Atoms notes 2024

ATOMS
ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

In this experiment, alpha particles emitted by a radioactive source were collimated into
a narrow beam by their passage through lead bricks. The beam was allowed to fall on
thin foil of gold of thickness 2.1 × 10 -7 m. The scattered alpha-particles were observed
through a rotatable detector consisting of zinc sulphide screen and a microscope. The
number of scattered alpha articles may be studied as a function of angle of scattering.
Observation
The above experiment reveals the following facts

1. Most of the alpha particles suffer only small deflections.
2. A few alpha particles get deflected through 900 or more.
3. Occasionally, an alpha particle gets rebounded from the gold foil, suffering a deflection
of nearly 180o.
Conclusion
1. Most of the alpha particles pass straight through the foil, so most of the space within the
atoms must be empty.
2. All the positive charge and the mass of the atom is concentrated in a very small region,
called the nucleus of the atom.
13 November 2024 Atoms 1

3. The nucleus is surrounded by a cloud of electrons whose total negative charge is equal
to the total positive charge on the nucleus.
Alpha-particle trajectory
The trajectory traced by an alpha-particle depends on the impact parameter b of

collision.
The impact parameter is the perpendicular distance of the initial velocity vector of
the α-particle from the centre of the nucleus.
Electron orbits
In an atom the electrostatic force of attraction between electrons and the nucleus
provides the requisite centripetal force to keep them in their orbits.
𝐹! = 𝐹"
𝑚𝑣 # 1 𝑒#
=
𝑟 4𝜋𝜀$ 𝑟 #
Thus the relation between the orbit radius and the electron velocity is
The kinetic energy (K) and electrostatic potential energy (U) of the electron in
hydrogen atom are
The total energy of the electron in its orbit

Limitations of Rutherford atom model
According to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle emits

radiation in the form of electromagnetic waves. The energy of an accelerating electron
should therefore, continuously decrease. The electron would spiral inward and
eventually fall into the nucleus. Thus, such an atom cannot be stable.
Further, according to the classical electromagnetic theory the frequency of the

electromagnetic waves emitted by the revolving electrons is equal to the frequency of
revolution. As the electrons spiral inwards, their angular velocities and hence their
frequencies would change continuously, and so will the frequency of the light emitted.
Thus, they would emit a continuous spectrum, in contradiction to the line spectrum
actually observed.
ATOMIC SPECTRA
Emission Spectrum
When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, usually by passing an

electric current through it, the emitted radiation has a spectrum which contains
certain specific wavelengths only. A spectrum of this kind is termed as emission line
spectrum
Absorption Spectrum
When white light passes through a gas and we analyse the transmitted light using a
spectrometer we find some dark lines in the spectrum. These dark lines correspond
precisely to those wavelengths which were found in the emission line spectrum of the
gas. This is called the absorption spectrum of the material of the gas.
BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Postulates
1. An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without

the emission of radiant energy.
2. The electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the
angular momentum is some integral multiple of h/2π where h is the Planck’s
constant. (L = h/2π)
3. An electron might make a transition from one of its non-specified non radiating
orbits to another of lower energy. When it does so, a photon is emitted having
energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states. The
frequency of emitted photon is then given by
hn = Ei - Ef
Radius, velocity and energy of an electron
Angular momentum of an electron in its orbit
L = mvr = nh/2π
!"
𝑣=
#$%&
!" #
𝑣 # = $#$%&% …………………. (1)
Electrostatic force between the electron and the nucleus provide the necessary
centripetal for required for the electron.
r =
Substituting for v2 from equation (1)
Radius of the innermost orbit
Radius of the innermost orbit is called Bohr radius ao
Radius of the nth orbit

rn = n2a0
Velocity of an electron
To calculate the velocity, substitute for r ( r = in the equation
v2 =
Therefore velocity
Velocity of the electron in the first orbit
Velocity of the electron in the nth orbit
vn =
Energy of an electron
Total energy of an electron in its orbit is the sum of kinetic energy and potential
energy
En = -
En = -
Substituting for r,
En = -
Energy of the first orbit,
En = -
Substituting the values

En = -13.6 eV =
Energy of the electron in the nth orbit
En =
Limitations of Bohr atom model
The Bohr model is applicable to hydrogenic atoms. It cannot be extended even to mere
two electron atoms such as helium.
While the Bohr’s model correctly predicts the frequencies of the light emitted by
hydrogenic atoms, the model is unable to explain the relative intensities of the
frequencies in the spectrum.
THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

According to the third postulate of Bohr’s model, when an atom makes a
transition from the higher energy state with quantum number ni to the lower
energy state with quantum number nf (nf < ni), the difference of energy is carried
away by a photon of frequency n, such that
Wavelength of the radiation emitted can be found using Rydberg formula,

which is given by
1 1 1
= 𝑅 # "− "'
𝜆 𝑛! 𝑛#

Where R is called Rydberg constant, value of R is 1.097x107 m-1
The various lines in the atomic spectra are produced when electrons jump from
higher energy state to a lower energy state and photons are emitted. These spectral
lines are called emission lines.
When an atom absorbs a photon that has precisely the same energy needed by
the electron in a lower energy state to make transitions to a higher energy state,
the process is called absorption.
DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE OF

QUANTISATION
For an electron moving in nth circular orbit of radius rn, the total distance is the
circumference of the orbit, 2πrn
According to de Broglie hypothesis
λ = h/mv
2πr = nh/mv
mvr = nh/2π
L = nh/2π
This is the quantum condition proposed by Bohr for the angular momentum of the
electron.

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ATOMS

ALPHA-PARTICLE SCATTERING EXPERIMENT

The above experiment reveals the following facts

13 November 2024 Atoms 1

The trajectory traced by an alpha-particle depends on the impact parameter b of

The total energy of the electron in its orbit

13 November 2024 Atoms 2

According to classical electromagnetic theory, an accelerating charged particle emits

Further, according to the classical electromagnetic theory the frequency of the

When an atomic gas or vapour is excited at low pressure, usually by passing an

BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

1. An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without

Radius, velocity and energy of an electron

Angular momentum of an electron in its orbit

Substituting for v2 from equation (1)

Radius of the innermost orbit

Radius of the innermost orbit is called Bohr radius ao

Radius of the nth orbit

To calculate the velocity, substitute for r ( r = in the equation

Velocity of the electron in the first orbit

Velocity of the electron in the nth orbit

Energy of the first orbit,

Substituting the values

Limitations of Bohr atom model

THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Wavelength of the radiation emitted can be found using Rydberg formula,

13 November 2024 Atoms 6

DE BROGLIE’S EXPLANATION OF BOHR’S SECOND POSTULATE OF

According to de Broglie hypothesis

13 November 2024 Atoms 7

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