Measurement; It is the determination of the magnitude of a physical quantity.

A physical quantity of matter is a physical property of matter that can be measured. Example,
height of an object.

The physical quantities are divided into fundamental or basic quantity and derived quantity.
fundamental quantity
1. Length
2. Mass
3. Temperature
4. Time
5. Electric current
6. Amount of substance
7. Luminous intensity

The international standardized system of unit is called the SI unit. International system of units (SI
UNIT) (Le système Internationale d’ Units).
The SI units of the seven fundamental quantities
Quantity SI UNIT Symbol
Length Metre m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time second S
Thermodynamic temperature Kelvin K
Electric current Ampere A
Amount of substance Mole Mol
Luminous Intensity Candela Cd

Derived Quantities; They are physical quantities that can be expressed in terms of two or more basic
or fundamental quantities. Their units are called derived units.

Determining the Units of Derived Quantities

Volume = length x breadth x height

Quantities Units
Length metre (m)
Breadth metre (m)
Height metre (m)
Volume = m x m x m = m3
Therefore, the SI unit of volume is cubic metre (m3)

2. Derive the unit of velocity.

Velocity =change in displacement
time taken
Quantities Units
Displacement metre (m)
Time second(s)
Therefore, the SI unit of velocity is metre per second (ms-1)

3. Derive the unit of force.

Force = mass x acceleration
Quantities Units
Mass kilogram (kg)
Acceleration metre per squared second (m/s2)
Force = kg x m/s2 = kgm/s2
Kgm/s2 or kgms-2 is called newton (N)
4. Derive the unit of work done.
Work done = Force x distance
Quantities Units
Force newton (N)
Distance metre (m)

Work done = Nm Nm is called joule (J)

The table below summarizes the other SI derived units
SI Derived Units with Special Names
Quantity Symbo SI Unit Symbol Symbol Expressed in
L terms of SI units
Pressure P pascal P Nm-2 or N/m2
Quantity of Q coulomb C As
electricity
Electric potential V Volt V WA-1 or AΩ
Force F newton N Kgms-2 or kgm/s2
Electric R Ohm Ω VA-1
resistance
Work or Energy E Joule J Nm
Power P Watt W Js--1

SI Derived units without special names

Quantity symbol SI Units Symbol
Area A square metre m2
Volume V cubic metre m
Speed S metre per second ms-1
Density P kilogram per cubic Kgm-3
metre
9999Acceleration a metre per squared ms-2
second

SI Prefixes
SI prefix is added to a unit, it multiplies or divides that unit by a certain factor.
The table below shows some of these SI prefixes.
Prefix Symbo Meaning Factor Example
l
kilo k 1000 times larger than the unit it precedes 103 km(kilometre)
deci d 10 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-1 dm (decimetre)
 centi c 100 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-2 cm (centimetre)
milli m 1000 times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-3 mm (millimetre)
micro µ 1million times smaller than the unit it precedes 10-6 µm (micrometre)

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS FOR LENGTH AND MASS

Measuring length; length is the distance between two points in space. The standard SI unit of length
is metre and its symbol is m.
For very small or large distances, SI prefixes are used.
SI Prefixes of Length
Unit Symbol Number of metres Example

kilometre km 1 000 m Distance of about 5 hockey pitches

metre m 1m Length of a metre rule
centimetre cm 0.01 m Thickness of a shirt button
millimetre mm 0.001 m The thickness of a coin
micrometre µm 0.000 001 m The diameter of bacteria
nanometre nm 0.000 000 001 m Thickness of RNA molecule

Interconversion of Units of length

I. Converting from km to m
Question1: The distance between Bawku and Bolgatanga is 79.25 km. What is the distance in
metre?
· Known: Unknown:
Distance in km = 79.25 Distance in m =?
· Use the relationship between kilometre and metre to solve the problem.
1 km = 1 000 m
Therefore, 79.25 km = 1000 m x 79.25 km
1 km
= 79,250 m
II. Converting from m to km

Question2: The distance between Kumasi and Semaya is 50 000 m. What is the distance in
kilometre?
· Known: Unknown:
Distance in m = 50 000 Distance in km =?
· Use the relationship between kilometre and metre to solve the problem.
1 000 m = 1 km
Therefore, 50 000 m = 1km x 50 000 m
1 000 m
= 50 km
III. Converting from m to cm
Question3: The height of a plant from the ground is 0.25 m. What is the height in cm?
· Known: Unknown:
Length in m = 0.25 length in cm =?
· Use the relationship between metre and centimetre to solve the problem.
1m = 100 cm
Therefore, 0.25 m = 100 cm x 0.25 m
1m
= 25 cm
measuring instruments for length
1. Ruler
2. Metre rule
3. surveyor’s tape measure
4. Vernier callipers
5. Micrometre screw gauge
6.Pair of callipers.

Using the
ruler
1. Place the
ruler against
the line or the
object to be
measured so
that there is
no space
between the
ruler and the
line.
2. Ensure that
the beginning
of the mark on the object or line coincides with the zero mark on the ruler,
so that the reading could start from there.
3. Avoid the error of parallax by placing the viewer’s eye vertically above the correct mark on the
scale
of the ruler.

Measuring Mass
The mass of an object is the quantity of matter contained in the body.

Difference between mass and weight

Mass Weight
It is the quantity of matter in an object It is a force that measures the gravity on an
object
Its value is constant for an object Its value varies depending on where the
object is

It is measured using a various balance It is measured using a spring balance

it is measured in kilogram it is measured in newton

 It is a scalar quantity (I.e. it has only It is a vector quantity (I.e. it has both
magnitude but no direction) magnitude and
direction).

Unit of measuring mass

Units of Mass
Unit Symbol Relationship Examples
tonne t 1 000 kg Mass of medium – sized of a car
kilogram kg 1 Kg Mass of salt
gram g 0.001 Kg Mass of a cedi note
milligram mg 0.000 001 kg The mass of 10 grains of salt

Interconversion of units of mass

Q4. The total mass of groundnut harvested from the agricultural Science school farm at Donkokrom
is 5000 kg. What is the mass in g?
Solution
· Known Unknown
Mass of groundnut in kg = 5000 mass of groundnut in g =?
· Use the known mass and the relationship between kg and g to solve the problem.
1 kg = 1 000 g
Therefore, 5000 kg = 1 000 g x 5 000 kg
1 kg
= 5 000 000 g

Q5. The mass of an animal tissue required for an experiment in the biology laboratory at Sefwi –
Wiaso
Senior High School is 6 mg. What is the mass in kg?
Solution
· Known Unknown
Mass of tissue in mg = 6 mass of tissue in kg =?
· Use the known mass and the relationship between mg and kg to solve the problem.
1 000 000 mg = 1 kg
Therefore, 6 mg = 1 kg x 6 mg
1 000 000 mg
= 6.0 x 10-6 kg

instrument of mass
1. Beam balance
2. Chemical balance
3. Lever arm balance
4. Dial spring balance
5. Electronic balance
 Measurement of volume
Volume is the space occupy by matter
The SI unit of volume cube meter m3

The other sub-units of volume are:

Unit Symbol Relationship with SI Other relationship

cubic decimetre dm3 1 000 dm3 = 1 m3 1 dm3 = 1l or 1 dm3 = 1 000 cm3

cubic centimetre cm3 1 000 000 cm3 = 1 m3 1 000 cm3 = 1 dm3 or 1 cm3 = 1 ml
cubic metre m3 1 m3 1 m3 = 1 000 dm3
millilitre ml 1 000 000 ml = 1 m3 1 ml = 1 cm3 or 1 000 ml = 1 dm3
Inter conversion of units of volume
Question 1: The volume of humus applied to a tomato plant is 0.95 cm 3, what is its volume in cubic
metre?
Solution
· Known Unknown
Volume of humus in cm3=0.95 volume of humus in m3 =?
Use the known volume and the relationship between cm and m to solve the problem.
1 000 000 cm3 = 1 m3
Therefore, 0.95 cm = 1 m3 x 0.95 cm3
1 000 000 cm3
= 9.5 X 10-7 m3

Question 2:
The volume of Helium gas used to fill a balloon is 500 cm3, what is its volume in dm3?
Solution
· Known Unknown
Volume of helium gas in cm3 = 500 volume helium gas in dm3 =?
Use the known volume and the relationship between cm3 and dm3 to solve the problem.
1 000 cm3 = 1 dm3
Therefore, 500 cm = 1 dm3 x 500 cm3
1 000 cm3
= 0.50 dm3

Calculating for volume of solid objects

The volume of regular solids is measured by using the dimensions of the object and a formula.
Example,
1. Cube

V=lxbxh

Question 3
The dimension of a Cube was measured as l = 10 m, b =10 m and h = 10 m. What is the volume of the
Cube?
Solution
· Known Unknown
3
Length (l) = 10 m Volume in m =?
Breadth (b) = 10 m3 (h) = 10 m3
· Use the known and unknown and the formula of volume
V = l x b x h to calculate the volume of Cube.

V=lxbxh
= 10 m3 x 10 m3 x 10 m3
= 1 000 m3
Measuring instruments for volume of liquid
The common apparatus used to measure the volume of liquid in the laboratory are:
1. Measuring cylinders
2. beakers
3. Pipettes
4. Conical flasks
5. Burettes
6. Volumetric flasks

Measuring volume of irregular solid

The volume of solids without regular
dimensions are determined by displacement
method.
STEPS
 Fill the measuring cylinder partly with
water ·
 Record the volume (V1) ·
 Tie the irregular solid with a string and
lower it into the partially filled
measuring cylinder
 Record the new volume (V 2) ·
 The volume of water displaced by the
irregular solid = Volume of irregular
solid Therefore, The volume of
irregular solid = V2 – V1

Precautions to take when using these

apparatus
 Do not use this glass apparatus to
measure the volume of hot liquid to
avoid expansion.
  Remove air bubbles when using the  Wash both burette and pipette with
burette or pipette · soap and rinse them several times with
 Reading of these measuring distilled water and then with solution
instruments should be done with eye to be contained
level coinciding with the lower part of
the meniscus ·

DENSITY
The density of a substance is a measure of the ratio of the mass of the substance to its volume.
It is denoted as ρ.
Mathematically, it is expressed as:
Density = mass
volume.
Mass = Density x volume
The fundamental SI unit of density is kg/m (kilogram per cubic metre) Density can also be expressed
as g/cm (gram per cubic centimetre)
The relationship between the two units is
1 g/cm3 = 1 000 kg/m3
Worked Examples A: Inter - conversion of Units of Density
Q1. The density of a cutlass is 50 g/cm3. What is its density in kg/m?
Solution Analyze: list the unknown and known · Known: Unknown;
Density of cutlass 50g/cm3 Density in kg/m3 =? ·
Use the relationship between known and unknown to solve the problem
1 g/cm3 = 1 000 kg/m3 Calculate: solve for the unknown if 1 g/cm3 = 1 000 kg/m3
Therefore, 50 g/cm = 1000 kg/m x 50 g/cm = 50 000 kg/m

Q2. The density of a piece of substance is 5000kg/m3.

Convert it to g/cm3
Solution
Analyze: list the unknown and know
unknown ·Known ? g/m3 5000kg/m3

Use the relationship between known and unknown to solve the problem
1000 kg/m3 = 1g/cm3
Then 5000kg/m3 will 5000 g/cm3 =5g/cm3
1000

Calculating density from mass and volume of substance

Q3. A tool box used by students of Sacred Heart Senior High School has a mass of 10.5 g and volume
of 4.45 cm. What is its density?
Solution Analyse: Density = mass = 10.5 g =2.36 g
Volume 4.45 cm3
 Q4. A Goldsmith needs a certain mass of gold to design a dangling jewellery of dimensions 0.4 m
length, 0.3 m breadth and 0.2 m height, for a king. If the density of gold is 19 320 kg/m 3,
what is its mass?
Solution
Density =mass = mass = density x volume
Volume
Volume= length x breadth x height = 0.4m x 0.3m x 0.2m = 0.024m3
Density= 19320kg/m3
Therefore;
mass = 19320kg/cm3 x 0.024m3 = 463.68kg

Q5. The density of ice is 0.920 g/cm3. If its mass is 500 kg, calculate its volume in m.
Solution
Analyze: list the known and unknown ·
Known Unknown
3
Density of ice = 0.920 g/cm volume in m3 / Mass = 500 kg
· Use the relation 1 g/cm = 1 000 kg/m to convert the density from g/cm to kg/m2 ·
Density of ice = 0.920 g/cm3 = 0. 920 x 1 000 = 920 kg/m3
Density= mass therefore volume = mass =
500kg = 920kg/m3
Volume 0.543m3

NB. Density is a physical constant of a substance and does not depend upon the size of the sample.
Example, let us examine the relationship between volume and density for identical masses of three
substances. It can be deduced that, at constant mass, the density increases as the volume decreases.

1. Density of solids and liquids differ slightly with temperature due to thermal expansion and this
reduces their densities. The only exception is water.
2. Density of gases varies with temperature, depending on the pressure.

Experimental Determination of the density of an irregularly shaped solid

Aim: To measure the density of an irregular shaped object by displacement method using measuring
cylinder.
Material
· Measuring cylinder
· String
· Balance
· Stone
· Water ·
method
1. *Weigh the irregular solid using a top-pan balance and record as M in grams. ·
2. Partially fill the measuring cylinder with water and record the initial volume of the water V in
cm ·
3. Tie the irregularly shaped object (pebble) with a string and lower it into the water.
4. Record the final volume when the solid is completely immersed in the water as V in cm
Analysis
· The mass of stone= M g
· Initial Volume of water= V cm
· Final volume of water= V1 cm3·
5. Volume of stone= V1 - V cm3
6. Use the density formula to calculate the density of solid Density =mass = M
volume = V1 -V
Method B Aim: To measure the density of an irregular shaped object by displacement using Eureka
can. Material · Eureka can · Stone· Measuring cylinder · String · Water Method
·
1. Weigh the irregular shaped object and record its mass M in gram ·

2. Fill the Eureka can with water until it overflows no more ·

3. Place an empty measuring cylinder below the spout of the Eureka can ·

4. Tie the stone with a string and lower it into the filled Eureka can until it is completely
immersed in the water

5. Record the volume of the water that overflows into the measuring cylinder as V in cm 3

Analysis 1. Mass of stone= M g Volume of stone= V cm Use the density formula to calculate
the density of solid = M V Summary · Density is defined as mass per unit volume.

Relative density, is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water.
Mathematically,
Relative density=density of substance density of water
Other mathematical relations involving relative density are:
Relative density = mass of substance
mass of equal volume of water
Relative density = weight of substance weight of equal volume of water
(It has no units because the units cancel out)

DIVERSITY OF LIVING AND NON-LIVING · For easy communication amongst

THINGS scientists
· To identify new varieties when they arise
Classification is the grouping or sorting of · Formation of a common pool of
living organisms based on their common knowledge for research
physical features or characteristics and · For easy identification
differences. · Allows description of organisms using
Why do scientists classify living and non-living one word or few words
organisms?
 BIODIVERSITY is a measure of the variation
Diversity between different living organisms.
means a wide range of differences that a Biodiversity could be the variety of different
scientist can see when looking at a large areas where organisms can live, the number of
number of different organisms. different species in a community or the
The basic features that distinguish living things differences between the genes in a species.
from non-living things are nutrition, . SCHEME OF CLASSIFICATION Classifications
reproduction, excretion, respiration, growth, are not strict schemes imposed from outside.
irritability and movement. Rather, they are inventions of scientists based
on the best available evidence and principles.
NUTRITION It is the process by which living However, these evidence and principles
things make or obtain food. The food obtained change as our understanding changes. That is
is to provide energy and materials for growth why we say science is tentative.
and repair of the organism’s body. Plants Aristotle (384-322 BC), a Greek Biologist, was
manufacture their own food (carbohydrate) the first to produce a system of classification of
from carbon dioxide and water in the presence living things. Animals were classified by looking
of light. at the way they move. That is, he put together
animals that run, swim or fly. For example,
. REPRODUCTION It is a process in which living animals such as insects, bats, birds, etc. were
things give rise to new individuals of their own put under those that fly. This system of
kind. classification was found to be improper since
members of the group do not have anything in
. EXCRETION It is the removal of harmful and common except movement. For instance,
metabolic waste products from the body. insects are invertebrates whereas birds are
Examples of metabolic waste products are vertebrates. Therefore, members in the group
sweat, urine, carbon dioxide, water vapour, do not have any natural relationship. Aristotle
urea and bile. system of classification was therefore
considered a less useful method.
. MOVEMENT is the change in position of parts In plants, he used appearance and size as a
or whole organism. way of classification.
In the eighteenth century, a Swedish
. IRRITABILITY (SENSITIVITY) It is the ability of naturalist, Carolus Linnaeus began a system of
an organism to respond to a stimulus. The classification based on natural relationships.
stimulus could be external such as He started his classification from a group of
temperature, light, touch organisms that can mate (interbreed) to
produce offspring which are capable of
. GROWTH It is an irreversible increase in size, reproducing. He called this group of organisms
weight and complexity. An illustration of this is the species. Linnaeus’ way of classification is
an animal such as caterpillar changing its form called the natural system of classification
from larva to butterfly. The changes are as a because it puts all organisms with the same
result of new cells being added to the old structure or body plan together.
existing ones leading to overall increase size Taxonomy, Linnaean System of
and weight. Classification/Binomial Nomenclature
Taxonomy
. RESPIRATION it is the release of energy from The system of classifying organisms into groups is
food with or without the use of oxygen. The called taxonomy.
energy released enables living things to carry Classification aims to use as many characteristics
out their life processes as possible in placing similar organisms together
and
Biodiversity and Classification of living things dissimilar ones apart.
The general name for a classification grouping is a . Class: a group of orders within a phylum. For
taxon (plural = taxa). The lowest or most exclusive example, all members of class Insecta have
taxon is the species; the highest or most inclusive compound eyes and three pairs of walking legs.
is the kingdom. . Order: a group of apparently related families
Each kingdom can be subdivided into a number of . Family: a group of apparently related genera
progressively smaller groups. It should be noted . Genus: a group of similar and closely related
that, as you move down the ladder, the NUMBER species
of organisms DECREASE but COMMON . Species: a group of organisms similar in
characteristics amongst them INCREASE. The rest structure and function (capable of interbreeding
of the seven principal taxa in a descending order to produce
are fertile offspring). The species concept was
· Phylum: organisms constructed on a similar introduced by John Ray
plan. For example, all members of phylum
Arthropoda the various kingdoms and their characteristics
have a hard exoskeleton and jointed appendages.

This challenge is resolved by reference to the

Linnaean system of classification names of the taxa used in classification.
In whatever way biologists refer to “man’’ or a  For this reason, an internationally
“woman” in their mother tongue, every biologist accepted system of naming was
in the world would understand the following proposed by Carolus Linnaeus called
description:
 Animalia,  Binomial Nomenclature.
 Chordata,  This system gives each organism a two-
 Mammalia, word Latin name: the generic name
 Primates, (from the genus) which begins
 Hominidae,  with a capital letter, followed by the
 Homo, specific name (from the species) which
 sapiens begins with a small letter.
 Therefore, for Biologists throughout  Both names are underlined separately
the world to communicate effectively, in writing or italicized in printing, e.g.
each different type of organism Homo sapiens or Homo
 must have a unique name that is
recognized worldwide.
sapiens.
Binomial Nomenclature is also called the Linnaean system of classification.
Examples of the two-part names are as follows,
Common name Genus Species
Domestic Dog Canis familiaris
Domestic Fowl Gallus domesticus
Man, Homo sapiens
Mango Mangifera Indica

Classification of Non – living things (Elements)

Modern Periodic Table

Patterns
- The elements are identified by their Matter is identified by its physical and chemical
symbols placed in a square, names below the properties. The physical property of matter is
symbols and the property
atomic numbers above the symbols. that can be studied without changing the
- A set of elements having similar chemical chemical composition of the substance.
properties and arranged in vertical columns are Examples are the
called temperature, colour, odour, melting point,
group of elements. boiling point etc. The chemical property of a
- There are 18 groups of elements. substance is the
- A set of elements having different property that cannot be studied without
chemical properties and arranged in horizontal changing the chemical composition of the
row from left to substance. Examples
right is called a period of elements. are the reaction of the substance with water,
Example, hydrogen and helium are in period 1. air, acid, base etc.
Sodium, beryllium, boron, carbon, nitrogen,
oxygen, fluorine and neon are in period 2. Particulate Nature of Matter
- Elements can also be classified into three One of the basic characteristics of matter is that,
main groups, namely metals, non – metals and it is made up of discrete particles. No matter the
semi – state or form matter takes, there are three
metals. different kinds of building units contained in it.
- Metals are located on the left – hand side These are:
and the centre of the periodic table. They have - Atoms
high - Molecules or
melting and boiling points, good conductors of - Ions
electricity and heat, malleable and ductile.
Greater number
of the elements are metals.
- Non – metals are located on the right –
hand side of the periodic table. They have low
melting and ATOM
boiling points, poor heat and electrical
conductivity, and are brittle. About ¼ (25%) of In 1803, the English Chemist John Dalton
the elements are non proposed that all elements are made up of small
– metals. indivisible particles called the atom.
- Semi –metals are located between the
metals and non – metals. They have some An atom therefore is defined as the smallest
properties particle of an element that can exist and retain
similar to metals and some properties similar to the chemical properties of that element and it
that of non –metals takes part in a chemical reaction. Example,
atoms of element carbon are represented as C
Matter or Na for atoms of element sodium.
Matter is defined as anything that has mass and JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC POSTURATE
occupies space. Atoms of one element are identical in mass and
The mass of a substance is the quantity of size but different from atoms of other elements.
matter or materials contained in it. Initially, it was believed that the atom cannot be
The space occupied by matter is termed as its created nor destroyed. It was further believed
volume. Examples of that the atom was indivisible.
matter are stone, human body, water, air, book Further scientific investigations have revealed
etc. that the atom has sub – atomic particles called
protons, neutrons and electrons
 MOLECULES A molecule consisting of two atoms in its
defined as an independent structural unit of structural unit is called diatomic molecule.
matter made up of two or more atoms that are a. A diatomic molecule could be made of the
chemically identical atom or element such as
bound together. oxygen (O2), Nitrogen(N2) or hydrogen
It can also be defined as the smallest particle in (H2). They are described as homonuclear
a chemical element or compound that has diatomic molecule.
the chemical properties of that element or
compound. b. A diatomic molecule could be a compound.
That is, a molecule made up of two different
A. Molecule, made up of a collection of identical atoms or
elements is called a molecule of an element. elements as in carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen
For example, chloride (HCl) etc.
1. Nitrogen molecule (N2) is a molecule of an Such molecules are described as heteronuclear
element because it contains two nitrogen atoms diatomic molecule.
held 2. Polyatomic molecule
together by a chemical bond. A molecule containing more than two atoms per
2. Chlorine molecule (Cl 2) contains two unit is termed as polyatomic molecule.
chlorine atoms held together by a chemical a. A polyatomic molecule could contain more
bond and therefore it than two identical atoms as in ozone (O3)
is a molecule of an element. b. It could contain more than two different
3. Ozone molecule (O 2) contains three oxygen atoms or elements as in carbon dioxide or
atoms held together by a chemical bond. water.

. Molecules containing two or more different Ions

elements joined together in a fixed ratio are An ion is a charged particle made up of an atom
called molecules of a compound. or a group of atoms.
Examples, It is classified as cation, anion or radical.
1. A molecule of water (H 2O) contains one A cation is an atom or group of atoms having a
atom of oxygen and two hydrogen atoms net positive electrical charge. They are formed
combined when an atom of an element loses one or more
chemically. electrons e.g. Na+, Ca2+, Al3+, etc.
2. A molecule of ammonia (NH4) consists of An anion is an atom or group of atoms having a
one atom of nitrogen and three atoms of net negative electrical charge. It is formed when
hydrogen joined an atom gain (accepts) electron.
chemically.
3. A molecule of hydrogen chloride (HCl) Radicals are polyatomic ions. Examples are
consists of one atom of hydrogen and one atom ammonium cation (NH4+), nitrate (NO3-),
of chlorine sulphate (SO42- ) and carbonate (CO32+).
held together by a bond.
States of matter
Molecules can further be classified from the The three states of matter are the solid state,
structural point of view, according to the the liquid state and gaseous state.
number of atoms Each state has characteristics that distinguish it
contained in one unit. The number of atoms from the rest.
contained in a molecule is called its atomicity. These are summarized in the table below:
1. Diatomic molecule
 Change of state processes When a liquid is cooled, the liquid loses energy
Matter can be changed from one physical state to the surrounding causing the particles to be
to another without altering the chemical strongly attracted to a fixed-point forming
composition of the substance. These processes crystal lattice. The temperature at which a liquid
are termed as change of state processes. freeze is called freezing point
Change of state processes are reversible and
are described as physical change.
They can be achieved by changing the (Liquid to gas)
temperature and The process of changing a liquid from the liquid
pressure of the substance. They include melting, state to the gaseous state is called vaporization.
freezing, evaporation, boiling, condensation and It involves evaporation or boiling.
sublimation. Evaporation is a process where surface
molecules gain sufficient kinetic energy from
Melting (solid to liquid) surroundings and break away from the forces of
Melting is the process of changing matter from attraction of neighbouring molecules and escape
the solid state to the liquid state at constant to form gas.
temperature. This occurs at any temperature below the
The temperature at which a solid melt is called boiling point of the liquid.
its melting point. The resulting liquid becomes cooler because it
loses its energetic molecules (latent heat).
Freezing (liquid to solid) This explains why our body temperature
Freezing is the process of changing matter from cools after sweating. The refrigerator operates
the liquid state to the solid state. on this same principle.
 Sublimation
Condensation (Gas to Liquid) It is the process of changing solid directly to gas
The reverse of vaporization involves cooling a when heating without passing through the liquid
gas to cause the molecules to lose their kinetic state.
energy and When the gas is cooled, the solid is reformed
become attracted together forming a liquid. This directly without condensing to a liquid.
process is called condensation. Substances that sublime are camphor balls,
NB: Practical Application of Concept iodine crystals, ammonium chloride crystals and
Clouds are formed in the sky by condensation of dry ice
water vapour. (carbon dioxide crystals).

Classification of matter
Matter can be grouped into two main categories, namely pure substances and mixtures
A pure substance has uniform and definite chemical composition. For example, gold, oxygen and
hydrochloric acid. Pure substances are further classified as elements and compounds.
Elements are pure substances because they are made up of one kind of atoms.eh, gold, oxygen.
Compounds is form by the chemical combination of two or more element
mixture is made of more than one component physically combined. For example, air.
Elements symbols
Hydrogen H
Helium He
Lithium Li
Beryllium Be
Boron B
Carbon C
Nitrogen N
Oxygen O
Florine F
Neon Ne
Sodium Na
Magnesium Mg
Aluminium Al
Silicon Si
Phosphorus P
Sulphur S
Chlorine Cl
 Argon Ar
Potassium K
Calcium Ca

Classification of element

Differences between elements and compounds

Element compound
Consist of only one kind atom Consist of different kinds of atoms
Cannot be separated into simpler means Can be separated into constituents
by chemical means
Has the same properties as constituent atoms Has different properties from constituent
elements

A mixture is formed by physical combination of two or more substances.

E.g., sulphur and iron filling, alloy, paint, air, concrete, sea water, crude oil etc

Characteristics of Mixtures
1. They contain two or more substances physically combined.
2. No new chemical substance is produced in forming a mixture.
3. Mixtures can be separated easily into its constituents by physical means.
4. The composition of mixtures can vary. For example, tea can have a varying amount of sugar and milk.
5. The constituents of a mixture retain their identities.

Classification of mixtures
1. Solid – solid mixture This type of mixture is made up of two or more different solid substance e.g.,
brass, bronze, steel, sand and salt etc.
2. Liquid – liquid mixture This type of mixture consists of two or more different liquids. For example, a
mixture of ethanol and water.
3. Gas – gas mixture It consists of two or more different gases. For example, air
4. Solid – gas mixture This type of mixture consists of solid and gas. Example, smoke is made up of
carbon particles and air. Another example is harmattan, which is made up of air and dust
5. Liquid – gas mixture This type of mixture is made of liquid and gas as components. For example, soda
– water consist of water (liquid) and carbon (IV) oxide (gas).
6. Solid – liquid mixture This type of mixture consists of solid and liquid constituents.

NB a mixture of a solute and a solvent is called a solution. The solute is the substance that dissolves in
the solvent for example, salt (solute) dissolves in water (solvent) to form a solution.

Characteristics of solution, suspension and colloid

A solution has the following characteristic properties: -
 Has particles that are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye -
 Cannot be separated into components by filtration because the particles can pass through the filter
paper -
 Does not scatter light because the solute particles are small -
 Has particles that do not settle on standing. I. Unsaturated solution: It is a solution that can
Examples of solutions are sugar solution, salt dissolve more solutes
solution and sodium hydroxide solution. II. Saturated solution: It is a solution that
cannot dissolve any more solute
A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of a III. Supersaturated solution: It is a solution that
solid and a liquid. Such solid – liquid mixture has dissolved more solute than it can hold
forms two phases
A suspension has the following properties: -
 Has particles that are so large that they can Differences between mixtures and compound
be seen with the naked eye - Mixture Compound
 Can be separated by filtration because the Components are Components are
particles are so large that they cannot pass physically combined chemically
through a filter paper - combined
 Settle on standing because of their large Contains two or Contains only one
particles - more substances kind of substance
 Scatter light because of the large particles variable Has fixed
Examples of suspension are muddy water, milk composition composition by
of magnesia, white wash paint, cloud, smog, mass
harmattan. Has properties that Has properties that
Colloid is a heterogeneous mixture in which the are the same as are different
solute particles are permanently and uniformly constituents from that of its
distributed throughout the dissolving medium. constituents
It has the following characteristic properties: No new substance New substance is
 Has particles smaller than that of suspension is formed formed
but larger than that of solution -
 Has particles do not settle on standing - Methods of Separating Mixtures
 Scatters light - Mixtures can be separated physically into their
 Has particles that cannot pass through semi – constituent components. This process is called
permeable membrane and therefore can be method of separation of mixtures. The method
separated by dialysis. Examples of colloids are; used in separating mixtures depends on the
Emulsion paint, salad dressing (salad cream), physical properties and the state of the
Aerosol such as mist, smog, paint, milk spray, components of the mixture.
Foam such as shaving foam, Some of the methods include:
1. Crystallization involves growing a crystal out
Types of Solution of a hot concentrated solution by evaporating to
There are three types of solutions, a point beyond solubility limit.
These are:
 6. Sublimation is employed to separate two or
more solids in which one solid sublime and the
other does not

7. Separation of Solution by Simple Distillation

To separate a solution, such that both the solute
and the solvent are obtained is usually carried
out by simple distillation. The technique is based
2. on differences in the relative tendency of the
3. Evaporation involves removing a solvent components to vaporize. Thus, it can be used to
from solution leaving behind the solid solute obtain a pure solvent from a solution. For
example, pure water from salt solution

4. Centrifuging involves separating insoluble

solids from a liquid, where normal filtration does
not work
4. Filtration is used to separate insoluble solid
from a suspension. It is employed if either the 8. Separation of two Miscible Liquids by
solid or liquid or both are required Fractional
. Fractional distillation involves separating a
mixture of two miscible liquids of close boiling
point difference. For example, water and
ethanol. water boils at 1000C and ethanol boils
at 780C.
The process also involves two main stages and
both are physical state changes. These are
vaporization and condensation.

This method can be used to separate industrially

a) Mixture such as alcohol from a fermented
sugar or carbohydrate -
5. Magnetization involves the use of magnet to b) Separate the various fractions from crude oil
separate a magnetic material from a non – c) Separate different gases from air
magnetic material in a mixture
 Atomic structure
A Simple Model of the Atom
The scientific model that describes the
structure of an atom states that atoms are
made up of two mains parts. These are:
- A small dense body at the centre that
contains the mass of the atom called the
nucleus. The nucleus
is positively charged. It contains two sub –
atomic particles called protons and neutrons.
The protons and neutrons in the nucleus
8. determine the physical properties such as the
Separation of two Immiscible Liquids using mass and density of the atom. The number of
Separating Funnel protons and neutrons also determine the
Liquids that do not mix but form two separate stability of the atom and hence its
layers are called immiscible liquids. Their radioactivity.
separation is based on differences in density and - The other part of the atom are shells.
their immiscibility. Example, oil and water They surround the nucleus and contain a
mixture. They are separated using separating third sub – atomic
funnel. particle called electrons. An electron has
negligible mass. Each electron has one-unit
negative charge (-1).
The electrons determine the chemical
properties of an atom.
the proton, neutron and electron are
collectively referred to as sub – atomic
particles.
The table below summarizes the
characteristic properties of fundamental
particles:
Sub symbl charge mass locatio
atomic e n
particle
Separation of Mixtures of Coloured Substances s
by Chromatography
Proton P positive 1 Inside
nucleu
s

neutro N No 1 Inside
n charge nucleu
s

Electon e- negetiv 1/182 outsid

e 0 e
nucleu
s
 For the first 20 elements, the arrangements
are as follows:
- The first shell can contain a maximum
of 2 electrons.
- The second shell can contain a
maximum of 8 electrons.
- The third shell can contain a maximum
of 18 electrons but for small atoms (those
with up to 20 electrons) the third shell hold a
maximum of 8 electrons. The 19th and 20th
electrons go into the fourth shell.
The arrangement of electrons into the
various shells of an atom is called electron
Electron Configuration configurations
The atomic model reveals that electrons
encircle the nucleus in a spherical orbit called Drawing electron configuration
shells or energy levels. The outermost shell of an atom is called the
These shells differ in energy, shape, distance valence shell and the number of electrons
from the nucleus and the number of occupying the valence shell are called the
electrons it contains. valence electrons.
- Each shell can only hold a certain
number of electrons. That is, the maximum
number of electrons allowed in each shell is
given by the formula 2n2, where n is the
number of the shell from the nucleus and it
takes values from 1, 2, 3…
 Electron structure
The electron configuration of an atom can be
represented using numbers in a shorthand
notation called electron structure. It
indicates the number of electrons in each
shell starting from the one closest to the
nucleus. The table below shows examples of
some elements.

1. Analyse: plan a problem –

Problem 1 solving strategy.
a. Give the electron Known
configuration, electron structure of B Unknown
and N atoms. Atomic number
b. Determine the number of valence electrons
valence electrons. Use the relation, number of
1. B (atomic number 5) electrons = atomic number
2. N (atomic number 7) B = 5 electrons
Solution N = 7 electrons
- Place electrons in the
shells with the lowest energy level,
symmetrically until half – filled before
pairing.
- Apply the rule of the
maximum number of electrons
allowed to occupy a shell.
- Count the number of
electrons in outermost shell to
determine the valence electrons.
2. Solve: Apply the problem –
solving strategy.
a. i. Boron
ii. Nitrogen
(2, 3)
(2, 5)

Electron configuration of ions

Ions can be formed when a neutral atom
loses one or more electrons from its
valence shell or accepts one or more
electrons onto its valence shell.
For example, lithium has the electron structure
(2,1) and electron configuration.

The electron configuration of the ion has its

valence shell being full. Atoms that have full
valence shells do not form ions and therefore
When one electron is removed from the atom do not combine to form a molecule. However,
of lithium, the electron structure and electron atoms whose valence shells are not full,
configuration combine readily to form a molecule.
Become
Atomic characteristics
All atoms have two special numbers called
atomic number and mass number.
The atomic number
Atomic number is the number of protons in
the nucleus of an atom. It is also called the
proton number and denoted by Z.
Mass Number; The mass number of an atom is
defined as the total number of protons and
neutrons contained in the nucleus of the atom.
It is also known as nucleon number and
denoted by A. Mathematically, the mass
 One the other hand, fluorine has the number is defined by the equation:
electron structure and electron Mass number = Atomic number + Number of
configuration. Fluorine (2,7) neutrons
A = Z + n

Examples,

When one electron is added onto its valence

shell, the electron structure and electron
configuration become Shows that Beryllium atom has an atomic
number 4 and mass number 13
Problem 1 Evaluate: Does the result make sense?
How many electrons and neutrons are in the A = n + Z = 20 + 19 = 39
following atoms? The concept has been applied correctly
Atomic number Mass number
a. Phosphorus 15 31 Problem 2: Potassium has the chemical
b. Aluminium 13 27 symbol.
Solution: Use problem – solving strategy
1. Analyse: List the known and unknown.
Unknown
- Atomic number= Number of protons -Mass a. How many electrons has potassium?
number b. How many neutrons has potassium?
Number of electrons =? Solution: use problem – solving strategy.
Number of neutrons =? 1. Analyse: list the known and unknowns.
· Use the relationship between atomic Unknown
number and number of protons to get the Atomic number= Number of protons - Mass
number of electrons and neutrons. number
2. Calculate: Solve for the unknown - Number of electrons =?
Number of electrons = Atomic number of - Number of neutrons =?
neutral atoms = number of protons Use the relationship between atomic number
a. 15 electrons b. 13 electrons and number of protons to get the number of
Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic electrons and number of neutrons.
number 2. Calculate: solve for unknown.
a. n = 31 – 15 = 16 neutrons a. Number of electrons = Atomic number =
b. n = 27 – 13 = 14 neutrons number of protons = 19 electrons.
3. Evaluate: Does the results make sense? b. Number of neutrons = mass number –
a. A = Z + n = 15 + 16 = 31 atomic number = 39 – 19 = 20 neutrons.
b. A = Z + n = 13 + 14 = 27 3. Evaluate: Does the result make sense?
The concept has been correctly applied A = n + Z = 20 + 19 = 39
because the mass numbers were obtained The concept has been applied correctly.
back.

Isotopes and relative atomic mass

Isotopes: are atoms of the same element that have the same atomic number but different mass
numbers

Problem 1. Carbon has three isotopes namely, Boron has two most stable isotopes. If the
carbon – 12, carbon – 13 and carbon – 14. number of neutrons and electrons of each
a. Write the chemical symbol for each isotope is as below:
isotope using superscript and subscripts to Isotope 1 Isotope 2
represent the mass and atomic numbers and - Electrons = 5 - electrons = 5
b. Determine the number of neutrons in - Neutrons = 5 neutrons = 6
each isotope. Calculate: solve the problem
Solution: - Number of electrons = Number of protons
. Using the relationship: Isotope 1: Number of protons = 5
n=A–Z Isotope 2: number of protons = 5
- Number of neutrons in C – 12 = 12 – 6 = 6 - Mass number = atomic number + neutron
- Number of neutrons in C – 13 = 13 – 6 = 7 number
- Number of neutrons in C – 14 = 14 – 6 = 8 Isotope 1 = 5 + 5 = 10
Problem 2 Isotope 2 = 5 + 6 = 11
Properties of isotopes Relative atomic mass
- Different isotopes of an element have The sum of the number of protons and
the same atomic number, number of electrons neutrons in the nucleus of an atom give the
and hence actual mass of an atom. However, the actual
similar electronic arrangement. mass of a proton and a neutron is too small to
- Different isotopes of an element have be measured directly.
similar chemical properties because they have Scientist arrived at a unit defined as
similar number 1/12 of the mass of one atom of carbon – 12
of electrons. and compared the mass of other atoms by this
- Different isotopes of an element have unit. It is denoted as Ar.
different physical properties such as mass, Mathematically, it is expressed as:
density, melting Relative atomic mass = Average mass of atom
point and boiling point. of the element
- Some isotopes have unstable nuclei and 1/12 of the mass of one atom of C – 12
therefore can emit radiations. Such isotopes Relative atomic mass has no unit.
are called radioisotopes and other isotopes
have stable nuclei and therefore do not Relative atomic mass and isotopic masses
undergo radioactive decay. They are termed as The relative atomic mass of an atom of an
non – radioactive isotopes. Examples are, and element can be determined from the isotopic
Other isotopes have stable nuclei and masses and their percentage abundance by the
therefore do not undergo radioactive decay. relationship:
They are termed as non– radioactive isotopes. Ar = m1h1+ m2h2
Uses of isotopes h1 + h2
Radioisotopes are used in industry and in the
fields of medicine, agriculture and research. Where m1 = mass of isotope1, m2= mass of
isotope2, h1= percentage abundance of
isotope1, h2= percentage abundance isotope2

Potassium K 39.1
Element Symbol Relative atomic mass Calcium Ca 40.1
Hydrogen H 1.0
Helium He 4.0
Lithium Li 6.9
Beryllium Be 9.0
Boron B 10.8
Carbon C 12.0
Nitrogen N 14.0
Oxygen O 16.0
Fluorine F 19.0
Neon Ne 20.2
Sodium Na 23.0
Magnesium Mg 24.3 Chemical bonding When two or more atoms of
Aluminium Al 27.0 different elements combine, a compound is
Silicon Si 28.1 formed. The atoms are held together by a
Phosphorus P 31.0 chemical bond.
Sulphur S 32.1
Chlorine Cl 35.5
Argon Ar 35.9
 A chemical bond, is the force of attraction electrostatic force called ionic bond. This is
that exist between two chemical atoms or illustrated as follows
ions.
Atoms combine to form compounds so that
they can achieve a stable electron
configuration of noble gases or an octet.
There are two types of chemical bonds.
These are the ionic bond and covalent bond
depending on the bonding atoms. Covalent bonding in covalent bond, two non –
If a metal bonds with a non – metal, the bond metals share their unpaired valence electron
is called ionic bond. For example, NaCl, LiF, making them acquire stable noble gas electron
CaCl2, MgO, KNO3. etc configuration. Note that only valence electrons
If a non – metal bonds with a non – metal, the are shared.
bond is called a covalent bond. Examples are Example 1: Covalent bonding diagram of
CO2, NH3 and H2O. hydrogen molecule Two hydrogen atoms share
their unpaired electrons to have a full, stable
Ionic bond It is defined as the electronic force electron configuration as below
of attraction between oppositely charged ions
(that is, a cation and an anion). Properties of Ionic compounds
It is formed when one or more valence  Ionic compounds exist as hard crystalline
electrons are completely transferred from a solids at room temperature having
metal to a non – metal resulting in the alternated positive and negative ions held
formation of a cation and an anion. This results together by strong electrostatic forces of
in the formation of a stable electron attraction.
configuration of the bonding atoms.  They are brittle but not malleable like
Example 1, Lithium atom transfers one metals.
electron from its incomplete valence shell to a  Ionic compounds have high melting and
fluorine atom to form oppositely charged ions very high boiling points. This is due to the
(that is, Lithium cation and a fluoride anion). strong electrostatic force of attraction
The ions formed are held together by between the cations and anions.
 Most covalent compounds are soluble in
 Many ionic compounds are soluble in polar non - polar solvents such as organic
solvents such as water but insoluble in non solvents (kerosene,
– polar solvents such as organic solvents tetrachloromethane) but insoluble in polar
like tetrachloromethane. solvents like water.
 Ionic compounds conduct electricity in  Covalent compounds do not conduct
molten state or in aqueous solution electricity either in molten form or in
aqueous solution except diamond.
Difference between ionic compounds and
covalent compounds
Ionic compounds Covalent compounds
1. They are crystalline 1. They are liquids, gases
hard solids or solids (made of
(made of ions) molecules)
Properties of covalent compounds 2. Have high boiling 2. Have low melting and
 Covalent compounds usually exist as and melting boiling points
liquids and gases at room temperature. points
They are usually made of 3. Conduct electricity 3. Poor conductor of heat
simple or giant molecules. when melted or in all phases
 They have low melting points and boiling in solution (states)
points due to the weak forces of attraction. Many are soluble in 4. Many are soluble in
water but insoluble non – polar
in non–polar solvent solvent but
insoluble in polar Rules for writing a chemical formula
solvent like water - Write the name of the compound
- Write the symbols of the elements or
Chemical formula is defined as an expression radicals below them
that shows the type and number of atoms in - Write the valency’s below them
the - Interchange the valency’s and write
smallest unit of the substance. them as right – hand subscript
example: table salt has simple formula – NaCl. - Radicals must be put in bracket before
Others such as palmitic acid in palm oil has writing the valency as subscript
complex chemical - For elements having more than one
formula, CH3-(CH2)14COOH valence, the valency being used in the
Valency compound will be
valency determines how the element indicated in the name. Metals having atomic
combines with other elements. For example, number up to 20 have fixed valency but metals
aluminium has a valency of 3 and chloride has having atomic
a valency of 1. When they combine number greater than 20 have variable valency.
to form aluminium chloride, 3 chlorine atoms - For the formula to be correct, the
must combine with one aluminium atom to following relation must hold:
give the formula Number of atom A x valency of atom A =
AlCl3. number of atom B x valency of atom B
How do we determine the valences of - For binary compounds (compounds
elements? There is a close relationship made up of two different elements), the name
between the position ending (suffix) is ‘-ide’. Example, sodium
of an element in the periodic table and its chloride.
valency. The valency of elements can therefore - For oxo – compounds (compounds
be worked out having oxygen in their radicals) the suffix is ‘-
from the groups they belong in the periodic ate’. Example,
table. Deductions sodium trioxonitrate (V).

Worked example 1
Writing the formulae of the following binary
compounds:
a. Aluminium fluoride
b. Potassium nitride
Radicals Radicals are polyatomic ions. They
c. Sodium sulphide
also have valencies. The table below
d. Aluminium oxide
summarizes them
Solve: Apply the problem – solving strategy.
a. Aluminium fluoride
a)

Since, a letter or a number multiplied by 1,

gives the same letter or number, the formula is
reduced to: AlF3
 Worked example 2
Write the chemical formulae of the following
b) compounds:
a. Magnesium oxide
b. Aluminium nitride
Solution: Use problem solving strategy.
1. Analyse: Plan problem solving strategy.
- Write the name of compound
c)
- Write the symbols below them
- Write the valency’s below them
- Since the valency’s are the same,
interchanging would not be necessary. Rather,
write them as right– hand subscript and divide
through by an integer to get the simplest ratio.
d)

2 of Al (3) Valances 3 x O (2)

2x3=3x2
Al2O3 Case 3: Writing chemical formula for binary
Evaluate: Does the results make sense? Apply compounds having metal that has more than
the alternative approach to check. one valency.
Number of atom A x Valency of atom A = NB: The valency of the metal is indicated in
Number of atom B x Valency of atom B Roman numeral and in bracket.
Valency of A Valency of B Deduced Worked example 3
A. 1 of Al (3) Valances 3 x F (1) Write the chemical formula of the following
1x3=3x1 compounds.
AlF3 a. Iron (III) oxide
B. 3 of K (1) Valances 1 x N (3) b. Manganese (IV) chloride
3x1=1x3 c. Copper(I) sulphide
K3N d. Chromium (IV) oxide
C. 2 of Na (1) Valances 1 x S (2) Solution: Use problem – solving strategy.
2x1=1x2
Na2S
NB: All has a net charge of zero on the
compound formed.

Case 2: Writing the chemical formulae of

binary compounds having cations and anions
of the same 1.
valency.
NB: The ratio of the bonding atoms is divided
by an integer to reduce it to 1:1.

2
 3

1.

4.

2.

Evaluate: Does the results make sense? Apply

the alternative approach to check.
Number of atoms A x Valency of atom A =
Number of atom B x Valency of atom B
Valency of A Valency of B Deduced formula of
A and B
A. 2 atoms of Fe(3) Valances 3 atoms of O(2)
2 x 3 = 3 x 2 Fe2O3 3.
B. 1 atom of M (4) Valances 4 atoms of Cl (1)
1 x 4 = 4 x 1 MnCl4 Naming of chemical formula
C. 2 atoms of Cu (1) Valances 1 atom of S (2) IUPAC system of naming compounds is based
2 x 1 = 1 x 2 Cu2S on some rules of the International Union of
D. 1 atom of Cr (4) Valances 2 atoms of O (2) Pure and Applied Chemistry
1 x 4 = 2 x 2 CrO2 The IUPAC system of naming depends on the
type of compound involved and oxidation
Case 4: writing the chemical formula of oxo number of the constituent elements.
salts (that is salts containing radicals such as Oxidation number
NO3- CO32-, SO42- ) The oxidation state of an element is the
NB: - If the valency of the cation is greater than number of charges an atom will carry in its
1, the radical is put in bracket before writing pure state or in a molecule if electrons were
the right –subscript. completely transferred.
- The prefix – oxo, indicates the number It is determined by a set of rules. These are:
of oxygen atoms attached to the central atom.  The oxidation number of all elements in
Worked example 4 their free state or un-combined state is
Write the chemical formula of the following zero
compounds:  . The free state of a metal is its un-
a. Sodium trioxocarbonate (IV) combined state (Na, K, Al, Fe) and for some
b. Aluminium tetraoxosulphate (VI) non – metals, their diatomic molecules O2,
c. Calcium tetraoxophosphate (V) Cl2, F2, N2.
Solution: Use a problem – solving strategy.  The oxidation number of oxygens in most
compounds is -2. Example, oxidation
number of oxygens in CO2, CO, HNO3, SO4
is -2.
 The oxidation number of hydrogen is +1 Apply the rule which states that the sum of the
when it is bonded to a non – metal. oxidation states of all the elements in the
Example, the oxidation number of H in radicals is equal to the net charge.
H2O, NH3, CH4. The oxidation number of a. SO42-
hydrogen is -1 X + 4(- 2) = -2
 when it is bonded to a metal. Example, X – 8 = -2
the oxidation number of H in NaH, MgH, X = +6
LiH. b. PO43-
 The oxidation number of the halogens (F, X + 4(- 2) = -3
Cl, Br and I) when it is bonded is -1. X – 8 = -3
 For ions of a single atom, the oxidation X = +5
number is equal to the charge on it. c. NO3-
Example Na (+1), Ca (+2), X + 3(- 2) = -1
O (-2), N (-3). X–6=-1
 The sum of the oxidation states of all the X = +5
elements in a neutral atom is zero and for d. CO32-
a polyatomic ion is equal to its net charge. X
Charge Formula Name + 3(- 2) =
Worked examples +1 H+ Hydrogen -2
+
Problem 1: Determine the oxidation number of Li Lithium X
the underlined element in the following Na+ Sodium – 6 = -2
compounds K+ Potassium X
+
a. NH3 b. CO2 C. Fe2O3 Cs Caesium =+4
Solution: +2 Be2+ Beryllium Worked
Let x be the oxidation number of the Mg2+ Magnesium example
central atom. Apply the rule which states that Ca2+ Calcium 3
the sum of all the elements in the substance is Zn2+ Zinc
equal to its net charge.
a. NH3 -1 H- Hydride
x + 3(+1) = 0 F- Fluoride
x+3=0 Cl- Chloride
x=-3 Br- Bromide
b. CO2 I- Iodine
X + 2(- 2) = 0
X–4=0 +3 Al3+ Aluminium
X=+4
c. Fe2O3 -2 O2- Oxide
2x + 3(-2) = 0 S2- Sulphide
2x – 6 = 0
2x = 6 -3 N3- Nitride
X = +3 P3- Phosphide
Problem 2
Determine the oxidation number of the -4 C4- carbide
underlined element in the following ions: 1. Name the following binary ionic
a. SO42- compounds.
b. PO43- a. K3N b. MgS c. AlBr3
c. NO3-
d. CO32- 2. Solve: Apply the problem – solving
Solution strategy.
Let x be the oxidation number of the central Name the cation followed by the
atom. anion:
 a. K3N: Potassium nitride Binary ionic compounds having cations made
b. MgS: Magnesium sulphide of metals having more than one oxidation
c. AlBr3: Aluminium bromide number
Binary ionic compounds having cations made Worked problem 4
of metals having more than one oxidation Name the following binary ionic compounds.
number, its oxidation number must be a. FeF3
indicated in Roman numeral and in brackets b. MnS
immediately after the name without space. c. CoCl2
These are metals having the atomic number Solution
above 20. Examples are: . Use the crisscross method to determine the
-Metal - - Oxidation number valency or oxidation state.
Copper - 1 and 2 a. FeF3: Iron (III) fluoride
Iron - 2 and 3 b. MnS2: Manganese (IV) sulphide
Cobalt - 2, 3, and 4 c. CoCl2: Cobalt (II) chloride
Manganese - 2 and 4 2. Naming binary molecular compound
These are compounds that contain discrete, or
Naming of Inorganic Compounds simple covalent or molecular units made up of
Let us consider the various ways of naming non –metals. There are different types:
various inorganic compounds: a. Type 1: Binary covalent molecules having
1. Naming of binary ionic compounds hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a non –
A binary ionic compound is made up of two metal. These types of compounds are named
different elements one of which is a metal. like binary ionic compound. The hydrogen is
Examples are NaCl, MgO, KCI. Their considered to be more electropositive and
nomenclature or naming is based on the therefore named first followed by the name of
following rules: the non – metal. Examples,
- Name the cation first followed by the
name of the anion.
- The name of the cation is usually the
name of the metal.
- The name of the anion takes the root
name of the non – metal plus the suffix “-ide”.
Example, anion from chlorine is named
chloride (chlor + ide)
b. Type 2: Binary covalent molecules where
a pair of non – metal and oxygen form
Worked example 3 compounds with different number of oxygen
1. Name the following binary ionic atoms: Example, NO and NO2.
compounds. Rules:
a. K3N b. MgS c. AlBr3 - Name the first element in the chemical
formula first.
2. Solve: Apply the problem – solving strategy. - Indicate the oxidation state of the first
Name the cation followed by the element, in Roman numerals and in bracket.
anion: - Followed by the word oxide.
a. K3N: Potassium nitride Naming scheme: [Name of first element + (Its
b. MgS: Magnesium sulphide oxidation number) + Oxide]
c. AlBr3: Aluminium bromide Examples:
 - Use the prefix dioxo, trioxo,
tetraoxo to indicate the total number of
oxygen atoms present in the formula. (i.e. 2, 3
and 4 respectively)
- Followed by the root name of
the central non – metal, with the suffix “-ate”
added to it.
- Indicate in Roman numeral and
in brackets, the oxidation state of the central
non – metal, with the word “acid” is added to
the name.
Name scheme:
[Prefix + Root name + “ate” (Central
3. Naming Ternary Compounds atom’s oxidation state in Roman numeral) +
Ternary compound is a compound made up of Acid]
three different elements. Examples are, KOH Worked Example 5:
and KCN. Name the following acids:
a. H2 SO4
b. HNO3
a. H2SO4
- It is an oxo – acid. The oxidation
state of S is worked out as follows:
2(1) + x + 4(-2) = 0
X = +6
4. Naming acids
- Number of oxygens = 4, hence
An acid is a hydrogen containing
the prefix is tetraoxo.
substance that yields hydrogen ions in
- Name of the central atom +
solution.
suffix: sulphate
a. Simple acids
- Applying the rule:
These are hydrogen – containing
Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid
binary compounds.
b. HNO3
- The hydrogen is bonded directly
- It is an oxoacid. The oxidation
to a non – metal which is more
state of N is worked out as follows:
electronegative.
1 + x + 3(-2) = 0
- They are named with the prefix
X = +5
“hydro” plus root name of the other non –
- Number of oxygen atoms = 3,
metal + suffix “-ic acid”.
hence the prefix: trioxo
Examples,
- Name of central atom + suffix:
nitrate
- Applying the rule:
Trioxonitrate(V) acid
4. Naming oxo salts
These are salts that contain oxo –
anion. Examples are: NaNO3, CaSO4 and KCO3.
Rules
b. Oxo – acids - Name the cation first followed
These are types of acids that have by the anion.
hydrogen and oxygen atoms bonded directly to - In naming the cation, if it has
a non -metal. Examples are: - H2SO4, HNO3 and more than one oxidation state (or valency), the
H2CO3. oxidation state being used in the formula is
Rules: indicated in Roman numeral and in bracket.
 - The anion is named just like the - Number of oxygens per oxo –
oxoacid but without the word acid. anion = 3, hence the prefix: trioxo –
The rule is summarized as: - Apply the rule: Iron (III)
[Name of cation + Prefix + Root name + trioxocarbonate (IV)
“ate” (Central atom’s oxidation state in Roman [Name of cation + Prefix + Root name +
numeral)] “ate” (Central atom’s oxidation state in Roman
Worked example 6 numeral)]
Name the following compounds:
a. K2CO3
b. Fe (CO3)
Solution: Use the problem-solving
approach.
1. Analyze: Plan the problem –
solution strategy.
- Identify the type of compound it
is.
- Apply the type of rule for that
particular type of compound.
- If it is an oxo salt, work out the
oxidation state of the central atom first.
- Apply the rule.
2. Solve: Apply the problem –
solving strategy.
a. K2SO4
- It is an oxo salt. The oxidation
state or valency of K is fixed. The oxidation
state of S is obtained as
follows:
x + 3(-2) = -2
X = +4
- Number of oxygen atoms = 3,
hence the prefix: trioxo
- Apply the rule: Potassium
trioxosulphate (IV)
b. Fe2(CO3)3
- It is also an oxo salt. The
oxidation state or valency of Fe is +3 or 3. The
oxidation state of carbon is obtained from its
oxo – anion as follows:
X + 3(-2) = -2, x = +4
THE MOLE CONCEPT
ss
 Cell (Cell Organelles), Plant, Animal and Specialized Cells

Plant and animal cells are similar in the ways listed below.
Both plant and animal cells:
· Have a cell membrane around the cell
· Have a jelly-like substance called cytoplasm
· Have a nucleus
· Have mitochondria and ribosomes
There are also differences between plant and animal cells.
These are summarized in the table below:

Plant cells Animal cells

Have cell wall which contain cellulose Cell wall is absent
cells have large vacuole which are permanent Vacuoles, if present, are small and temporary or absent
Thin lining of cytoplasm against wall Cytoplasm throughout the cell
Chloroplast is present Chloroplast is absent
Have definite shape Have no definite shape
Store carbohydrate as starch Store carbohydrate as glycogen
Have no centrioles Have centrioles in the cytoplasm

Specialized cells
Most organisms have bodies which are made up of many cells (multicellular organisms).
The cells within their bodies are not the same.
For example, cells in the heart are different from that of the skin.
They differ in shape, size, function etc. because they are found in different parts of the organism.
The differences come as a result of the fact that during development, some cells specialize to carry out
one particular function.
These specialized cells do not live in isolation but rather interact together to form tissues
and organs.
However, a few organisms show no specialization and consist of repeated identical cells,
e.g., Volvox, a colonial alga.
Now let us look at some specialized cells in both animal and plant cells.
First the animal cells:
 Red blood cells
They are biconcave disc-shaped (circular with depressions on either side).
They have an elastic membrane that makes it flexible.
At maturity, they lack nucleus in the cytoplasm.
They are occupied by the red pigment called haemoglobin (an iron-carrying molecule).
During respiration, haemoglobin combines with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin which is used for
transport. The flexibility of the cell membrane enables it to squeeze through capillary pores and tissues.
The function of red blood cells is to transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues for tissue respiration

Lymphocyte
Lymphocytes are rounded and possess only a small quantity
of cytoplasm. They have a nucleus at maturity and amoeboid
in shape.
This allows them to squeeze through pores in capillary walls.
They are produced in the lymph, nodes and bone marrow.
They are responsible for the production of antibodies
Phagocyte
Phagocytes are white blood cells with an indented
nucleus. Their cytoplasm does not contain granules. They
are produced in the bone marrow. They are called
phagocytes because they engulf foreign substances and
other cells such as bacteria by producing enzymes to
digest the foreign materials
Nerve cell
A nerve cell has a cell body, an elongated body called axon and short projections called dendrons. The
Dendrons branch to form many fine structures called dendrites. These dendrites are placed in series for the
transmission of nerve impulses from sense organs (skin) to the central
nervous system and from the central nervous system to the muscles and glands.

Mammalian Sperm
The mammalian sperm is made up of the head, middle
piece and the tail.
The head contains a large nucleus with acrosome at the
tip.
The acrosome contains an enzyme which digest the wall
of the female egg/gamete for fertilization to take place.
The middle piece contains numerous mitochondria for
energy production in the form of ATP.
The energy is used to bring about the beating movement of the flagellum
which is the tail.
Muscle cells
Muscle cells are elongated, flexible fibres and capable of
appreciable contraction.
Their ability to contract and relax account for the overall
skeletal movement in organisms

VIRUSES AND CELLS Akaryotic – having no nucleus, no cytoplasm,

VIRUS is a particle consisting of a core nucleic e.g. virus
acid (either DNA or RNA) enclosed in a protein Prokaryotic – having no defined nucleus or
shell called capsid. cytoplasm e.g. bacteria
If something is described as acellular then it Eukaryotic – having well defined nucleus, with
means it does not have a nucleus, cytoplasm cytoplasm e.g., fungi, Protoctista, plants and
or a cell membrane. animals
features that classify viruses as Living
things and Non-living things
Viruses are described as living things because
they
 Contain DNA or nucleic acids
 Multiply or reproduce when they are
in a living host cells
Viruses are described as non-living things
because
1. They cannot grow
2. They lack nucleus
3. They cannot reproduce on their own
4. They cannot move
5. They can crystallize
6. They do not excrete
7. They do not respire

Types of Cells
There are three types of cells according to
their structure. They are:
Cell Structures/Organelles.  Many ions are dissolved in it and it is
By the end of today’s session, you should be the site of many chemical reactions.
able to  It houses the organelles
Describe the structure and functions of the  It is the site for many chemical
following organelles: reactions.
1. Cell wall  It is the site for building up materials
2. Cytoplasm such as proteins and carbohydrate.
3. Nucleus  It is the site where energy is supplied
4. Endoplasmic reticulum for cell activities.
5. Golgi apparatus  It is the site where food materials such
6. Mitochondrion as glycogen in animals and starch in
7. Lysosome plants are stored
8. Vacuole Nucleus
9. Chloroplast and The nucleus is spherical/ovoid in shape and the
10. centriole largest cell organelle.
It is enclosed by a double membrane, called
Cell wall nuclear envelope.
This is a structure that surrounds the cell The nuclear membrane is perforated by
membrane. nuclear pores which control the exchange of
The cell wall is found in bacteria, fungi and materials between the
plants. nucleus and the cytoplasm.
In bacteria, the cell wall is made up of proteins The nucleus contains chromatin materials that
and fats. form chromosome when the cell is about to
The cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin and divide.
cellulose which is found in cells of higher Chromatin contains DNA, the molecule of
plants. inheritance which controls the activity of the
Cellulose has very large molecules which form cell.
fibres. The nucleus also contains one or more nucleoli
These fibres make the walls strong and which manufacture ribosomes.
supportive, but at the same time porous. The nucleus and the cytoplasm constitute the
The porous nature of the wall makes it protoplasm of the cell.
permeable to water and dissolved particles, The only cell without a nucleus is the red
allowing them to pass blood cell.
through relatively easily. Function
Some plant cells have a cytoplasmic link which  It controls the life activities of the cell
crosses the wall.  Contains hereditary materials (DNA)
These links of cytoplasm are known as which are passed on from parent to
plasmodesmata. offspring.
 Contains nucleolus which synthesizes
Function RNA for protein synthesis
 It protects and support the cell to  It initiates cell division during life
resist bursting during turgidity processes like growth and
 It provides shape to the cell especially reproduction
plant cells Endoplasmic reticulum
 It is easily permeable to gases, water It is a network of minute sheets and tubes
and other substances. bounded by a membrane.
Cytoplasm It is found throughout the cytoplasm and
The cytoplasm is a transparent watery fluid connects to the nucleus and cell membrane.
which is about 90% water, within which can be There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum
found various organelles. – rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes Triphosphate).
on its outer surface and that gives them a For example, mitochondria are numerous in
rough appearance. muscle cells, the middle piece of the sperm
However, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum cells, cells at the bases of wings of insects and
does not have ribosomes on its outer surface. at the bases of quill feathers on the wings of
The endoplasmic reticulum divides the internal birds.
part of the cell into compartments so that All these structures require much energy for
chemical their activities.
reactions occurring in the cell do not interfere Mitochondria contain enzymes which take part
with one another. in the respiration process.
Function It is therefore referred to as the “power
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum house” of the cell.
synthesizes and transport proteins Function
 The rough endoplasmic reticulum  It is the site for energy production in
serves as a platform that supports the the form of ATP (adenosine
ribosomes Triphosphate)
 The smooth endoplasmic reticulum Lysosomes
synthesizes and transport lipids Lysosomes originate either from Golgi
 The endoplasmic reticulum provides apparatus or directly from the endoplasmic
the surface for chemical reactions reticulum.
Golgi apparatus/bodies They are bounded by a single membrane, and
Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of flattened contain concentrated mixture of hydrolytic
membranous sacs. digestive
This organelle (which is named after the enzymes.
biologist who first reported it) is present in all If these digestive enzymes were not kept
cells. enclosed in a sac, they would attack the other
However, it is prominent in cells that are cell organelles.
metabolically active. They are numerous in animal cells than in plant
The stacks of flattened membranous sacs have cells.
clusters of vesicles at their edges. The enzymes they contain are used in the
The vesicles are small bodies in the cell dissolution and digestion of redundant
containing secretory material. structures or damaged
The Golgi apparatus is numerous in secreting organelles from within or outside the cell.
cells such as cells of salivary glands and the For example, when a cell dies its own
pancreas lysosomes release enzymes that digest the
Functions remains of the cell. This
 it is responsible for the production and process is known as autolysis.
repair of the cell membrane Functions
 it synthesizes complex carbohydrates  It destroys itself when it is worn-out
 it is involved in the packaging and and therefore referred to as “suicide
secretion of proteins and complex bag” of the cell.
carbohydrates  It destroys redundant structures or
Mitochondrion organelles within the cell.
It is a sausage-shaped structure bounded by a Vacuoles
double membrane. Vacuoles are fluid-filled cavities bounded by a
The number of mitochondria in a cell depends single membrane called tonoplast.
on the energy requirements of the cell or It occupies over 80% of the cell volume.
where the cell is found in the organism. The plant vacuole is filled with a liquid known
This is because mitochondrion is responsible as cell sap, an aqueous solution of dissolved
for the synthesis of energy in the form of ATP food materials, ions, waste products and
(Adenosine pigments.
The vacuoles of animal cells are usually very
much smaller and less permanent. The two types of reproduction: sexual and
Small vacuoles are often called vesicles. asexual.
They may contain engulfed solids or liquids Sexual reproduction involves fertilization- a
such as food vacuole or contractile vacuole in process in which the nuclei of male and female
Amoeba. gametes or sex cells fuse to form a zygote. The
Function zygote develops into a new individual of the
 Provide support for herbaceous plants same kind.
when they are turgid. In Asexual reproduction there is no fusion of
 Store food in plant cells male and female gametes. A common example
 Provide water balance of asexual
(osmoregulation) in animal cells e.g. reproduction found in some plants is
amoeba. vegetative reproduction. It involves the
Chloroplast development of a new plant from a vegetative
A large disc-shaped organelle bounded by a part (root, stem and leaves) of a plant. In
double membrane. cultivating cassava for example, a piece of
They are found only in the green parts in stem is cut. This piece of stem then develops
plants. into a new plant.
They contain the green pigment, chlorophyll,
which absorbs light energy from sunlight for Structure of the flower
photosynthesis. Flowers are the main reproductive organs of
Function flowering plants.
 It is the site for photosynthesis due to
the presence of chlorophyll A flower consists of a cluster of modified
Ribosomes leaves which are borne on a shortened stem,
Ribosomes are minute structures which are the flower stalk or pedicel.
composed of RNA and protein in roughly equal A flower without a flower stalk is referred to
numbers. Some as sessile.
are free in the cytoplasm, while others are Flowers bear the sex organs that produce male
bound to the outer surface of the rough and female gametes.
endoplasmic reticulum. A flower develops from a flower bud.
Function Depending on the location of the flower on the
 They are the site of protein synthesis plant, it may be described as axillary flower
Centrioles when it is found in the axil of a leaf, or terminal
Centrioles are two hollow cylindrical bodies, flower when it is located at the tip or apex of
lying at right angles to each other besides the the stem or cauline when it is directly borne on
nucleus. the stem as in cocoa.
They occur in animal cells and not in plant Flowers may be solitary (single) as in hibiscus
cells. or in clusters (groups). A collection of flowers
They separate and move to opposite poles at borne on a single stalk, the peduncle, is
early stages of cell division. referred to as inflorescence as in sunflower
 It is also believed to be responsible for
the formation of spindle fibre A flower is made up of four floral parts. These
floral parts are usually arranged in concentric
rings, one
above the other, on the swollen tip of the
pedicel called receptacle or thalamus. The
REPRODUCTION AND GROWTH IN floral parts are
FLOWERING PLANTS arranged in four different whorls on the
It is the process by which living things produce receptacle. The floral parts are the calyx,
new individuals of their own kind. corolla, androecium and gynoecium.
Calyx known as anther attached to it. The anther is a
The calyx is the outermost whorl of floral parts four-lobed structure which produces pollen
on the receptacle. grains which are yellowish and powdery.
It consists of sepals which are usually green in The filament is a structure which supports the
colour and serve to protect the inner parts of anther for effective dispersal of pollen grains.
the flower during the bud stage. They may Stamens may be either free or fused in various
remain completely free from one another (e.g. ways.
morning glory). The free state of the sepals is Gynaecium
called polysepalous. The gynoecium is the innermost whorl and
The sepals may be fused together to form a constitutes the female reproductive organs of
cup-like structure as in Crotalaria. When the a flower. A
sepals are fused, it is referred to as gynoecium or pistil consists of carpels. Each
gamosepalous. carpel consists of an ovary, a style and a
The sepals of some flowers, instead of being stigma. The ovary is the enlarged base of the
small and green, are large, brightly coloured carpel. It contains one or more ovules.
and attractive. When the ovary is completely embedded in a
An example of a plant with such flowers is fleshy receptacle such that the other floral
Caesalpinia in which the sepal colours are parts (namely, calyx, corolla, and stamens)
orange and white. In such flowers the sepals arise from a position higher than it, it is
are said to be petaloid. described as inferior ovary and the flower is
Corolla referred to as epigynous (e.g., guava). The
The corolla is usually the most conspicuous tissues of receptacle may offer protection for
part of the flower and includes all the petals. It the ovary against mechanical injury.
serves, in most cases, to attract insects to the When the ovary is above the receptacle and
flower for pollination. other floral parts, it is described as superior
It also protects the stamens and the carpels, ovary and the flower is referred to as
especially when the petals are united as in hypogynous (e.g. Hibiscus).
morning glory. Each ovule, in the ovary, is attached to the
Petals are usually conspicuous because of their inner wall of the ovary at a point called the
large size, brightly coloured (e.g. flamboyant) placenta.
and scented. The style is a long stalk that connects the
Petals may be free from one another as in stigma to the ovary. The stigma is a sticky,
Hibiscus. Such petals are described as hairy or feathery apex of the style that receives
polypetalous. When the petals are fused, they pollen grains during pollination.
are said to be gamopetalous (e.g. Allamanda). A pistil with only one carpel is described as
A group of glandular cells situated at the base monocarpous (e.g., flamboyant), while one
of the corolla forms the nectary. These cells with two or more carpels is known as
produce a sugary solution called nectar. polycarpous (e.g., Hibiscus).
In some flowers the sepals and petals look When the carpels are free from one another,
alike such that both cannot be distinguished the pistil is said to be apocarpous (e.g. rose).
from one another. In such a situation it is However, when the carpels are fused together
described as perianth (e.g. Gloriosa). it is known as syncarpous (e.g. Hibiscus).
symmetry
Androecium A flower is described as radially symmetrical
This is the whorl immediately inside corolla (actinomorphic) when two mirror halves can
the. It is a collection of stamens-the male sex be obtained by cutting a longitudinal section
organs. Each through many vertical planes. In such a flower
stamen is made up of a long stalk known as the the floral leaves in each whorl are similar in
filament and a bean-shaped or elongated shape and size (e.g. hibiscus).
yellow body A bilaterally symmetrical (zygomorphic)
flower is one when cut through, two mirror
halves can be obtained by cutting the flower because they produce the gametes required
longitudinally through only one particular for fertilization to take place resulting in the
vertical plane (e.g. flamboyant). formation of
seeds or fruits
Terms used in describing flowers Non-essential of a flower: The petals and the
Unisexual flower: a flower type that has either sepals are regarded as the non-essential parts
stamens or carpels as its sexual part. A flower of a flower
that has only carpels is a female flower and because they are not required for gamete
such a flower is described as pistillate, e.g. production in flowers
maize and pawpaw. On the other hand, any
flower that has only stamens is a male flower Monoecious plant: a plant with both the male
hence it is described as staminate, e.g. and female flowers borne on the same plant
pawpaw and maize such that the flowers are at different positions
Bisexual flower: A flower type, also called on the plant, e.g. maize, oil palm etc.
hermaphrodite, which has both the carpels Dioecious plant: a plant in which the female
(female) and and male flowers occur on separate plants,
stamens (male) on it. Example is pride of e.g., pawpaw
Barbados or Hibiscus.
Perfect flower: A flower that has both carpels Pollination
and stamens in it, e.g. pride of Barbados Pollination is the transfer of matured pollen
Imperfect flower: A flower in which either grains from the anther to the stigma of the
carpel or stamens are naturally missing, e.g. same flower or, the stigma of another flower
maize on the same plant or another of flower on a
Complete flower: A complete flower is the different plant of the same species.
type that has naturally all the four floral parts pollinating agents
namely, calyx, corolla, androecium and  birds,
gynoecium. Example, Hibiscus, pride of  water,
Barbados.  insects
Incomplete flower: An incomplete flower is  wind.
the type which lacks one or more of the floral Pollination is important because it ensures that
parts, e.g. maize and pawpaw flowers the male sex cell in the pollen grain reaches
Regular flower: A flower is regular if it has all the female sex cell in the ovary leading to
members of a whorl on it, i.e., petals identical fertilization
in shape and size, and are evenly arranged on Types of Pollination self-pollination and cross-
the receptacle. Such a flower can be cut pollination.
vertically into two similar halves through any Self-pollination
one of several vertical places (radial symmetry) Self-pollination is the transfer of matured
and is described as actinomorphic flower, e.g., pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
Hibiscus stigma of the
Irregular flower: An irregular flower is one in same flower or to another flower on the same
which the members of a whorl, e.g. petals, are plant, e.g. pea, cotton, tomato etc.
not similar either because some parts are For self-pollination, only one parent plant is
fused, some are smaller than others or involved.
because one or more parts are missing. The Cross-pollination
flower can be cut vertically into two similar Cross-pollination is the transfer of matured
halves through only one plane (bilateral pollen grains from the anther of a flower to the
symmetry) and is described as zygomorphic stigma of
flower, e.g. pride of Barbados and Delonix. another flower on a different plant of the same
Essential parts of a flower: The stamens and or closely related species, e.g. morning glory,
carpels are regarded as the essential parts of Hibiscus,
the flower
pride of Barbados. For cross-pollination to  Flower must exhibit self-sterility, i.e.
occur, two parent plants are involved. the pollen grains cannot germinate on
the stigma of the same flower and
Self-pollination Cross-pollination even if germination takes place,
1. It takes place only 1. It takes place in fertilization cannot occur, e.g. passion
in bisexual plant both unisexual and flower
2. Only one parent bisexual  Flower must show heterostyly, i.e.
plant is involved plants male and female parts are of different
3. Pollination may 2. Two parent plants length in flowers of the same species,
occur without an are involved i.e. long style and short stamen and
external 3. This requires vice versa. This is to prevent pollen
agent external agents, e.g. grains reaching the stigma of the same
4. It does not ensure insects and flower
new varieties Winds  The flower must be unisexual, i.e. only
5. Pollen grains are 4. It results in the the male or female part is present in
effectively utilized formation of new each flower
varieties Adaptation of flowers for pollination
5. Much of the pollen  Flowers are adapted in specific ways
grains are wasted for the various agents of pollination.
The two major agents of pollination
are wind and insects. Other agents
adaptations of flowers/plants that make self- include birds, snails, water and other
pollination and crosspollination possible. animals.
Adaptation of flowers that undergo self-  Insect pollinated flowers are described
pollination as entomophilous flowers (e.g.
 The flower must be bisexual Hibiscus, Crotalaria, Pride of Barbados,
(hermaphrodite), e.g. wild marigold Delonix etc.) and wind-pollinated
 The flower must be homogamous, i.e. flowers are referred to anemophilous
the anther and the stigma mature at flowers (e.g. maize, guinea grass, rice,
the same time, e.g. tomato millet, wheat etc.)
 The flower must be cleistogamous, i.e.
the flower does not open until self- Characteristics of insect-pollinated flowers
pollination has taken place.  They have large, conspicuous petals or
 The flowers are concealed in the sepals
ground, e.g., some species of Cameline  Flowers are usually brightly coloured
Adaptation of flowers that undergo cross-  They possess scent
pollination  Nectar is also present
 The plants must be monoecious, i.e.  Pollen grains are rough, sticky and
separate male and female flowers relatively few
occur on the same plant, e.g. Maize  The stigma is flat with a sticky surface
and coconut to enable it receive pollen grains
 The plant must be dioecious, i.e. male
and female flowers occur on separate Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers
plants, e.g. pawpaw  They have small, inconspicuous petals
 The flower must be protandrous, i.e. or sepals
when the androecium matures first  Flowers are usually dull coloured
before the stigma, e.g. cowpea  There is absence of scent
 The flower must be protogynous, i.e.,  There is absence of nectar
when the stigma matures first before  Large quantity of pollen grains is
the androecium, e.g., Tridax and produced
sunflower
  Pollen grains are small, smooth, light There are also three cells at the chalaza end
and not sticky. called antipodal cells in the embryo sac. At the
 Stigma is elongated and sticky with centre of the
large surface area embryo sac are two nuclei called polar nuclei.
 Anthers are attached to the flower in The synergids and the antipodal cells have no
such a way that they readily swing in useful function and degenerate after
the air and release the pollen grains. fertilization.
The pollen tube enters the ovary and grows
Fertilization, seeds and fruits development towards the ovule.
Fertilization The pollen tube enters the ovule through the
fertilization is the fusion of the nuclei of the micropyle, the tube nucleus degenerates and
male and female gametes to form a diploid the tip of the
zygote. tube bursts, releasing the male nuclei near the
Pollination precedes fertilization. embryo sac, which they enter.
It occurs in the ovule, which contains a female One of the male nucleus fuses with the female
gamete called the ovum or egg cell. egg or ovum to form a diploid zygote.
When a matured pollen grain lands on a The other male nucleus fuses with the polar
matured stigma it absorbs nutrient (sucrose nucleus to form a triploid nucleus known as
solution) secreted by the epidermal cells of the the primary
stigma and swells. endosperm nucleus.
The nucleus of the pollen grain divides into This is called double fertilization which is
two nuclei of unequal size. unique to flowering plants.
The larger one is known as a generative It leads eventually to two structures found in
nucleus and the smaller one, pollen tube the seed, namely the embryo and the
nucleus. endosperm.
A pollen tube emerges from one of the pores Immediately after fertilization, the ovule
in the wall of the pollen grain and grows down becomes known as the seed and the ovary, the
the style. fruit.
The growth of the pollen tube is controlled by The other floral parts wither: that is the sepals,
the pollen tube nucleus of the pollen grain, petals, stamens, stigma and style, leaving only
which is found at the growing tip of the tube the ovary
followed by the generative nucleus. The tube behind.
then grows through the tissues of the style Seed Formation
towards the ovary. Immediately after fertilization, the triploid
As the pollen tube gets closer to the ovary, the primary endosperm cell divides to form a mass
generative nucleus divides into two male of food tissue called the endosperm. The
nuclei. endosperm stores food.
The ovary contains one or more ovules. The zygote grows by division to become a
The main body of the ovule is called the multicellular embryo which consist of an
nucellus and is enclosed and protected by two embryonic shoot, the plumule, an embryonic
sheaths or root, the radicle, and either one or two seed-
integuments. leaves called cotyledons.
A small pore is left in the integument at one of The number of cotyledons forms the basis for
the ovules called the micropyle. the two major divisions of the angiosperms:
The end of the ovule opposite the micropyle is the
called the chalaza. dicotyledons and the monocotyledons.
The embryo sac contains one ovum or egg In dicotyledonous plants, most of the food is
surrounded by two cells called synergids, all of usually transferred from the endosperm to
which are both cotyledons before the seed is mature.
situated near the micropyle. They are referred to as non-endospermous
seeds.
In contrast, seeds of monocotyledonous
plants are endospermic. Importance of fruits
1. Fruits protect the seeds and aid their
That is the bulk of the seed is made of the dispersal
endosperm which stores food. 2. They contain nutrients for immediate
As these changes occur within the seed. The germination of the embryo
integuments of the ovule develop into a
protective coat called testa or seed coat.
The seed coat protects the seeds from
bacteria, fungi and insects.
The testa has a thin membranous tegmen
within it. Only the micropyle perforates this
seed coat. Differences between a fruit and a seed
During the final stages of seed formation, the
water content of the seed falls from about 85% Fruit Seed
to 90% of fresh weight and the seed becomes  It is a  It is a fertilized
dormant. fertilized ovule It
The seed is attached to the pod by a stalk ovary
called funicle. containing
A scar, known as the hilum, marks the point of seeds  has two scars
attachment of the seed to the funicle.  It has only
one scar
Fruit Formation
The result of pollination and fertilization in True and False Fruits
flowers is the formation of fruits and seeds. True fruits: type of fruits that develop only
A fruit is usually described as a fertilized ovary from fertilized ovaries consisting of pericarp
containing seeds. and seed(s). Examples are mango, orange,
cowpea and tomato.
However, in some plants such as banana and False fruits: type of fruits formed from the
pineapple, fertilization is not necessary for ovaries and other floral parts as well.
fruit formation. Fruits which develop without Examples include apples, pineapple and
fertilization are known as parthenocarpy fruits cashew
and they are often seedless. Simple fruits: these are fruits that develop
from a single or ovary. Examples are okra,
During fruit formation, the wall of the ovary cowpea, maize, tomato and pawpaw.
becomes the pericarp, or fruit wall. Aggregate fruits: these are fruits which
The pericarp is usually made up of three layers, develop from a single flower with many
an outer epicarp, a middle mesocarp and an ovaries. Such flowers have pistils where the
inner endocarp. carpels are separated and therefore have
several ovaries.
When a fruit has developed solely from the Each ovary then develops into a fruitlet.
ovary, it is known as a true fruit (e.g. beans). Examples include strawberry, raspberry, etc.
Multiple fruits: these are fruits developed
If it develops not only from the ovary but also from inflorescence or flowers positioned very
from other parts such as the sepals, petals and close to one
the another. Here, all the fruitlets and the floral
receptacle it is called false fruit (e.g. apple, parts are fused together to form a single large
cashew nut etc.). fruit. An example is pineapple.
Fruits developing from whole inflorescence
(e.g. pineapple, fig, etc.) are also regarded as Dry and Succulent/fleshy fruits
false fruits.
Fruits are classified as dry or fleshy according II. Caryopsis: it a small simple fruit
to the nature of their pericarp. developed from a single pistil with a single
Dry Fruits ovary.
A fruit is described as dry when the pericarp The seed coat and the pericarp are fused
becomes dry, hard and woody or fibrous as together to form a covering over the entire
soon as it ripens. grain. Examples are rice grain, maize grain,
Dry fruits may be grouped into dehiscent or millet, guinea corn etc.
indehiscent depending on whether their III. Cypsela: it is a small simple fruit
pericarp split open when ripe or not. formed from a superior monocarpous ovary
Types of dehiscent fruits are follicle, and contains only one seed.
legume/pod, capsule and schizocarp. Here the pericarp is free from the seed coat.
I. Follicle: It is a simple fruit formed At maturity, the corolla drops off and the calyx
from a superior monocarpous pistil. persist and form a prominent parachute-like
The fruit when ripe dehisces meaning it split structure called pappus.
longitudinally on one side only. Examples The seed coat is hard and does not split open
include kola and silk cotton on drying.
II. Legume: it is a simple fruit formed An example is the Tridax fruit
from a superior monocarpous pistil. It is IV. Nut: it is a simple true fruit with a
usually long and flattened sideways. hard woody pericarp which develops from a
When the fruit is ripe the pericarp dehisces superior
longitudinally along both sutures to release the polycarpous ovary. It has one seed chamber
seeds in it. Examples are crotalaria, cowpea, with a seed. An example of nut is the cashew
soya beans, flamboyant and pride of Barbados nut which is on a fleshy edible receptacle.
III. Capsule: it is a simple fruit formed V. Samara: it is a simple true fruit in
from a single ovary divided into many which the pericarp is extended to form one or
independent more wing-like structure(s).
compartments called carpels. It dehisces along Samara fruits develop from superior ovaries
many sides along the points of contact of the with more than one carpel. Usually, they
carpels. Examples of capsule are cotton, okra contain one or more seeds. An example is
and castor oil Cumbretum.
IV. Schizocarp: A simple fruit formed Succulent/Fleshy Fruits
from an ovary made up of one carpel. A succulent fruit is a type of fruit in which the
The dry fruit has several seeds in locules and entire pericarp or at least one of its layers is
break transversally, with each seed enclosed in thick, soft and fleshy when ripe.
a locule. Examples of schizocarp are Types of succulent fruit are drupe, berry, pome
Desmodium and Cassia and sorosis.
B. Dry Indehiscent 1. Drupe: it is a true, simple fruit with well-
These are fruits which do not split open when developed pericarp. The epicarp is thin, the
mature or ripe but usually fall to the ground mesocarp is fleshy or fibrous and the endocarp
where the is hard and stony, e.g., Mango, Coconut and
pericarp eventually decays to release the Palm nut.
seeds. Such fruits are produced in large 2. Berry: it is a true, simple fruit with well-
numbers and are very small in size. developed pericarp. However, the endocarp is
Types of dry indehiscent fruits are achene, not stony as in a drupe. The epicarp is usually a
caryopsis, cypsela, nut and samara. thin membranous covering, which is closely
I. Achene: it is a small, simple, one- attached to a fleshy mass, made up of the
seeded fruit formed from an apocarpous pistil. mesocarp and endocarp. Within this mass lie
The pericarp develops from the seed coat. one or many seeds. e.g. tomato, guava,
Examples include strawberry and sunflower banana, watermelon, orange
3. Pome: it is a simple false fruit in which the
skin and the fleshy edible part are derived
from the receptacle and only the core  the fruits and seeds are edible and are
enclosing the seeds are from the ovary. sticky (e.g. mistletoe). Such fruits and
Examples are apples and pear seeds stick to the beak of birds. These
4. Sorosis: it is a composite false fruit formed birds may clean their beaks on tree
from a dense of inflorescence. Every part of trunks and leaves the seeds there.
each flower forms part of the fruit while the  Other fruits and seeds have sharp,
stalk or axis of the inflorescence swells to form rigid spines by means of which they
the core or mass. Examples of Sorosis are are trapped in the hooves of animals,
breadfruits and pineapple or between the digits of their feet
 Some fruits and seeds are fleshy and
brightly coloured (e.g. mango,
pawpaw, orange and guava). They may
be eaten by bats, birds, squirrels or
Dispersal of fruits and seeds other animals. The hard seeds are
So, what is dispersal? thrown away or swallowed.
Dispersal is defined as the transfer or  Some edible fruits have digestive-
scattering of seeds and fruits from the parent enzyme resistant seeds. Meaning, after
plant to other places where the seeds may the fruits are eaten and the seeds
germinate. swallowed, they are able to withstand
Importance of Dispersal the activities of the digestive enzymes.
1. Helps prevent overcrowding This is because the seeds have a slimy
2. Helps to prevent undesirable competition impermeable layer or tough woody
for space, light, water and nutrients. seed coat. Therefore, they can pass
3. It prevents diseases from spreading among through the alimentary canal
plant species. unharmed. As birds usually cover great
4. It results in colonization of new areas with distances during flight, these seeds get
new plants deposited in several different places.
5. It ensures the survival of a good number of Dispersal by Wind
seedlings under favourable conditions. Fruits and seeds dispersed by wind have
6. It prevents herbivorous animals from having certain adaptive features that aid their
easy access to the plants. dispersal:
Agents of Dispersal  Fruits or seeds are small, light and dry.
 wind, Therefore, they are easily carried away by the
 water, wind from the parent plant to other places.
 animals, Examples are Orchids and some grasses
 explosive’ mechanisms within the  Some may have wings and hairs which
fruits themselves. enable them to float easily and allow
them to be carried around by the
Animal Dispersal wind. An example is the combretum.
The fruits are seeds dispersed by animals and Others have parachute-like tuft or
have special features that facilitate their pappus to enable them to float in the
dispersal. These are air for a long time before landing on
 Adhesive fruits: fruits and seeds with the ground. Example is Tridax.
hooks and hairs (e.g. love-grass or  Fruits and seeds of cotton may have
spear grass) can be caught in the fur of floss (cotton seeds) which makes them
animals e.g. dog, cat cattle or on the be easily carried by the wind.
clothing of people and may be
dropped at distances away from the
parent plant e.g. hooks on Dispersal by Water
Desmodium, sticky drops on
Boerhavia.
Features or adaptations of fruits and seeds Energy
dispersed by water include the following:
 The fruits or seeds may be light and
can float on water
 The fruits have waterproof epicarp, Process of Germination
such as coconut fruit, which prevents it The process of germination is similar in
from imbibing water so that they can different types of seeds.
remain afloat The seed first absorbs water through the
 The fruits have fibrous mesocarp (e.g. micropyle and the testa, to soften the testa.
coconut fruits) containing lots of air In addition, the water also dissolves the
spaces enabling it to float complex food nutrients to enable digestive
 The endocarp is stony or hard (e.g. enzymes breakdown
coconut fruits), preventing it from the complex food into simple soluble food
soaking water thereby remaining substance. Thus;
afloat for a long time before they are Carbohydrate is broken down into glucose by
washed ashore. Then, germination the enzyme, Carbohydrase
starts Fats/lipids are converted into fatty acids and
Explosive Mechanism glycerol by the enzyme, Lipase
Features that aid fruits or seeds dispersal by Proteins are broken down into amino acids by
explosive mechanism has one or more lines of the enzyme, Protease
sutures. The soluble food substance (glucose, amino
 When the pericarp dries up, it acids, fatty acids and glycerol) is transported to
contracts. Then pressure and tension the plumule
build up within the fruit as a result of and radicle.
uneven drying up of the pericarp. This The simple sugars are broken down (oxidized)
causes the pericarp to split along the through tissue respiration to produce energy
lines of sutures. The splitting of such a for the
fruit is called explosive mechanism. synthesis of new protoplasm or cells, cell
The splitting and thrusting of the pericarp division and over growth.
disperse the seeds from the parent plant. The radicle grows downwards into the soil by
Examples of fruits dispersed by this splitting the testa.
method are Acacia, Oil bean, Caesalpinia The plumule also elongates and grow upwards
etc. out of the soil.
The radicle grows into the root system.
The plumule also develops into the shoot
Germination system.
germination is the onset of growth of a seed, The stored food is eventually used up by the
often following a period of dormancy, in embryo for growth.
response to suitable environmental conditions An Experiment to Demonstrate the Conditions
Dormancy is the period where there is very Necessary for Germination
little or minimum cell activity or metabolism in Materials
the embryo of a seed.  Stoppers
Conditions Necessary for Seed Germination  Four conical flasks labelled A, B, C and
A. External conditions D
Moisture/water  Test tubes
Oxygen  Cotton wool
Suitable temperature  Oil
B. Internal conditions  Refrigerator
Enzymes  Water
Seed viability  Some viable seeds, (e.g. bean or
maize)
Method Vegetative reproduction is a type of
 Some bean seedlings are placed on a reproduction in which part of the vegetative
piece of wet cotton in flask A. suitable plant (root, stem and
warmth (30oC) and oxygen are also leaves) gives rise to a new plant. Plants which
present in the flask normally reproduce vegetatively are
 The same number of seeds are placed herbaceous perennials.
on dry cotton wool in flask B. suitable They are non-woody plants which grow from
warmth and oxygen are present. year to year, surviving the dry unfavourable
However, moisture is absent. season as an
 In flask C, the same number of seeds underground storage organ.
are placed on wet cotton wool. In the dry season, the aerial shoots of each
Moisture and oxygen are present here. plant wither and die leaving the storage
However, the flask is placed in a organs.
refrigerator at temperature of about These remain dormant until the rainy season
4oC so that suitable temperature when the buds on each storage organ grow to
would be absent. make new
 In flask D, the same number of seeds aerial shoots and new plants.
are placed in the flask, with cooled The main types of herbaceous perennials are
boiled water added and sealed with a bulbs, rhizomes, corms, suckers, runners,
layer of oil. Here, warmth and stolon’s and setts.
moisture are present but oxygen is Parts of these perennials, for instance, the
absent. stem, leaves, etc, can also give rise to a whole
All the flasks are set aside for a week while the new plant.
progress of germination of the seeds are This is called natural vegetative propagation.
absorbed daily. Vegetative reproduction can also be achieved
artificially through budding, grafting, cutting,
Observation after a week layering and marcotting.
No germination occurs in flasks B, C and D. The Natural Vegetative Propagation
seeds in flask A only germinated. 1. Rhizome
Conclusion 2. Bulbs
Suitable temperature, oxygen and water are 3. Corms
necessary conditions for seeds to germinate 4. Suckers
Types of Germination 5. Runners
There are two types of germination namely, 6. Stolon
1. Epigeal germination 7. Setts
2. Hypogeal germination Rhizomes
Epigeal Germination Rhizomes are thick, fleshy, elongated stems
Epigeal germination occurs when the which grow horizontally below the soil.
cotyledons are brought above the soil surface Characteristics
due to rapid elongation of the hypocotyl. 1. They have nodes, internodes and scale
Examples of seeds that experience epigeal leaves
germination are castor oil, flamboyant, cowpea 2. They have axillary and terminal buds.
seeds and most Dicotyledonous seeds Axillary buds on nodes give rise to new
rhizomes whereas the terminal bud gives rise
Hypogeal Germination to aerial foliage.
Germination is hypogeal when the cotyledons 3. They have adventitious roots growing from
remain below the ground as a result of rapid the nodes
elongation of the epicotyl. Examples are maize 4. They store form in the form of water,
seeds and most Monocotyledonous seeds. mineral salts and glucose
Asexual Reproduction in Plants 5. Examples are cane lily, ginger, runner grass,
lotus and water lily
Bulbs It is a slender lateral branch originating from
A bulb is an underground modified shoot the base of the stem. It grows, first, obliquely
consisting of a shortened convex or conical upwards to
stem. some extent and then bends down to the
Characteristics ground, developing roots at the tip and
1. It has thick, whitish, fleshy leaves which producing bud. The bud
store food soon grows into a daughter plant. Examples
2. The fleshy leaves are covered by dry, brown are gooseberry and blackberry
peppery scale leaves
3. It possesses tiny axillary buds in the axil of
some of the leaves Setts
4. It possesses terminal bud which produces A sett is a cut from the head portion of a tuber
aerial shoot for planting. At least one ‘eye’ must be found
An example is an onion on each sett. The ‘eye’ on the sett is capable of
Corms spouting and establishing as a new plant.
A corm is a short vertical stem swollen and Example are yam and Irish potato
store food.
The stored food is used for the development of Nitrogen Cycle.
a new shoot. The series of reactions in which these
Characteristics nitrogenous compounds are involved, under
 the presence of brown scale leaves natural conditions, make up a cycle known as
 presence of lateral buds along the the Nitrogen Cycle.
nodes Nitrogen is a vital component of every living
 Presence of adventitious roots at the organism. It forms part of all proteins, nucleic
base new corms are formed on top of acids (such as DNA) and their products.
the previous year’s corm. Examples are Nitrogen cycle consists of four main
cocoyam, taro, Gladiolus etc. processes:
Suckers  Nitrogen fixation
These are lateral branches with terminal buds,  Ammonification
which grow from the base of underground  Nitrification
stem of certain  Denitrification
plants, 1. Nitrogen fixation
Characteristics Most organisms cannot use atmospheric
 They have large terminal buds nitrogen, or nitrogen dissolved in water,
 They have underground stems and leaf because nitrogen gas is
bases chemically inert or unreactive. Why?
 They have scale leaves This is because each molecule consists of two
 They have adventitious roots nitrogen atoms linked by a triple bond.
 They do not store food Therefore, before plants and animals can use
Runners nitrogen, it must first be converted to
Runners have slender, prostrate branches with absorbable nitrogen
long or short internodes, creeping on the compounds.
ground and rooting This conversion is called nitrogen fixation.
at nodes. Nitrogen fixation has been put into two types
Runners arise from axillary buds and creep namely, nitrogen fixation by non-living
some distance away from the mother plant. processes and
They then develop adventitious roots and grow nitrogen fixation by living organisms.
into new plants. Let us now consider nitrogen fixation by non-
Examples are Oxalis, Desmodium, sweet living processes
potato, strawberry etc. Nitrogen fixation by non-living processes
Stolon
This normally occurs during thunderstorms excretory products. Furthermore, dead plants
(non-living). and animal tissues, which occur in the soil as
Sometimes during thunderstorms nitrogen humus, also add nitrogen to the soil.
combine with oxygen to form gaseous oxides Two groups of soil organisms, the putrefying
of nitrogen such as nitrous oxide, nitric oxides bacteria and fungi, are responsible for the
and nitrogen peroxides. decay, or putrefaction, of dead plant and
These form nitrous acid and nitric acid with animal tissues, as well as their excretory
rain water. products.
When these acids go into the soil, they These organisms convert organic nitrogenous
combine with mineral salts to produce nitrates compounds in the soil to simple substances
eventually. The like carbon dioxide, water and ammonia.
nitrate so formed dissolve in soil water and are The process by which these compounds are
absorbed by the roots of plants. converted to ammonia is called
Nitrogen fixation is also carried out artificially ammonification.
by industries in the production of nitrogen The energy released during the conversion is
fertilizers. One used by these organisms for their life
major industrial process, the Haber process, processes.
synthesizes ammonia from atmospheric The carbon dioxide is given back to the
nitrogen and atmosphere for plants use and ammonia is
hydrogen by passing the gases under high converted by other micro-organisms to
temperature and pressure through an nitrates.
inorganic catalyst. Nitrification (ammonium ions to nitrites and
This process requires a large amount of nitrates)
energy, usually from burning fossil fuel. The conversion of ammonia to nitrates is called
Nitrogen fixation by living organisms nitrification. The micro-organisms which are
The nitrogen-fixing micro-organisms include responsible for the conversion of ammonia to
certain bacteria living in the soil, e.g. nitrates are known as nitrifying bacteria.
Azotobacter and Clostridium There are two groups of nitrifying bacteria:
certain blue-green algae living in the soil, e.g. those which convert ammonia to nitrites
Nostic and Bacteria which live symbiotically in (NO3- ), e.g.
the root nodules of leguminous plants (such as Nitrosomonas, and others which convert
cowpea and sweet pea), e.g. Rhizobium. nitrites to nitrates (NO42- ), e.g. Nitrobacter.
These micro-organisms are capable of Nitrification occurs only when there is
absorbing atmospheric nitrogen and sufficient air in the soil and also when the soil
converting it to organic nitrogenous is not too acidic.
compounds, namely proteins within their Nitrates in the soil can be absorbed directly by
bodies. plant roots. Within the plant they are
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria possess nitrogenase, converted to plant proteins.
an enzyme that enables them to reduce Some plants are eaten by herbivorous animals
nitrogen to ammonia or ammonium and are finally converted to animal proteins.
compounds When these animals are eaten by carnivorous
animals, more animal proteins are formed.
Hence, nitrates in the soil are ultimately
incorporated into the bodies of plants and
animals
Denitrification (nitrates back to nitrogen)
The nitrogen cycle is completed by denitrifying
Ammonification (ammonia from organic bacteria such as Pseudomonas denitrificans
compounds) and
Living plants and animals add nitrogen to the Thiobacillus denitrificans.
soil by constantly giving out nitrogenous
compounds as
These bacteria live in conditions of low oxygen
and reverse the nitrifying process, converting
nitrates into nitrites, and nitrites to nitrogen
gas.
The energy liberated in the process is used for
their life processes. The nitrogen so formed
escapes into the air where it becomes
atmospheric nitrogen, leading to loss of
nitrogen from the biotic component of an
ecosystem to the atmosphere.
how do farmers help to replenish the lost
nitrogenous compounds in the soil?
 Providing additional nitrate by
spreading artificial fertilizers such as
N.P.K.
 Growing leguminous crops, e.g.
cowpea in crop rotation as part of crop
rotation practice
 Ploughing back plant remains, or turf,
to provide green manure for decay.
 Sowing ‘dressed seeds’, coated with a
culture of the symbiotic bacteria.

Advantages of nitrogen
1. It provides plants (leguminous plants) with
absorbable nitrogen compounds which enable
them to
manufacture plant proteins for their life
processes
2. Herbivorous animals feed on plants
(leguminous plants) to obtain plant proteins
for the repair of
worn-out tissues
3. When leguminous plant and animals die,
they decompose to release nitrogen
compound back into
the soil, improving its fertility. It serves as a
food source for some micro-organisms such as
Pseudomonas and Thiobacillus during the
process of denitrification