Atoms

1.
Introduc on to Atoms
 Atom: Smallest unit of ma er that retains the proper es of an element.
 Cons tuents:
o Nucleus: Protons and neutrons (posi ve charge, dense).
o Electrons: Nega vely charged par cles revolving around the nucleus.
2. Atomic Models
1. Thomson’s Model (Plum Pudding Model):
o Atom is a posi vely charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.
o Failed to explain atomic stability and spectral lines.
2. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model:
o Atom has a dense, posi vely charged nucleus with electrons revolving around it.
o Observa ons from Alpha Sca ering Experiment:
 Most of the atom is empty space.
 Nucleus is small and dense.
o Limita ons: Could not explain stability of atoms or discrete spectral lines.
3. Bohr’s Model:
o Electrons revolve in fixed orbits (energy levels) around the nucleus.
o Energy is quan zed; electrons do not radiate energy in stable orbits.
o Bohr’s Postulates:
 Angular momentum is quan zed: mvr=nℏ,where ℏ=h2π.mvr = n\hbar,

\quad \text{where } \hbar = \frac{h}{2\pi}.mvr=nℏ,where ℏ=2πh.
 Electrons absorb or emit energy when transi oning between orbits.
3. Atomic Spectra
 Emission Spectrum: Produced when electrons transi on from higher to lower energy
levels, emi ng energy as photons.
 Absorp on Spectrum: Produced when electrons absorb specific wavelengths of light to

move to higher energy levels.
 Hydrogen Spectrum: Series of spectral lines:
o Lyman Series: UV region (n1=1n_1 = 1n1=1).
o Balmer Series: Visible region (n1=2n_1 = 2n1=2).

o Paschen, Bracke , Pfund Series: IR region (n1=3,4,5n_1 = 3, 4, 5n1=3,4,5).
4. Energy of Electron in Bohr's Model
 Energy of an electron in the nnn-th orbit: En=−13.6n2 eV.E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \,

\text{eV}.En=−n213.6eV.
 Radius of the nnn-th orbit: rn=n2×0.529 A.̊r_n = n^2 \ mes 0.529 \, \text{Å}.rn
=n2×0.529A.̊
5. Dual Nature of Ma er and de Broglie Hypothesis
 Wave-Par cle Duality: Par cles like electrons exhibit both wave and par cle proper es.
 de Broglie Wavelength: λ=hmv,\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}, λ=mvh, where hhh is Planck's

constant, mmm is the mass, and vvv is velocity.
6. Quantum Numbers
 Describe the posi on and energy of an electron in an atom:
1. Principal Quantum Number (nnn): Main energy level or shell.
2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (lll): Subshell (shape of orbital); l=0,1,2,…,(n−1)l = 0,

1, 2, \dots, (n-1)l=0,1,2,…,(n−1).
3. Magne c Quantum Number (mmm): Orienta on of orbital; m=−l to +lm = -l \,

\text{to} \, +lm=−lto+l.
4. Spin Quantum Number (sss): Spin of the electron; s=+12 or −12s = +\frac{1}{2} \,
\text{or} \, -\frac{1}{2}s=+21or−21.
7. Limita ons of Bohr's Model
 Could not explain:
o Spectra of mul -electron atoms.
o Zeeman Effect (spli ng of spectral lines in a magne c field).
o Stark Effect (spli ng of spectral lines in an electric field).
o Fine structure of spectral lines.
8. Advancements in Atomic Theory
1. Quantum Mechanical Model (Schrödinger’s Equa on):
o Electrons are described as wavefunc ons (ψ\psiψ).

o Probability of finding an electron is highest in orbitals (clouds).
2. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:
o It is impossible to simultaneously determine the exact posi on and momentum of

an electron: Δx⋅Δp≥h4π.\Delta x \cdot \Delta p \geq \frac{h}{4\pi}.Δx⋅Δp≥4πh.
9. Key Formulas
1. Rydberg Formula (Hydrogen Spectrum):
1λ=R(1n12−1n22),R=1.097×107 m−1.\frac{1}{\lambda} = R \le (\frac{1}{n_1^2} -

\frac{1}{n_2^2}\right), \quad R = 1.097 \ mes 10^7 \, \text{m}^{-1}.λ1=R(n121−n221
),R=1.097×107m−1.
2. Total Energy of Electron:
E=−Ke22r,E = -\frac{K_e^2}{2r},E=−2rKe2,
where KKK is Coulomb’s constant.
3. Velocity of Electron in Bohr's Model:
vn=2.18×106n m/s.v_n = \frac{2.18 \ mes 10^6}{n} \, \text{m/s}.vn=n2.18×106m/s.
10. Applica ons
 Explana on of hydrogen spectrum.
 Founda on for quantum mechanics.
 Atomic structure principles used in chemical bonding, periodic table design, and
spectroscopy

Atoms

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Atoms

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1.

 Atom: Smallest unit of ma er that retains the proper es of an element.

o Nucleus: Protons and neutrons (posi ve charge, dense).

1. Thomson’s Model (Plum Pudding Model):

o Atom is a posi vely charged sphere with electrons embedded in it.

o Failed to explain atomic stability and spectral lines.

2. Rutherford’s Nuclear Model:

o Observa ons from Alpha Sca ering Experiment:

 Most of the atom is empty space.

 Nucleus is small and dense.

o Electrons revolve in ﬁxed orbits (energy levels) around the nucleus.

o Energy is quan zed; electrons do not radiate energy in stable orbits.

 Angular momentum is quan zed: mvr=nℏ,where ℏ=h2π.mvr = n\hbar,

 Electrons absorb or emit energy when transi oning between orbits.

 Absorp on Spectrum: Produced when electrons absorb speciﬁc wavelengths of light to

 Hydrogen Spectrum: Series of spectral lines:

o Lyman Series: UV region (n1=1n_1 = 1n1=1).

o Balmer Series: Visible region (n1=2n_1 = 2n1=2).

4. Energy of Electron in Bohr's Model

 Energy of an electron in the nnn-th orbit: En=−13.6n2 eV.E_n = -\frac{13.6}{n^2} \,

5. Dual Nature of Ma er and de Broglie Hypothesis

 de Broglie Wavelength: λ=hmv,\lambda = \frac{h}{mv}, λ=mvh, where hhh is Planck's

 Describe the posi on and energy of an electron in an atom:

1. Principal Quantum Number (nnn): Main energy level or shell.

2. Azimuthal Quantum Number (lll): Subshell (shape of orbital); l=0,1,2,…,(n−1)l = 0,

3. Magne c Quantum Number (mmm): Orienta on of orbital; m=−l to +lm = -l \,

7. Limita ons of Bohr's Model

 Could not explain:

o Spectra of mul -electron atoms.

o Zeeman Eﬀect (spli ng of spectral lines in a magne c ﬁeld).

o Stark Eﬀect (spli ng of spectral lines in an electric ﬁeld).

o Fine structure of spectral lines.

8. Advancements in Atomic Theory

1. Quantum Mechanical Model (Schrödinger’s Equa on):

o Electrons are described as wavefunc ons (ψ\psiψ).

2. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

o It is impossible to simultaneously determine the exact posi on and momentum of

1. Rydberg Formula (Hydrogen Spectrum):

1λ=R(1n12−1n22),R=1.097×107 m−1.\frac{1}{\lambda} = R \le (\frac{1}{n_1^2} -

2. Total Energy of Electron:

where KKK is Coulomb’s constant.

3. Velocity of Electron in Bohr's Model:

vn=2.18×106n m/s.v_n = \frac{2.18 \ mes 10^6}{n} \, \text{m/s}.vn=n2.18×106m/s.

10. Applica ons

 Explana on of hydrogen spectrum.

 Founda on for quantum mechanics.

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