Lesson 1

Teaching Notes on Physical Quantities

Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. Distinguish between basic (fundamental) and derived physical quantity and their units

Definition of Base Quantity and Base Units

Base or fundamental quantities are the basic quantities that are independent of others and
cannot be defined in terms of other quantities or derived from them.
Base or fundamental units are the basic units upon which other units depend. They are units
of the base quantities.
There are seven base quantities. From the seven base quantities, you can obtain all the other
physical quantities.
In the modern times, the units have been standardized and are named the SI units, from the
French “Le Systeme International d’Unites”.
The 7 Base Quantities and Units are:
FUNDAMENTAL SI UNIT SYMBOL OF UNIT
QUANTITIES
Length metre m
Time Second s
Mass kilogram kg
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Luminous intensity candela Cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Apart from the seven basic quantities and units, there are also other quantities and units
which are derived from the basic quantities and units.

Derived Quantities and Units

Derived quantities and units are multiples or combinations of the fundamental quantities
and units. They are thus dependent on the fundamental quantities and units.
Examples Derived Quantities and Units are:

DERIVED QUANTITY DERIVATION DERIVED UNIT

Area (A) length × breadth m × m (m2)

Volume (V) length × breadth × height m × m × m (m3)

Density ( ρ ¿ mass kg
(kgm-3)
volume m
3

Speed (v) distance m

(ms-1)
time s

Velocity (v) displacement m

(ms-1)
time s

Acceleration (α ¿ change∈ velocity m

(ms-2)
time s
2

Note: Units, such as the joule, newton, volt and ohm, are SI units, but they are not base SI
units.
Prefixes
They are useful for expressing units of physical quantities that are either very big or very
small.
Some of the Greek prefixes and their symbols to indicate decimal sub-multiples and multiples
of the SI units are:
Table 1: SI Prefixes and Symbols

Factor Decimal Representation Prefix Symbol

1018 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 exa E
15
10 1,000,000,000,000,000 peta P
12
10 1,000,000,000,000 tera T
9
10 1,000,000,000 giga G
6
10 1,000,000 mega M
3
10 1,000 kilo k
2
10 100 hecto h
1
10 10 deka da
100 1
10-1 0.1 deci d
-2
10 0.01 centi c
10-3 0.001 milli m
-6
10 0.000 001 micro m
10-9 0.000 000 001 nano n
-12
10 0.000 000 000 001 pico p
10-15 0.000 000 000 000 001 femto f
-18
10 0.000 000 000 000 000 001 atto a

Past Questions on Base and Derives Quantities

Lesson 2
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. define the basic terms associated with measurement of length
2. measure length using the meter rule
3. measure length using the vernier calliper
Basic terms
a. Length is the distance or displacement between two points. SI unit of length is metre
(m).
b. Distance is the length measured between two points in unspecified direction. For
example 20m.
c. Displacement is the distance measured between two points in specific direction. For
example 20 m east. Height and depth are also displacement.
Other units of distance includes kilometre (km), centimetre (cm), millimetre (mm),
micrometer (µm), and nanometre (nm).
1. Using meter rule: Distances and straight edges are measured with a metre rule or
surveyors tape. Points on the metre rule are marked in centimetres and millimetres.
The measurement is accurate to 0.5 mm.
Construction

This equipment is made up of a long rigid piece of wood or steel and can measure objects up
to 100 cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm.
How to use:
The zero-end of the rule is first aligned flat with one end of the object and the reading is
taken where the other end of the object meets the rule.
Three (3) possible errors that can occur using the metre rule are:

1. End of the rule is worn out, giving an end error leading to something called a
systematic error
2. Calibration of the metre rule i.e. markings on the ruler are not accurate
3. Parallax error
Correct way to read the scale on a metre ruler is to position eye perpendicularly at the mark
on the scale to avoid parallax errors.

2. Using the Vernier Calliper: this is used to measure short distances where ordinary
metre rule cannot be applied.
Construction: This equipment is made up of a main scale and a vernier scale and can usually
measure objects up to 15 cm in length. The smallest marking is usually 0.1 cm on the main
scale.
Parts of the vernier calliper
 O-Outside jaws
 I-Inside jaws
 D-Depth probe
 V-Vernier scale
 M-Main scale
 L-Locking nut
 R-Retainer

How to read vernier calliper

  The jaws are first closed to find any zero errors.
 Read the main scale
 Find where the vernier scale coincides with the main scale
 Take the position of the coincidence from vernier scale
 Multiply with 0.01cm
 Add the answer from above to the main scale reading
It can measure to nearest 0.01 cm.

Example 1.
What is the reading of vernier calliper below?

Solution
Main scale =6.6 cm
Vernier scale =3 x 0.01cm = 0.03cm
Reading on Main scale + Reading vernier scale
6.6 cm + 0.03 cm = 6.63 cm.
6.63 cm
Example 3
What is the reading on vernier calliper below?

Solution
Main scale reading=10.2cm
Vernier scale reading=7x0.01cm=0.07cm
Main scale +vernier scale
10.2cm+0.07cm
10.27cm
Past Questions on Meter Rule and Vernier Calliper

Lesson 3
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. measure length using the micrometer screw gauge
2. measure area of different solids
3. measure time, weight and mass
Using the micrometer screw gauge: it is best used to measure diameter of fine wires,
thickness of paper and small lengths,

Construction

It has the following:

 Main scale on the sleeve
 Circular scale on the thimble
 There are 50 divisions on the thimble
 One complete turn of the thimble moves the spindle by 0.50 mm
Precautions when using a micrometer
 Never tighten thimble too much
 Clean the ends of the anvil and spindle before making a measurement
-any dirt on either of surfaces could affect the reading
 Check for zero error by closing the micrometer when there is nothing between the
anvil and spindle
-the reading should be zero, but it is common to find a small zero error
-Correct zero error by adjusting the final measurement
Example 1
What is the reading on the micrometer screw gauge below?

Solution
Sleeve reading = 7.5mm
Thimble reading = 22 x 0.01mm = 0.22 mm
Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 7.5mm + 0.22 = 7.72mm
7.72mm

Example 2
What is the reading on the micrometer below?

Solution
Sleeve reading = 5.5mm
Thimble reading = 30 x 0.01mm = 0.30mm
Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 5.5mm + 0.30mm
5.80mm
Example 3
What is the reading on the following micrometer?

Solution
Sleeve scale = 14.5mm
Thimble reading = 29 x 0.01mm
Sleeve reading + thimble reading = 14.5mm + 0.29mm
14.79mm
Past Questions on Micrometer Screw Gauge
Measurement of Area
Area is a two dimensional space occupied by matter. The SI unit of area is square metre (m 2).
Area of a rectangle = length (l) ×breadth (b)
Area of a circle = πr2
1
Area of a triangle = × base (b) × height (h)
2
Surface area of a cylinder = 2πr2 + 2ℼrh
Surface area of a sphere = 4πr2
Measurement of volume
Volume is the space occupied by a body. Volume of regular shapes can be found by
mathematical calculation, Example of regular shapes includes: cylinder, rectangular, sphere,
pyramid and cone. Its SI unit is the cubic metre, m3.

Cylinder Sphere

Cone
Example
Find the volume of a cylindrical tank of diameter 2m and height 20m.
Solution
V = πr²h
 = 3.14 x 1² x 20
= 62.8m³

Measurement of time
The SI unit of time is the second (s) but the commonly used ones are the minute (min), hour
(hr), day, week, etc. In the laboratory time is measured with a stop watch or stop clock.

Measurement Of Mass
Mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body. The SI unit of mass is kilogram (kg).
Other commonly used units are ton and gram, ton (t) is mainly used in industries and gram in
laboratory where small amounts of specimen are tested.

Relationship between units

1 kilogram = 1000 grams
1ton = 1000 kilograms
Mass of an object does not change depending on place it is constant anywhere even on other
planet.
The instruments used to measure mass include: Beam balance, Electronic balance, Triple
beam balance, Lever balance.

 F is fulcrum
 M is standard mass
 O is object
 P is pointer
 S is scale.
Measurement of mass by using beam balances is done by comparing (balancing) unknown
mass against the standard mass.
The standard mass is known mass.
How to use beam balance
1. Make sure the pointer points at the middle of scale when nothing is added.
2. Put the unknown mass on a scale pan, pointer will shift
3. Put the standard mass on another scale pan
4. Add the standard masses until the pointer comes to the middle
5. The total mass of standard masses is the mass of object (unknown mass).

WEIGTH
The weight of an object is the force of attraction of the earth on an object towards its Centre.
Or
The weight of an object is the force an object exerts on anything which is freely supporting it.
The SI unit of weight is Newton (N)
The earth attracts objects towards its Centre by the pull of gravity.
The value of pull of gravity on earth’s surface is 9.8 N/kg or approximately 10 N/kg
Weight = mass x gravity pull
W = mg.
Weight is measured by using spring balance.
Parts of spring balance
 C- calibration
 S- spring
 P-pointer
 h-hook

Example 1
Find the weight of the mass of 30kg.
Solution
Weight = mass x gravity
W = 30kg x 9.8N/kg
W = 294N.
294N

Example 2
What is the weight of an object of mass 50kg on the planet X where the gravity pull is one
third of that of the earth? What is the difference of the weight of an object on mass and on
planet x?

Solution
Mass of object = 50kg
Gravity pull on earth = 9.8N/kg
Gravity pull on planet X = 1/3 x 9.8N/kg
Weight on planet x = mass x pull of gravity on planet x
W = 50 x1/3 x 9.8N/kg
=163N.
Difference between the weight of an object on the earth and on planet x
weight on earth
= 50kg x9.3N/kg
= 465N
Difference = 465N-163N
=302N.

Differences between mass and weight

 mass is the quantity of matter contained in a body while weight is the force of
attraction of the earth on an object towards its Centre
 the SI unit of mass is kilogram while SI unit of weight is Newton
 mass does not change while weight changes
 mass is fundamental physical quantity while weight is derived physical quantity
 mass is scalar quantity while weight is vector quantity.
 mass is measured by beam balance while weight is measured by spring balance.
Lesson 5
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. define density
2. do calculations on density
3. describe how to use the density bottle to measure density and relative density

DENSITY ( ρ )
Density of a substance is defined as the mass (m) per unit volume (v) of the substance.
Mathematically,
mass (m)
Density, ρ =
volume (v)
The SI unit of density is k/m3
Example 1.
A block of ice with volume 5.5m3 has a mass of 5060kg find the density of ice.
Solution
Volume of block=5.5m3
Mass of block=5060kg
Density=mass /volume
=5060/5.5m3.
=920kg/m3.
The density of ice is 920kg/m3.
Example 2.
A silver cylindrical rod has a length of 0.5m and radius of 0.4m, find the density of the rod if
its mass is 2640kg.
Solution
Mass of cylinder = 2640kg
Volume of cylinder = πr²h
= 3.14 x 0.4 2 x 0.5
= 0.2512m3
Density = mass/volume
= 10509 kg/m3.
Example 3.
A stone has a mass of 112.5g.when the stone totally immersed in water contained in
measuring cylinder displaced water from 50cm3 to 95cm3.find the density of the stone.
Solution
Mass of the stone =112.5 g
Volume of stone = 95 cm3-50cm3 = 45 cm3
Density = mass/volume
= 2.5 g/cm3.

Example 4.
Beaker contain 262.5cm3 of a certain liquid weigh 410g, if the mass of an empty dry beaker is
200g, find the density of the liquid.
Solution
Mass of liquid = 410 g – 200 g = 210 g
Volume of liquid = 262.5 cm3.
Density = mass/volume
= 0.8 g/cm3.

Density Bottle
The density bottle (pycnometer) consists of ground glass stopper with a fine hole through it.
The function of the fine hole in a stopper is that, when the bottle is filled and the stopper is
inserted, the excess liquid rises through the hole and runs down outside the bottle, by this way
the bottle will always contain the same volume of whatever the liquid is filled in provided the
temperature remains constant.
The bottle is used to measure density and relative density.
Relative density is comparison of one density to another, thus a density of a given volume of
a substance to a density of equal volume of referenced substance, for example a ratio of a
density of a given volume of substance to a density of an equal volume of water, this is
referred to a relative density of a given substance or Specific gravity of a given substance.
The term specific gravity is used when the reference substance is water.

Measurement of density of liquid by relative density bottle

 The mass of bottle is found when dry and empty
 The bottle is then filled with the liquid density is to be determined
 The stopper is then inserted causing the liquid to overflow
 The bottle is dried up by using blotting paper
 The mass of the liquid and the bottle is found
 Density is found from the collected data
Mass of empty bottle = m1
Volume of liquid in the bottle = v
mass of bottle and the liquid = m2
mass of liquid only = (m2-m1)
mass
density =
volume
m2−m1
density =
v
The volume of the bottle is known, usually 25ml, 30ml or 50ml.

Example 1
A 30ml density bottle was filled with kerosene and found to weigh 86g.if the mass empty dry
bottle was 62g, find the density of kerosene.
Solution
Mass of empty bottle = 62 g
Mass of bottle and kerosene = 86 g
Mass of kerosene only = 86 g – 62 g = 24 g
Density = mass /volume
= 24 g/30 ml
= 0.8 g/cm3.

Determination of densities of granules and sand

To find the density of sand or granules such as lead shots a density bottle is used as follows
 Find the mass of empty dry density bottle mo
 Put some granules and find the mass m1 = ( mass of empty bottle + mass of granules)
 Pour water in the bottle until it is full and find mass m2 = ( mass of bottle + mass of
granules + mass of water on top of granules)
 Find the mass of bottle filled with water only m3 = ( mass of bottle + mass of water)

The mass of sand = (m1 - m0)

Mass of water above the sand = (m2 - m1)
Mass of water filling the bottle = (m3 - m0)
Since density of water is 1g/cm³
Volume of sand = [(m1+m3) - (mo+m2)] / 1g/cm³
= [(m1 + m3) - (mo+m2)] cm³
mass
Density =
volume

Example 1
Given the data below find the density of granules
Mass of empty dry density bottle = 18g
Mass of density bottle and granules = 131g
Mass of density bottle and granules together with water on top = 171g
Mass of density bottle full of water = 68g
Lesson 6
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. Describe how to measure the density of a liquid, regular object and irregular object
2. Define relative density
3. do calculations on relative density
4. describe how to use the density bottle to measure density and relative density

Measuring Densities
1. Liquid:
The mass (m1) of a clean, dry beaker is found using a beam balance and a convenient of the
liquid whose density is to found is run off into the beaker by using a pipette or a burette. The
mass (m2) of the beaker with the liquid is then found. Subtract m1 from m2 to get the actual
mass of the liquid as M. The density of the liquid is then calculated as
M
ρl =
v

2. Regular objects
The volume (v) of a regular shaped object such as rectangular bar, cylinder or a sphere may
be calculated by measuring them with a vernier calliper or micrometer screw gauge. The
mass (m) of the solid is found by using a beam balance. Density is then calculated as:
M
ρ=
v
3. Irregular Objects
For an irregular solid like stone, a mango, etc., density can be determined by any of the
method outlined below.
Method A
This is done by the use of only a measuring cylinder.
 Find the mass of the solid and record it as M.
 Partially fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the initial level of water, v 1.
  Tie the object with a thread and lower it gently into the water until it is completely
immersed in the water as shown in the diagram below:
 Record the new level, V2 of the water after immersion of the object.

METHOD B
This is done by using the overflow (Eureka) Can and a measuring cylinder.
 Mass the solid object and record it as M1
 Fill the overflow (Eureka) Can with water until it overflows. Leave it till it no more
overflows.
 Place an empty measuring cylinder below the spout of the Eureka Can.
 Tie a solid with a thread and gently lower it into the water until it is completely
immersed.
 Record the volume, V of the water that overflows into the measuring cylinder.

All measurement must consider this:

Accuracy: Ability of the instrument to measure the true value or close to the true value. The
smaller the percentage error, the more accurate the instrument is.
Sensitivity of an instrument is the ability of the instrument to detect any small change in a
measurement.
Consistency: ability of the instrument to produce consistent measurement (the values are near
to each other). The lower the relative deviation, the more consistent the measurement is.
Ways to increase accuracy:
- repeat the measurements and get the mean value.
- correcting for zero error.

avoiding parallax error.

- use magnifying glass to aid in reading.

Relative Density
Relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of substance to the density of water.
Or
Relative density of a substance is the ratio of mass of any volume of substance to the mass of
an equal volume of water.

Example 1
A globe of steel has a mass of 12g and a volume of 15.2cm³, find its relative density.

To measure relative density of liquid by density bottle

  Find mass of empty bottle –m0
 Find mass of bottle and liquid-m1
 Empty the bottle and rinse it with water
 Fill the bottle with water and find mass m2

Mass of liquid = (m1 - m0)

Mass of equal volume of water = (m2 - m0)

Since comparison of density is done with water (referenced substance) the other name of the
ratio is specific gravity of a given substance. Because the density of water is 1g/cm³.Relative
density has no units it is simply a number or ratio.

Example
The mass of density bottle is 19g when dry and empty, 45g when filled with water and 40g
when full of liquid x. calculate the density of the liquid x.
Determinations of relative density by eureka can method
 Find the mass m₀ of solid
 Fill the eureka can and let water overflow until last drop
 Place under the spout of overflow can a clean dry beaker of mass m₁.
 Lower the solid slowly with thin thread until it is totally immersed
 Obtain the mass m₂ of water that overflow from the eureka can and the beaker itself.

The volume of water overflows into a beaker is equal to the volume of solid
Mass of solid = m₀
Mass of beaker and water = m₂
Mass of beaker = m₁
Mass of water only = (m₂ - m₁)

Example
A certain piece of metal has a mass of 282.5 g, if when the block was totally immersed in
overflow can displaced water in a beaker of mass 20 g. If the mass of water and the beaker
was 45 g, find the relative density of the metal.
Lesson 7
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. define Archimedes' Principle
2. define buoyant force or upthrust
3. describe an experiment to show the Archimedes’ principle
Archimedes' Principle
A plastic cup containing air (literally empty) when immersed in water upside down it will
tend to come up, likewise the piece of wood or bee wax will come up if totally or partially
immersed in water.

In both cases objects rise up due to upthrust force which is greater than the weight (mg) of
objects. If the weight would be greater than the upthrust then the object would sink but would
be much lighter if measured when immersed in water.
Upthrust force is also known as buoyant force.

Buoyant force is an upward force exerted by a fluid to a body which is partially or totally
immersed in it and it is equal in magnitude to the weight of fluid displaced by a body.

Archimedes’ Principle (Law of Buoyancy)

States that, when a body is partially or totally immersed in fluid, it experiences an upthrust
force which is equal to the weight of fluid displaced.
Experiment to show upthrust is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced

A is a real weight (weight of an object in air) 4.5 N

B is apparent weight (weight of an object in fluid) 3.0 N
C is apparent loss of weight (weight of fluid displaced) 1.5 N

Measuring the weight of displaced fluid is equal to apparent loss of weight; this apparent loss
is the buoyancy force on an object which is upthrust.
Conclusion
Apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of displaced fluid.
Real weight = apparent weight + apparent loss
Since apparent loss is equal to upthrust
Real weight = apparent weight + upthrust
Upthrust = real weight – apparent weight.
Example 1.
A body weighs 5.5 N when measured in air and 3 N when completely immersed in kerosene,
what is upthrust experienced by a body.
Solution
Weight of body in air (Real weight) =5.5 N
Apparent weight of a body when immersed in kerosene = 3 N.
But upthrust = real weight – apparent weight loss
Upthrust = 5.5 N – 3 N
= 2.5 N.
Example 2.
A body weighs 3 N when totally immersed in water contained in an overflow can, if weight
of displaced water was 2.6 N, what is the real weight of an object.
Solution
Apparent weight = 3 N
Upthrust = 2.6 N (according to Archimedes’ principle)
But
Upthrust = real weight – apparent weight
2.6 N = Real weight – 3 N.
Real weight = 2.6 N + 3 N
= 5.6 N.
Determination of Relative Density of Solid by Archimedes’ Principle

If mass is multiplied by gravitational acceleration ‘g’ becomes weight (times 10 above and
below which does not change magnitude but changes the physical quantity from mass to
weight).

Weight of a given volume of substance: - is the weight of substance in air.

Weight of an equal volume of water: - is the weight of water displaced (liquid has to be
water because the density of solid object is compared to the density of water, meaning of
relative density).
Other formulae will be:

Example 1
A metal block weighs 108 g in air and 68 g in water, find the relative density of metal. What
possibly this metal can be? (Use the table of densities).
Example 2
A body weighs 135 g in air displaced 54 g of water when completely immersed, find the
relative density and volume of a body.

Volume of a body is equal to the volume of displaced water.

Density= mass/volume
Therefore 1 g/cm 3= 54 g/volume
Volume = 54 cm 3.
Determination of Relative Density of Object That Floats By Archimedes’ Principle

Class Work
AIM: To determine the relative density of an object that floats by Archimedes’ principle.
REQUIREMENTS: floating object, sinker (piece of metal or stone), spring balance, string,
and water in a beaker
PROCEDURES:
 Tie a sinker with a string.
 Immerse a sinker totally in water and measure its weight (apparent weight) W 1
 Tie a floating object just before the sinker and immerse totally the sinker leaving the
floating object in air then measure weight W 2 (weight of floating object in air +
apparent weight of a sinker).
 Immerse totally both the sinker and the object in water and measure the weight W 3
Example 1
In an Experiment to find the relative density of floating object the followings were
observed,
I. Weight of a sinker in air = 64 g
II. Weight of a sinker when totally immersed in water = 49 g
III. Weight of a sinker totally immersed and floating object in air = 56 g
IV. Weight when both sinker and floating object totally immersed in water = 46 g
Determination of Relative Density of Liquids by Archimedes’ Principle
If an object of given volume is totally immersed in different liquids it will always displace
volume of given liquid equals to its own volume but the masses of these equal volumes of
liquids displaced will differ owing to their densities(concentration of particles)
We can simply know mass of liquid displaced by noticing the apparent loss of mass of an
object when totally immersed in liquid; this is according to Archimedes’ principle.
Remember, when mass is multiplied by ‘g’ (gravitational acceleration) it becomes weight
also:-

CLASS WORK
AIM: TO FIND RELATIVE DENSITY OF ‘X’
REQUIREMENTS: Liquid x in a beaker, water in a beaker, object that can sink, and spring
balance.
PROCEDURES:
 Measure the sinking object in air and record its weight W 1Measure the sinking object
when totally immersed in X and record its apparent weight W 2
 Measure the sinking object when totally immersed in water and record its apparent
weight W 3
Lesson 8
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. define dimensional equation
2. find the dimensional equation of the following area, density, acceleration
3. using dimensions to find the units of quantities
4. using dimensions to check the validity of an equation
5. using dimensions to derive equations between different quantities
6. state the limitations of dimensional analysis

Dimensional Equations
The dimension of a physical quantity is defined as the power to which the fundamental
quantities are raised to express the physical quantity. The dimension of mass, length and time
are represented as [M], [L] and [T] respectively. For example:
[displacement ] [ Lenght ] L
[Velocity] = = = = LT-1
[time] [Time ] T
Example 1.
Find the dimensional equation of the following:
a. Area b. Density c. Acceleration
Solution
a. Area = Length × Breadth
[Area] = [Length] × [Breadth]
= L × L = L2
mass
b. Density =
volume
[mass ]
[Density] =
[volume ]
But [Volume] = [Length] × [Length] × [Length] = L3
[ Mass] [M] M
[Density] = = = = ML3
[Volume] [V ] L3
Velocity
c. Acceleration =
time
[Velocity]
[Acceleration] =
[Time]
 [displacement ] [ Lenght ] L
But [Velocity] = = = = LT-1
[time] [Time ] T
−1
LT
So [Acceleration] = = LT-2
T
Uses of Dimensions
1. To find the units of quantities
2. To check whether an equation is correct or not (validity)
3. To derive an equation between quantities
Using Dimensions to Find the Units of Quantities
Example 1.
Find the unit of a quantity whose dimensions are LT2, MLT-2 and ML-1T-1.
Solution
L is the dimension of distance, displacement or length which has a unit of m
T is the dimension of time which has unit of s
M is the dimension of mass which has a unit kg
Hence the unit for LT2 is ms2, MLT-2 is kgms-2 and ML-1T-1 is kgm-1s-1.

Using Dimensions to Check the Validity of an Equation

To check for validity, the dimensions on both sides of the equation are taken. If the
dimensions on both sides are the same, then the equation is correct or valid.
There are two principles used to check the validity of an equation.
1. Dimensions on both sides of the equation must be the same.
2. Units on both sides of the equation must be the same.
Example 1.
Check the validity of the equation; v = u + at
Where v = final velocity; u = initial velocity; a = acceleration; t = time.
Solution
Given v = u + at;
Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;
[v] = LT-1 …………………….1
Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;
[u] + [a] [t] = LT-1 + (LT-2) T = 2LT-1 ………………..2
Note: numbers are not dimensional quantities and so by comparing equations 1 and 2, both
sides of the equation have dimension of LT-1, hence the equation is valid or correct.
Example 2.
2
at
Check whether the equation given is correct or not: s = u t +
2
Where s = distance; u = initial velocity; a = acceleration; t = time.
Solution
Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;
[s] = L …………………1
Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;
[u] [t] + ¿ ¿ = (LT-1) T + (LT-2) T2
3L
= ………………………2
2
Numbers are not dimensional quantities and so by comparing equations 1 and 2, both sides of
the equation have dimension of L, hence the equation is valid or correct.
Example 3.
Check the validity of the equation: W = F v – ρ a
Where W = work; F = force; v = velocity; a = acceleration; ρ = density
Solution
Taking dimensions on left hand side (L.H.S) of the equation;
[W] = M L2 T2 …………………1
Taking dimensions on right hand side (R.H.S) of the equation;
[F] [v] – [ ρ ] [a] = (MLT-2) (LT-1) – (ML3) (LT2)
= ML2T-3 – ML-2T-2 ……………….2
Comparing equation equations 1 and 2, the dimensions on both sides of the equation are
different. Hence the equation is not correct or not valid.
Using Dimensions To Derive Equations Between Different Quantities
To derive an equation between different quantities, the following steps must be considered:
Step 1
The subject of the equation must first be identified. The subject then depends proportionally
on the other quantity.
Suppose A is a quantity and depends on B and C, then A is the subject and so depends
proportionally on B and C according to the expression:
A∝BC
Step 2
The depending quantities B and C are raised to power say x and y. That is: A ∝ Bx Cy
Step 3
The proportional sign is removed and replaced by an equation sign and a constant. That is:
A = k Bx Cy …………………..1
This is the equation between quantities.
Step 4
To find the powers x and y, the dimensions of both sides of the equation are taken.
[A] = k [B]x [C]y
Comparing the symbols on both sides, the value of x and y are determined. The values of x
and y are substituted into equation 1 and simplified. The simplified equation gives the final
relationship or equation between the quantities.
Example 1.
The period T of a simple pendulum depends on the length, L and the acceleration due to
gravity, g. Use the methods of dimensions to establish the equation between T, L, and g.
Solution
From the question, T depends on L and g.
T ∝ Lx gy
Introducing a constant, k
T = k Lx gy ……………………….1
Taking dimensions on both sides of the equation;
[T] = k [L]x [g]y
T = k Lx [LT-2]y
T = k L(x+y) T-2y
Comparing the powers of T on both sides of the equation;

⇒y=-
1
1 = -2y
2
Comparing the powers of L on both sides of the equation;
0=x+y ⇒ x = -y
 1 1
But y = - ; hence x =
2 2
Substituting the values for x and y into equation 1,

√ L
1 −1
T = k L2 g 2 ; Hence, T =
g
Example 2.
The force, F acting on a conical pendulum depends on the mass, m the velocity, v and the
radius, r of the horizontal circle described. Derive an equation between F, m, v, and r using
the method of dimensions.
Solution
The force, F depends proportionally on m, v, and r according to the question.
⇒ F ∝ m x vy r z
By introducing a constant, k
F = k mx vy rz
Taking the dimensions on both sides;
[F] = k [m]x [v]y [r]z
MLT-2 = k Mx (LT-1)y Lz
MLT-2 = k Mx L(x+z) Ty
Comparing the powers of T on both sides of the equation;
-2 = -y ⇒ y=2
Comparing the powers of L on both sides;
1=y+z ⇒ z=1–y
But y = 2 ⇒ z = -1
Comparing the powers of M;
1= x
Substituting the values of x, y and z into equation 1, the equation between the quantities are:

⇒
2
kmv
F = k m1 v2 r-1 F=
r
Example 3.
The frequency, f of a vibrating string depends on the length, L of the string, tension, T in the
string and the mass per unit length, µ of the string. Derive an equation between f, L, T, and µ.
Solution
F ∝ Lx Ty µz
⇒ F = k Lx Ty µz, where k is a constant.
Taking dimensions on both sides
⇒ [F] = k [L]x [T]y [µ]z
But [F] = T-1, [L] = L, [T] = MLT-1, [µ] = ML-1
⇒ T-1 = k Lx (MLT-2)y (ML-1)z
⇒ T-1 k L(x+y-z) M(y+z) T-2y
Comparing the powers of T;

⇒ ⇒
1
-1 = -2y y=
2
Comparing the powers of M;

⇒ ⇒ ⇒
−1
0=y+z z = -y z=
2
Comparing powers of L;

⇒ ⇒
−1 −1
0=x+y+z x=z–y= = -1
2 2
Substituting the values of x, y, and z into F = k Lx Ty µz
We have;
1 1
F = k L-1 T 2 μ 2

∴ F=
k
L √ T
μ
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
1. Dimensional analysis has no information on dimensionless constants.
2. If a quantity is dependent on trigonometric or exponential functions, this method
cannot be used.
3. In some cases, it is difficult to guess the factors while deriving the relation connecting
two or more physical quantities.
4. This method cannot be used in an equation containing two or more variables with
same dimensions.
5. It cannot be used if the physical quantity is dependent on more than three unknown
variables.
6. This method cannot be used if the physical quantity contains more than one term, say
sum or difference of two terms.
Lesson 9
Teaching Notes on Measurement
Specific Objective
By the end of the lesson, the student will be able to:
1. define a scalar quantity and state at least five examples
2. define a vector quantity and at least five examples
3. graphically add and subtract vectors
4. resolve vectors

Scalars
A scalar quantity, or scalar, is one that has nothing to do with spatial direction i.e. has no
magnitude and direction.
Examples are length, time, temperature, mass, density, charge, and volume are scalars; each
has a scale or size, but no associated direction. The number of students in a class, the quantity
of sugar in a jar, and the cost of a house are familiar scalar quantities.
Scalars are specified by ordinary numbers and add and subtract in the usual way.
Vectors
A vector is an object that has both a magnitude and a direction. Geometrically, we can
picture a vector as a directed line segment, whose length is the magnitude of the vector and
with an arrow indicating the direction. The direction of the vector is from its tail to its head.
Addition of Vectors
The easiest way to learn how vector addition works is to look at it graphically. There are two
equivalent ways to add vectors graphically: the tip-to-tail method and the parallelogram
method. Both will get you to the same result, but one or the other is more convenient
depending on the circumstances.
Tip-to-Tail Method
We can add any two vectors, A and B, by placing the tail of B so that it meets the tip of A.
The sum, A + B, is the vector from the tail of A to the tip of B.

Note that you’ll get the same vector if you place the tip of B against the tail of A. In other
words, A + B and B +A are equivalent.
Parallelogram Method
To add A and B using the parallelogram method, place the tail of B so that it meets the tail of
A. Take these two vectors to be the first two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, and draw in
the remaining two sides. The vector sum, A + B, extends from the tails of A and B across the
diagonal to the opposite corner of the parallelogram. If the vectors are perpendicular and
unequal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a rectangle. If the vectors are perpendicular
and equal in magnitude, the parallelogram will be a square.

Adding Vector Magnitudes

Knowing what the sum of two vectors looks like is often not enough. Sometimes you’ll need
to know the magnitude of the resultant vector. This, of course, depends not only on the
magnitude of the two vectors you’re adding, but also on the angle between the two vectors.
Adding Perpendicular Vectors
Suppose vector A has a magnitude of 8, and vector B is perpendicular to A with a magnitude
of 6. What is the magnitude of A + B? Since vectors A and B are perpendicular, the triangle
formed by A, B, and A + B is a right triangle. We can use the Pythagorean Theorem to
calculate the magnitude of A + B, which is
Adding Parallel Vectors
If the vectors you want to add are in the same direction, they can be added using simple
arithmetic. For example, if you get in your car and drive eight miles east, stop for a break,
and then drive six miles east, you will be 8 + 6 = 14 miles east of your origin. If you drive
eight miles east and then six miles west, you will end up 8 – 6 = 2 miles east of your origin.

Vector Subtraction
You probably know that subtraction is the same thing as adding a negative: 8 – 5 is the same
thing as 8 + (–5). The easiest way to think about vector subtraction is in terms of adding a
negative vector. What’s a negative vector? It’s the same vector as its positive counterpart,
only pointing in the opposite direction.

A – B, then, is the same thing as A + (–B). For instance, let’s take the two vectors A and B:

To subtract B from A, take a vector of the same magnitude as B, but pointing in the opposite
direction, and add that vector to A, using either the tip-to-tail method or the parallelogram
method.
Resolution of Vectors
Consider a vector, V which makes an angle, θ with the horizontal. A right angled triangle is
drawn out of the vector, V as shown in the diagram.

If the vector, V is made to lie horizontally, its new magnitude and direction are represented
Vx. Again if the vector V is made to stand vertically, its new magnitude and direction are
represented Vy. The vector Vy is called the vertical component and Vx is called the horizontal
component of the vector. The process of splitting up a vector into its horizontal and vertical
components is known as resolution of vector.
Note:
a. The two components are always at right angles to each other.
b. The addition of the two vectors give the original vector.
c. The direction of the arrows of the horizontal and vertical component follow a certain
sense of order (clockwise or anticlockwise direction).

Mathematical Expression of Resolving Horizontal and Vertical Component of A Vector

Vx
a. From the diagram above, cos θ =
V
So the horizontal component, Vx = V cos θ ………………………………1
 Vy
b. Also, sin θ =
V
So vertical component Vy = V sin θ …………………………………..2
Equations 1 and 2 are the expressions for the horizontal and vertical components of the vector
and they are valid only when θ is the angle between the vertical and the horizontal.
c. By applying Pythagoras theorem;

V2 = V2x + V2y ⇒ V = √ V 2 x +V 2 y
d. Referring to the same diagram,
Vv
tanθ =
Vx
e. A vector that lies horizontally or vertically cannot be resolved.
Example 1.
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of a 50N force which is acting 40 degrees to
the horizontal.

Solution:
The question asked for the values of the horizontal and vertical components, so first you need
to split the vector seen in the diagram above into its horizontal and vertical components:

Therefore your answer should be:

Horizontal component = 50 × cos40
= 38.30N.
Vertical Component = 50 × sin40
= 32.14N.