultimately farmer’s income.
• Agroforestry has a high significance in drought prone areas owing to the fact that
the deep roots of tree explore a larger soil volume for water and nutrients.
• A system of agroforestry, known as silvipastoral system, is beneficial for
livestock, in which leguminous fodder grasses are grown with trees that makes
nutritious green fodder available for farm animals, which is required for their
health and productivity.
➢ CROP ROTATION:
Crop rotation is practiced for planting a variety of crops on the same land
at different times of the year.
• Benefits: improvement in soil quality, soil fertility, carbon sequestration,
increased yield, effective water use, reduced soil erosion, and nutrient recycling.
• The use of leguminous crops reduces dependence on external source of nitrogen
fertilizers.
➢ MIXED CROPPING:
In such circumstances, mixed cropping is used. On farms, two or more
crops are planted together. Row cropping, in which a single crop is cultivated in
each row on the farm, is also an option for farmers.

➢ PRIMITIVE FARMING:
One of the oldest techniques in India, primitive farming is practiced in
small farms with traditional instruments like a hoe, digging sticks, etc. Farmers
depend upon soil fertility, environmental conditions and other factors like heat
for the harvest. This method is usually employed by those who use the output for
their consumption. This technique is also called “Slash and Burn” farming where
farmers burn the land once the crops have been harvested.
➢ COVER CROPPING:
A traditional practice of cultivating a crop in order to cover the land for
reducing the erosion of soil and loss of nutrients.
• Such crops, which could be both leguminous and non-leguminous.
• Benefits: improvement in soil microbial biomass, soil health maintenance, water
storage, nutrient cycling, weed control, and carbon sequestration.
• certain disadvantages: additional costs, difficultly in tillage, allelopathy, labour,
increased disease risk.
➢ COMPOSTING:
Composting is an age-old traditional practice of decomposing organic
matter by micro-organisms under controlled conditions to produce compost,
which can be used as an organic manure.
• Waste materials, such as farmyard manure, kitchen waste, sewage-sludge, and
crop residues, can be recycled into useful manure to be used in the agricultural
fields and fodder lands.
• Benefits: it increases soil carbon sequestration, reduces green-house gas
emission, enhances soil aeration, soil microbial diversity, soil moisture, soil
organic matter, soil carbon, or nitrogen levels and minimizes soil-erosion and
controls pests and diseases and makes soils more resistant to drought.

➢ INTERCROPPING:
The practice of cultivating more than one crop species on the same field is
referred to as intercropping.
• It is considered to be one of the highly productive farming systems which utilizes
the natural resources, such as land, water, and nutrient, efficiently and increases
productivity, biodiversity, resilience, and stability of agroecosystem. Since more
than one crop is used and different crops have different adaptability, this system
reduces the climate-driven crop failure, reduced soil erosion.

➢ SUBSISTENCE FARMING
Farming to meet the basic needs of the family, with little or no surplus for
trade.
Characteristics:
•Low input, low output
• Manual labour and traditional tools
• Focus on staple crops like rice, wheat, and maize
Example: Shifting cultivation, practiced in tribal areas.
➢ Benefits of Traditional Agriculture:

1. Biodiversity: Traditional farming often involves diverse crop varieties and

mixed cropping. This promotes biodiversity and maintains a wider range of plant
and animal species.

2. Local Adaptation: Traditional farmers often use locally available seed varieties
and farming techniques. Moreover, it reduces the reliance on monoculture and
promotes resilient ecosystems.

3. Soil Health: Certain traditional practices like crop rotation, cow dung manuring
and organic composting enhance soil fertility and structure over time. Use of
organic manure instead of chemical fertilisers also save money on fertilisers.

4. Water Management: Traditional systems incorporate water harvesting and

efficient irrigation methods. These methods help manage water resources more
sustainably.

5. Cultural Heritage: Traditional farming preserves indigenous knowledge and

cultural practices tied to the land.

6. The old approach has a cheap cost of production since it uses fewer resources.

7. In traditional farming, organic farming is used. So, the food is completely safe to
ingest.
➢ Disadvantages of Traditional Farming:

1. Deforestation: Some traditional farming practices involve clearing forests for

cultivation. This leads to habitat destruction and loss of biodiversity.

2. Soil Erosion: Unsustainable traditional practices, such as shifting cultivation

can cause soil erosion and degradation when not managed properly.

3. Limited Productivity: Traditional methods may have lower yields compared to

modern industrial farming. Furthermore, this can contribute to increased
pressure on natural habitats to meet food demands.

4. Resource Depletion: Without utilizing modern techniques for replenishing

nutrients, traditional farming can lead to the depletion of soil nutrients over
time.

5. Traditional farming requires farmers to spend around 15 hours harvesting their

crops, but high-tech farming requires just a few hours. Because it takes a long
time to harvest, it must be sold at a high price in order to recoup the costs of the
time spent maturing the crops.

6. Farming in the traditional manner makes use of soil. As a result, the crops are at
a greater risk of soil born disease.
2. MODERN FARMING:
The term “modern farming” refers to the application of modern technology,
practices, and science to increase agricultural output. It refers to a type of
agricultural production that involves a lot of money, manpower, and a lot of farm
equipment like threshers, winnowing machines, and harvesters, as well as a lot of
technology like selective breeding, genetic engineering, biotechnology,
insecticides, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides.

➢ Precision Farming:

Precision farming, also known as precision agriculture or site-specific

crop management is an innovative farming approach that uses technology and
data to monitor and manage field variability in crops. It involves the use of
tools such as GPS, IoT sensors, drones, GIS and data analytics to enhance crop
yield, reduce waste, and improve overall farm efficiency.

OR
• Precision farming (PF) is an approach to farm management that uses information
technology to ensure that the crops and soil receive exactly what they need for
optimum health and productivity rather than applying similar inputs across the
entire field. the approach aims to manage and distribute them on a site-specific
basis to maximize long-term cost benefit as well as prevent any waste.
S.NO. Advantages Disadvantages

1 Boosts crop yields (produce High initial investment costs

more crops from the same (Precision farming can be expensive to
amount of land, which helps set up, with high upfront costs for
to feed more people). technology and equipment).

2 Reduces water usage (helps Requires technical knowledge (It also

in saving water by using it demands a certain level of technical
more efficiently, which is expertise to operate the complex
crucial in areas where water is machinery and software).
scarce).
3 Lowers chemical usage (By Dependence on technology (There’s a
targeting only areas that need strong reliance on technology, which
it, precision farming can lead to problems if there are
minimizes the use of technical failures or malfunctions).
fertilizers and pesticides,
which is better for the
environment).
4 Increases farming efficiency Risk of data privacy (Data privacy is
(It streamlines farming a concern, as precision farming
operations, making them involves the collection and storage of
more efficient and less time- large amounts of data, which could
consuming, which can save potentially be breached).
farmers money).
5 Improves soil health Can increase rural-urban divide (It
(Precision farming also may also widen the gap between rural
improves the health of the soil and urban areas, as not all farmers may
 by ensuring it gets the right have access to or be able to afford this
nutrients and care). advanced technology).

6 Real-Time Monitoring Skill Gap and Training

(Precision agriculture Requirements
technologies enable farmers (The successful adoption of precision
to monitor crop conditions, farming requires farmers to acquire
soil health, and equipment new skills related to technology
performance in real-time. operation, data interpretation, and
This empowers farmers to troubleshooting. However, acquiring
quickly address problems like these new skills can be challenging and
pest outbreaks or nutrient resource-intensive. Not all farmers may
deficiencies, ultimately have the means or feasibility to bridge
preventing potential crop this skill gap through training
damage. programs).

7 Enhanced Sustainability Risk of Technological Obsolescence

(PF techniques play a crucial (With the rapid rate at which
role in ensuring sustainable technology is advancing, precision
agriculture by mitigating the farming technologies may become
environmental consequences outdated sooner than expected.
of farming activities. Farmers who heavily invest in
particular systems may encounter
difficulties when newer and more
advanced technologies are introduced,
requiring them to constantly update and
make further investments).
➢ AEROPONICS SYSTEM:
Aeroponics is a method of growing plants in the air or mist without the
need of soil. It is a subtype of hydroponics that works by suspending their bare
roots inside an enclosed system. Farmers will have more control over the amount
of water they consume if they utilize this strategy.

Fig: Aeroponics System

S. Advantages Disadvantages
N
O.
1 Highest yields and growth High technical complexity and costs:
rates: Aeroponic plants Aeroponic systems require advanced
experience massive plant equipment, precision, expertise, and
growth rates and yields. This is constant monitoring to function
due to the maximum exposure of properly. Initial setup costs are higher
roots to oxygen and optimized than other systems.
nutrient absorption.
2 Very low water usage: Low margin of error: Any equipment
Aeroponics uses 90-95% less failure or lapse in maintenance can
water than traditional farming quickly lead to complete crop loss due
and 20% less than hydroponics. to dry roots or nutrient imbalances.

3. Minimum risk of pest, disease

etc.
➢ AQUAPONICS :
Aquaponics combines aquaculture (fish farming) and hydroponics
(cultivating plants in water) in a sustainable closed-loop system.
• Fish waste from tanks provides an organic nutrient solution for plants grown in
gravel beds.
• In turn, the plants filter and purify the water, which recirculates back to the fish.
• An aquaponics unit incorporates both fish and plant cultivation components.

Fig: Aquaponics

S. Advantages Disadvantages
N
O.
1 Integrated aquaculture and Higher operating costs
plant production: The
aquaponic system allows for
farming both fish and plants in a
single integrated unit.
2 Organic fertilization: Fish Demands constant monitoring: Water
waste provides an excellent chemistry and system conditions need
organic nutrient solution for the consistent tracking to ensure balance
plants, reducing the need for between fish, plants, and bacteria
external fertilizers.
 3. Water recycling and Limited compatible species: Only
purification: The aquaponic certain plant/fish species thrive
cycle with plants filtering water aquaponic conditions, restricting
allows up to 95% water reuse selection.
compared to soil-based
agriculture.
4. Higher density yields.

➢ HYDROPONICS:
Hydroponics involves cultivating plants without soil, anchored in inert
mediums like perlite, gravel, or clay pellets instead.
• Their roots are bathed in a nutrient-rich solution tailored to each crop’s needs.
• Sensors monitor and automatically adjust factors like pH, temperature, and mineral
levels for optimal plant health.
• Submersible pumps circulate oxygenated water to nourish roots.
• Grow lights simulate sunlight’s wavelengths where natural light is lacking.
• It produces flourishes faster, free of soil-borne diseases and pests.
• Hydroponics unlocks new potential even where water and arable land are scarce.

Fig: Hydroponics
S.NO. Advantages Disadvantages

1 Higher Yields: Hydroponics High Energy Demands: Providing

allows higher-density plant consistent artificial lighting,
spacing, translating to higher temperature control, and solution
yields per square foot. pumping requires considerable energy
inputs. Operational costs are higher for
hydroponics versus soil farming.

2 Greater Water Efficiency: High Upfront Costs: Establishing

Closed-loop hydroponic hydroponic units requires significant
systems reuse nutrient initial investment.
solutions, reducing water
usage by up to 80-90%
compared to soil-based
agriculture.
3 Faster Growth Rates: With
optimized conditions like
consistent nutrition and light,
hydroponically grown plants
often have accelerated
growth rates and shorter
harvest times.
4 Less Pest Pressure: The
isolated and controlled
nature of hydroponic systems
decreases issues with pests,
 fungi, and diseases compared
to open soil environments.

➢ MONOCULTURE:
This approach requires the cultivation of a single crop in a specified
farming region.
In a country like India, however, the Monoculture farming approach isn't
extensively used. Indoor farming, such as producing medicinal plants, falls under
the category of monoculture.

➢ Drones in Modern Farming:

This method utilizes unmanned aerial vehicles for tasks like monitoring,
mapping, and precision applications in agriculture.

➢ Tissue Culture:
This method deals with propagating plants in a controlled laboratory
environment from small tissue samples.

➢ Vertical Farming:
This practice includes growing crops in stacked layers or vertical
structures. It is often used in urban settings to save space.

➢ Controlled-Environment Agriculture (CEA):

This is a method of growing crops indoors with controlled temperature,
light, and humidity for optimal conditions.

➢ Integrated Pest Management (IPM):

It involves employing various techniques to manage pests while
minimizing environmental impact.

➢ Advantages of Modern Farming :

1. Increased Productivity: Modern farming techniques (usage of HYV seeds) have
enabled higher crop yields. Moreover, it helps to meet the growing global demand
for food.
2. Efficient Resource Use: Precision agriculture technologies optimize water,
fertilizer, and pesticide application. This use of technology reduces waste and
improves resource efficiency.
3. Reduced Land Conversion: Higher yields on existing farmland limit the
conversion of natural habitats into agricultural land.
4. Technological Innovation: Modern farming drives innovation in agricultural
technologies, leading to more sustainable practices.
5. The land is being used to its full potential (Crop intensity of more than 300 per
cent).
6. Because of the growth of factories and the usage of machines, this sector is
expanding and creating excellent jobs. It generally promotes human development
and progress.
7. It has the potential to reduce production time.
8. Sophisticated farming employs modern storage technologies that decrease food
grain waste.
9. Modern equipment can reduce farmers’ efforts.
10. Crop protection is an important aspect of modern farming.
11. Machines are useful for seed sowing.
➢ Disadvantages of Modern Farming:

1. Soil Degradation: The use of intensive tilling and chemicals leads to soil
erosion, compaction, and reduced fertility.
2. Chemical Pollution: The excessive use of synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
can contaminate soil and water bodies. Furthermore, it impacts non-target
species.
3. Biodiversity Loss: Monoculture and chemical use can lead to a decline in
plant and animal diversity which disrupts ecosystems.
4. Water Pollution: Runoff from fields carries pesticides and fertilizers into
waterways. Thus, causing pollution and harming aquatic life.
5. Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Modern farming fuel use, synthetic fertilizer
production, and livestock methane contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.
6. Loss of Agroecosystem Services: Intensive modern agriculture practices
reduce the capacity of ecosystems to provide services like pollination and
natural pest control.
7. Modern devices are expensive, and hence out of reach for most of the people
8. The uniqueness of the product is eroding.
➢ Difference between traditional Agriculture Vs modern Agriculture:

S.NO Traditional Farming Methods Modern Farming Methods

.
1 It employs traditional agricultural practices• This type of farming employs
and age-old equipment. Ploughing in the advanced technology and
field, for example, is done by a pair of current farming practices. For
bullocks example, various machinery,
like tractors, harvesters, seed
drills, and threshers, are
employed in the final phases
of production.

2 • Production is poor due to the usage of low• Prioritize high yield because
yielding seeds and the use of manures and high yield variants (HVY) of
cow dung as fertilizers. seeds are utilized, output is
high. Chemical fertilizers,
pesticides, and insecticides
are widely utilized.
•

3 • This agricultural approach is ecologically• This agricultural practice is

beneficial. not ecologically friendly.

4 • This farming requires a large quantity of • The majority of the work is

labour, agricultural labourers are supplied done by big machinery. So,
with several career options. agricultural people have less
job possibilities.

5 • Natural manure is utilized as fertilizer in this Chemical fertilizers and

agricultural practice. insecticides are utilized in
this agricultural practice.

6 • In this farming, traditional seeds used which • In this farming, HYV

require less watering, they are less reliant on seedlings used which require
irrigation systems. significant watering, the
reliance on irrigational
systems is much greater. As a
result, additional water
resources are necessary.
•
 7 • Farmers’ traditional variety selection in this
• Breeding carried out by
farming system research institutes and seed
firms
8 • Minimal external inputs are required Extensive use of seeds,
• fertilizers, agrochemicals,
and irrigation.

9 • Only a few technologies are employed It depends on modern

technologies
10 • the conventional knowledge system required System of scientific
knowledge

11 • Value chains that are largely local to regional International value chains
in nature and specialized businesses.
12 • Soil fertility is not hampered because of the Soil fertility gradually
use of natural fertilizers decreases because of the use
of chemical fertilizers.
13 • Traditional irrigation systems used in Advanced irrigation systems
traditional farming wastes water. (like drip or sprinkler
irrigation) and precision
farming techniques optimize
water and nutrient use.

❖ Components of farming system/ farming-based livelihood systems-

Crops and cropping systems:
The term "System" is derived from the Greek word “systema” to means “an
organized relationship among functioning units or components.
❖ Farming system is defined as integration of crop, livestock and allied production
systems in a way that one component supports other and vice-versa. For example,
animals are mostly fed on crop wastes or by-products. The animal power is used
for agricultural operation and dung is used as manure resulting in increased
yields.

➢ Components of farming system/ farming-based livelihood systems:

A farming system is made up of various components that work together to achieve

sustainable agriculture. These components include:
1. Crop production: The crops grown in a farming system are the primary source
of food and income for farmers. To maintain the crop component, farmers need
to use sustainable farming practices such as crop rotation, intercropping, and the
use of organic fertilizers.

➢ Food Crops: Food crops are plants cultivated primarily for human consumption,
including fruits, vegetables, grains, legumes, and tubers.

• Cereals (Wheat, Rice, Maize)

• Pulses (Lentils, Chickpeas)
• Vegetables (Tomatoes, Spinach)
• Tubers (like potatoes)

➢ Cash Crops: It involves the cultivation of crops primarily for sale or to make
profit rather than for personal consumption. e.g. Cotton, Sugarcane, Tobacco etc.

➢ Forage Crops: Forage crops, also known as fodder crops, are specifically grown
to provide food for livestock. e.g. Alfalfa, Clover, Berseem etc.
➢ Medicinal Plants (e.g., turmeric, neem etc.)
➢ Horticultural Crops: Includes fruit and flower production, providing nutritional
and economic value (e.g. Guava, mango etc. cultivation).
2. Livestock production: Livestock plays an important role in farming systems by
providing milk, meat, and manure for crop production. e.g. Dairy, Poultry,
Piggery, Duck, Sheep and goat Fishery, Rabit production etc.
3. Apiculture or bee-keeping: Apiculture or beekeeping is the art and science
of raising honey bees for their products and services.
4. Sericulture: Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to
produce silk. Sericulture is a recognized practice in India. India occupies second
position among silk producing countries in the world, next to China. In India more
than 98% of mulberry-silk is produced from five traditional sericultural states,
viz., Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Jammu and
Kashmir.
5. Mushroom production: Mushroom production involves cultivating edible fungi
in controlled environments for commercial or personal use.
6. Soil management: Soil is the foundation of any farming system and is essential
for crop growth. To maintain the soil component, farmers need to use sustainable
 soil management practices such as conservation tillage, use of cover crops, and
appropriate use of fertilizers and pesticides.
7. Water management: Water is a vital component of farming systems and is
necessary for crop growth and livestock production. To maintain the water
component, farmers need to use sustainable water management practices such as
efficient irrigation methods, rainwater harvesting, and proper management of
water resources.
8. Pest and disease management: Includes managing pests and diseases
9. Farm machinery and equipment: Farm machinery and equipment are essential
for efficient and effective farming. To maintain the machinery and equipment
components, farmers need to follow proper maintenance procedures, ensure
regular servicing, and use appropriate safety measures.
10. Human resources: The human component of a farming system includes the
farmers, their family members, and other labourers.
11. Marketing: Includes marketing the produce.
12. Farm business management: Includes managing the farm business.

❖ Cropping system: The term cropping system refers to the crops, crop sequences
and management techniques used on a particular agricultural field over a period
of years. Cropping systems refer to prevailing cropping pattern based on soil,
climate, personal need and preferences and market prices.

➢ Principles of cropping systems

❖ Select crops that go well together.
❖ Choose crops and a cropping rotation that makes good use of the available
resources.
❖ Select crops and cropping methods that enhance and maintain soil fertility.
❖ Select crops with a variety of growth phases.
❖ Select a variety of crop species.
➢ Advantages of cropping systems:
1. Enhance and maintain soil fertility
2. Boost crop development
3. Reduce the incidence of disease
4. Eliminate weeds
5. Stop the growth of insects and pests:
6. Use of all the available resources more effectively
7. Reduce crop failure danger
8. Increase financial and food security
❖ Types of cropping system:
➢ Crop-Livestock Integration: This system involves the integration of crop and
livestock production in a single farming system. Livestock can
provide manure for crop production, while crop residues can be used as animal
feed. This system can increase overall productivity, improve soil fertility, and
reduce pest and disease pressure.
➢ Sole cropping: A sole crop refers to only a single crop or variety grown alone in
a pure stand at normal density during one farming year is called sole cropping
system.

➢ Agroforestry: Agroforestry involves the integration of trees with crops and

livestock in a farming system. Trees can provide multiple benefits such as shade,
windbreaks, soil conservation, and timber production, as well as providing
habitats for wildlife. Agroforestry can increase overall productivity, improve soil
health, and enhance biodiversity.

➢ Integrated Farming Systems: Integrated farming systems involve the

integration of various agricultural activities such as crop production, livestock
rearing, and fish farming in a single farming system. This system can increase
overall productivity, reduce waste, and enhance biodiversity.

➢ Mixed/ Multiple Cropping: cultivation of two or more crops simultaneously

on the same field in a proportion without any row arrangement.
• In this system seeds are either mixed and sown by broadcasting or in line sowing
or they may be sown separately.

❖ Advantages:

I. Risk Reduction: One of the main benefits of mixed cropping is the reduced risk
of crop failure.
 II. Efficient Resource Use: Mixed cropping allows for better utilization of sunlight,
water, and nutrients. Different crops have different root depths, growth rates, and
nutrient needs, which means they can occupy various ecological niches within
the same field.
III. Enhanced Soil Fertility: Some crops, especially legumes like peas and beans,
have the unique ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in the soil through symbiosis
with nitrogen-fixing bacteria.
IV. Adopting mixed cropping leads to a more varied ecosystem, which can
effectively discourage pests and hinder the spread of diseases.
V. Erosion Control and Improved Soil Structure: A mixture of deep and shallow
roots can bind the soil more effectively, protecting it from being erode from rain
or blown by the wind. This leads to better soil structure over time, ultimately
improved water retention and aeration, which are essential for healthy plant
growth.
VI. Economic Benefits and Higher Yields: Mixed cropping can increase overall
yields per unit area which are more economical to the farmers.
VII. Biodiversity and Environmental Benefits: Mixed cropping encourages
biodiversity within farmland, supporting a variety of beneficial organisms like
pollinators and soil microbes. Mixed cropping is an environmentally sustainable
choice.

❖ Disadvantages
I. Complex Management: Mixed cropping requires more complex planning and
management than monoculture farming.
II. Potential Competition Between Crops: If crops are not carefully chosen, they
may compete for resources such as water, nutrients, and sunlight. This
competition can lead to reduced yields or even the failure of one of the crops.
III. Complicated Pest and Disease Management: While mixed cropping can help
deter certain pests and diseases, it can also create conditions where new pests and
diseases emerge, affecting both crops. Additionally, pest and disease management
 can be more complicated because each crop might require different treatments,
which can be time-consuming and costly.

IV. Variable Harvesting Times: Mixed cropping often involves crops with different
maturation rates, which means that harvesting must be done in stages rather than
all at once. This staggered harvest requires more labour.

V. Lower Yields for Certain Crop Combinations: Although mixed cropping can
increase overall productivity, it may sometimes result in lower yields for
individual crops, especially if they compete for the same resources.

VI. Increased Labor Requirements: Mixed cropping can be labour-intensive, as it

requires more attention to planting, tending, and harvesting. Tasks like weeding,
pest control, and fertilizing may need to be done separately for each crop,
requiring additional effort.

VII. Difficulty in Standardizing Agricultural Practices: With mixed cropping, it

can be harder to standardize practices like irrigation, fertilization, and pest
control, as each crop may have unique requirements. This lack of standardization
can make it challenging to implement efficient, large-scale agricultural practices,
especially in commercial farming.

➢ Mixed Farming Systems: Mixed farming systems involve the integration of

different types of crops and livestock in a single farming system.

❖ Advantages:- 1) More efficient utilization of land, labour and other resources.

2) By-product of crops are useful feed for livestock
3) Balanced food is possible
4) Provides money through out the year
5) Maintaining soil fertility through manure.

❖ Disadvantages:

1. Complexity of Management: Balancing the needs of different animals and crops

can be challenging.
2. Higher Costs: Mixed farming requires diverse infrastructure, equipment, and
animal housing, leading to higher initial investment.
3. Labor Intensive: Managing both crops and livestock demands more labour.
4. Limited Efficiency: Mixed farming may not be as efficient as specialized farming.
5. Decreased Level of Production: The focus on multiple activities can lead to
reduced productivity.
6. Competition for Resources: Crops and animals may compete for resources like
water and land.

➢ Monocropping: Growing of only one crop on same piece of land year after year.

➢ Intercropping: Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece

of land with a definite row arrangement such as 1:1 or 1:2 means that the primary
crop is in the first row and the other crops are in the second or third row.
• The intercrops are fast growing and have short duration, grown between two rows
of slow growing main crop, e.g. urd/moong/cowpea with maize.
• Principles of Intercropping:

• The crops having complementary effect should be preferred over those having
competitive effect.

• The two crops should have different lengths of growing period, i.e., one crop
should be of short duration and other of long duration.

• The plants of both the crops should be different in growth habit, i.e. one should
be tall and other dwarf. Similarly, one crop should be shallow rooted whereas the
other should be deep rooted. an

• One crop should have low water and nutrient requirement, whereas the other
should have higher water and nutrient requirements.

• The nutrient requirement of each crop should be met with separately to eliminate
competition between them.

• Advantages of Intercropping:

• Under abnormal situation of climate, intercropping prevents complete failure of

crops.

• It provides better utilization of different resources like water, nutrients, land and
labour.
• Farmers get all their required agricultural commodities from a limited space.
Thus, profit per unit area is increased.

• It helps prevent soil erosion compared with sole cropping.

• Weed infestation and management are less because of smothering effect.

• Insect and disease incidence is reduced due to difference in growth habit of

companion crops.

• Limitations of Intercropping:

• The sowing of intercrops is slightly different and requires more time, hence
cannot be adopted by large farmers.

• Harvesting is hard.

• Herbicidal weed control is not possible and hence it requires manual weeding.

• The quality of produce is sometimes deteriorated due to mixing of two crops.

➢ Double cropping: It refers to growing of two crops in a sequence on the same

piece of land in a year, e.g. rice-wheat, maize-wheat or potato, sorghum-gram etc.

➢ Relay cropping: It refers to planting of succeeding crop before the harvest of

preceding crop. The succeeding crop may be planted before or after flowering,
before or after attainment of reproductive growth, completion of active life-cycle
or attainment of physiological maturity. For example, sowing of cucurbits in
maturing potato сгор.

➢ Crop Rotation: Crop rotation and crop sequence are generally used
synonymously. Crop rotation is defined as recurrent succession of crops on the
same piece of land either for a year or for a longer period of time. Component
crops are so chosen that soil health is not impaired.
• Principles of Crop Rotation:
The selection of crops to be grown in rotation should be based on following
principles:
➢ A deep-rooted (tap root) crop should be followed by a shallow-rooted (fibrous
root) crop.
➢ The leguminous crop should be grown after non-leguminous crop.
➢ Fertility-depleting crop should be grown after fertility-building crop.
• Advantages of Crop Rotation:

➢ By growing leguminous and non-leguminous crops in rotation, soil fertility is

restored by fixing atmospheric nitrogen encouraging and microbial activity.
➢ It helps in maintaining physio-chemical properties of soil.
➢ It helps protect the soil from erosion, salinity and acidity.
➢ It also reduces the incidence of insects, pests, diseases and weeds.
➢ Proper utilization of all the resources and inputs could be made by following crop
rotation. There is better utilization of family and farm labour, bullocks, power
machinery.
➢ Farmers get better price for their produce because of its higher demand in the
locality or market

➢ Cover Cropping: Planting crops specifically to cover the soil rather than for
harvest. Cover crops prevent soil erosion, improve soil health, and enhance
organic matter.

➢ Multi-storied cropping: Cultivation of crops of different heights in the same

field at the same time. e.g: Sugarcane + Indian bean or potato or onion, Sorghum+
mung.

➢ Ratoon cropping: After harvest, growing a crop with new growth emerging from
its roots or stalks. examples include sugarcane, feed sorghum, and feed maize.
This reduces the cost of the next crop’s production in terms of land preparation
and seed, and the next crop, the ratoon crop, gets a root system that is already
established.

➢ Sequential cropping: It can be defined as growing of one or more crops in a

sequence on the same piece of land in a farming year.
❖ Agroforestry: Agroforestry is collective name for land use systems involving
forest/ horticulture trees combined with crops and/or animals on the same unit of
land in a way that is scientifically sound, ecologically desirable, practically feasible
and socially acceptable to the farmers. It Combines production of multiple outputs
with protection of resource base.

Fig: Agroforestry components

Advantages:

i) Meeting the demand of food & fodder

ii) Water conservation
iii) Fuelwood and energy
iv) Shelter from trees
v) Raw material for industries
vi) Cash benefits
vii) Increased yield and maximized production
viii) Diversified products: by adopting agroforestry one can get diversified
products viz. fuel, fodder, fruits, fibre, timber, etc.
ix) Utilization of wasteland and degraded land
x) Provides employment opportunities
xi) Increased farm income
xii) Potential reduction in the rate of deforestation
xiii) Improvement in soil health and insurance against climatic hazards
xiv) Agroforestry as a habitat for wild species

❖ MCQs

1. What is the primary advantage of crop rotation?

A) Increased monoculture output
B) Better management of pests and diseases
C) Reduced labor requirements
D) Increased use of chemical fertilizers

Answer: (B)

2. Which of the following is NOT a type of cropping system?

A) Monocropping
B) Crop Rotation
C) Intercropping
D) Organic Cropping

Answer: (D)

3. What is the purpose of mixed cropping?

A) To maximize the yield of a single crop
B) To diversify crops for better risk management
C) To increase pesticide usage
D) To reduce crop rotation time

Answer: (B)

4. Which of the following factors does NOT affect the choice of a cropping
system?

A) Soil fertility
B) Climate conditions
C) Crop rotation history
D) Geographical location

Answer: (D)
❖ Questions:

2. What is a cropping system in agriculture?

3. What are the different types of cropping systems?
4. What are the advantages of crop rotation?
5. Write the components of farming system.
6. Advantages and Disadvantages of traditional farming.
7. Write the difference between traditional and modern farming.
8. What is mixed farming and mixed cropping?
9. Define intercropping and crop rotation.
10. Define Agroforestry.
11. What is the advantages of agroforestry?