Electrochemistry is the subdiscipline of Chemistry that deals with the study of the relationship between electrical energy

and chemical changes. Chemical reactions that involve the input or generation of electric currents are called
electrochemical reactions. Such reactions are broadly classified into two categories:

1. Production of chemical change by electrical energy, i.e., the phenomenon of electrolysis

2. Conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, i.e., the generation of electricity by spontaneous redox
reactions.

Electricity can be produced when electrons move from one element to another in certain types of reactions (such as
redox reactions). Typically, electrochemistry deals with the overall reactions when multiple redox reactions occur
simultaneously, connected via some external electric current and a suitable electrolyte. In other words, electrochemistry
is also concerned with chemical phenomena that involve charge separation (as seen commonly in liquids such as
solutions). The dissociation of charge often involves charge transfer that occurs homogeneously or
heterogeneously between different chemical species.

Electrochemical Cell

A spontaneous chemical process is one which can take place on its own, and in such a process, the Gibbs free energy of a
system decreases. In electrochemistry, spontaneous reaction (redox reaction) results in the conversion of chemical
energy into electrical energy. The reverse process is also possible where a non-spontaneous chemical reaction occurs by
supplying electricity. These interconversions are carried out in equipment called an electrochemical cell.

Types of Electrochemical Cell

Electrochemical cells are of two types: galvanic cells and electrolytic cells

Galvanic Cell

The galvanic cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy, i.e., electricity can be obtained with the help of a redox
reaction. The oxidation and reduction take place in two separate compartments. Each compartment consists of an
electrolyte solution and a metallic conductor, which acts as an electrode. The compartment containing the electrode and
the solution of the electrolyte is called half cells.

For example, the Daniell cell is a galvanic cell in which zinc and copper are used for a redox reaction to take place.

Zn(s) + Cu+2(aq) → Zn+2 + Cu(s)

At anode (oxidation half),

Zn(s) →Zn+2 + 2e–

At cathode( reduction half),

Cu+2(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)

Salt bridge: The salt bridge is usually an inverted U-tube filled with a concentrated solution of inert electrolytes. It is used
to maintain the charge balance and to complete the circuit by allowing the flow of ions through it. It contains a gel in
which inert electrolytes like KNO3 or K2SO4 are mixed. Through the salt bridge, negative ion flows towards the anode and
positive ion flows to the cathode, and the charge balance is maintained, and the cell keeps on functioning.

Electrode potential: In a galvanic cell, when two-electrode are dipped in their respective ion, there is a tendency for one
of the electrodes (anode) to undergo oxidation, whereas the ion of the other electrode (cathode) has the tendency to
gain an electron. This tendency of losing of electrons (oxidation) or gaining of electrons (reduction) is called electrode
potential.

Standard electrode potential (E0): Standard electrode potential is defined as the electrode potential of an electrode
relative to a standard hydrogen electrode under standard conditions. The standard conditions taken are as follows:

 1 molar concentration of each ion in the solution.

 A temperature of 298 K.

 1 bar pressure.

Electrochemical Series

A series of the standard electrode has been established by measuring the potential of various electrodes versus standard
hydrogen electrodes (SHE). When the electrodes (metals and non-metals) in contact with their ions are arranged on the
basis of the values of their standard reduction potential or standard oxidation potentials, the resulting series is called the
electrochemical series.

Elements reduction reaction

Cell potential or emf of a cell: In the galvanic cell, there are two half-cells, the oxidation half-cell (anode) and the
reduction half-cell (cathode). Due to the difference in the potentials of these half-cells, the electric current moves from
the electrode of higher potential (cathode) to the electrode of lower potential (anode). The difference between the
electrode potential of the two half-cells is called cell potential or emf of a cell.

Eocell= ECathode– Eanode

ECathode= standard reduction potential of the cathode.

Eanode= standard reduction potential of the anode.

If Eocell is positive, then the reaction is feasible.

If Eocell is negative, then the reaction is not feasible.

Electrode and cell potentials – Nernst equation: The electrode potential and the emf of the cell depend upon the nature
of the electrode, temperature and the activities (concentrations) of the ions in solution.

For the general electrochemical reaction of the type:

aA + bB → cC +dD

Ecell = Eocell – RT/ nF ln [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

Ecell = Eocell – 2.0303 RT / nF log [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b

Ecell = Eocell – 0.0591 / n log [C]c [D]d / [A]a [B]b at 298K

Electrolytic Cell

The electrolytic cell converts electrical energy to chemical energy. Here, the electrodes are dipped in an electrolytic
solution containing cations and anions. On supplying current, the ions move towards electrodes of opposite polarity, and
simultaneous reduction and oxidation take place.
For example, in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride, sodium chloride is melted (above 801 oC), two electrodes are
inserted into the melt, and an electric current is passed through the molten salt. The chemical reaction that takes place
at the electrodes is as follows:

● Sodium-ion migrates to the cathode, where sodium ion gains one electron and reduces to sodium metal.

Na+ + e–→ Na

● Chloride ions migrate towards the anode, where it loses one electron and gets oxidised to chlorine gas.

Cl–→1/2 Cl2 + e–

The overall reaction is the breakdown of sodium chloride into its elements

2NaCl→ 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Preferential discharge of ions: When there is more than one cation or anion, the process of discharge becomes
competitive in nature. For example, in the electrolysis of NaCl solution, apart from Na+ and Cl–ions, the solution of
sodium chloride also contains H+ and OH– ions due to the ionisation of water. When the potential difference is applied
between the two electrodes, Na+ and H+ ions move towards the cathode and Cl– and OH– ions move towards the anode.
At the cathode, H+ ions get reduced in preference to giving hydrogen gas because hydrogen has a higher reduction
potential than sodium. Similarly, at the anode, Cl– ions are oxidised in preference to OH– to give chlorine gas.

Faraday’s Law of Electrolysis

The relationship between the quantity of electric charge passed through an electrolyte, and the amount of substance
deposited at the electrodes was given by Faraday in 1834, in the form of the law of electrolysis.

Faraday’s First Law

When an electric current is passed through an electrolyte, the amount of substance deposited is proportional to the
quantity of electric charge passed through the electrolyte.

If W is the mass of the substance deposited by passing Q coulomb of charge, then according to this law:

W∝Q

Now, Q = I ✕ t

W∝I✕t

W=z✕I✕t

Where Z is a constant, known as electrochemical equivalent and is characteristic of a substance deposited.

Faraday’s constant (F) – It is the charge possessed by 1 mole of electrons, and it is equal to 96500 coulombs (approx.). In
terms of Faraday’s constant, the number of gram equivalent of electrolyte discharged at an electrode is equal to
Faraday’s passed,

W = E X Q / 96500

Faraday’s Second Law

When the same quantity of charge is passed through different electrolytes, then the mass of different substances
deposited at the respective electrodes will be in the ratio of their equivalent masses.

Mathematically, it is represented as,

W1 / W2 = Z1 / Z2

Where, W1 and W2 are the weight of two substances which are deposited at their respective electrodes, and Z1 and Z2 are
their respective equivalent weight.

battery, in electricity and electrochemistry, any of a class of devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical
energy. Although the term battery, in strict usage, designates an assembly of two or more galvanic cells capable of such
energy conversion, it is commonly applied to a single cell of this kind.

electrochemical cell: basic componentsBasic components of an electrochemical cell.

Every battery (or cell) has a cathode, or positive plate, and an anode, or negative plate. These electrodes must be
separated by and are often immersed in an electrolyte that permits the passage of ions between the electrodes. The
electrode materials and the electrolyte are chosen and arranged so that sufficient electromotive force (measured in
volts) and electric current (measured in amperes) can be developed between the terminals of a battery to operate lights,
machines, or other devices. Since an electrode contains only a limited number of units of chemical energy convertible to
electrical energy, it follows that a battery of a given size has only a certain capacity to operate devices and will eventually
become exhausted. The active parts of a battery are usually encased in a box with a cover system (or jacket) that keeps
air outside and the electrolyte solvent inside and that provides a structure for the assembly.

Commercially available batteries are designed and built with market factors in mind. The quality of materials and the
complexity of electrode and container design are reflected in the market price sought for any specific product. As new
materials are discovered or the properties of traditional ones improved, however, the typical performance of even older
battery systems sometimes increases by large percentages.

Batteries are divided into two general groups: (1) primary batteries and (2) secondary, or storage, batteries. Primary
batteries are designed to be used until the voltage is too low to operate a given device and are then discarded.
Secondary batteries have many special design features, as well as particular materials for the electrodes, that permit
them to be reconstituted (recharged). After partial or complete discharge, they can be recharged by the application of
direct current (DC) voltage. While the original state is usually not restored completely, the loss per recharging cycle in
commercial batteries is only a small fraction of 1 percent even under varied conditions.

Principles of operation

The anode of an electrochemical cell is usually a metal that is oxidized (gives up electrons) at a potential between 0.5
volt and about 4 volts above that of the cathode. The cathode generally consists of a metal oxide or sulfide that is
converted to a less-oxidized state by accepting electrons, along with ions, into its structure. A conductive link via an
external circuit (e.g., a lamp or other device) must be provided to carry electrons from the anode to the negative battery
contact. Sufficient electrolyte must be present as well. The electrolyte consists of a solvent (water, an organic liquid, or
even a solid) and one or more chemicals that dissociate into ions in the solvent. These ions serve to deliver electrons and
chemical matter through the cell interior to balance the flow of electric current outside the cell during cell operation.

Battery usefulness is limited not only by capacity but also by how fast current can be drawn from it. The salt ions chosen
for the electrolyte solution must be able to move fast enough through the solvent to carry chemical matter between the
electrodes equal to the rate of electrical demand. Battery performance is thus limited by the diffusion rates of internal
chemicals as well as by capacity.

The voltage of an individual cell and the diffusion rates inside it are both reduced if the temperature is lowered from a
reference point, such as 21 °C (70 °F). If the temperature falls below the freezing point of the electrolyte, the cell will
usually produce very little useful current and may actually change internal dimensions, resulting in internal damage and
diminished performance even after it has warmed up again. If the temperature is raised deliberately, faster discharge can
be sustained, but this is not generally advisable, because the battery chemicals may evaporate or react spontaneously
with one another, leading to early failure.

The fundamental relationship of electrochemical cell operation, put forth by the English physicist-chemist Michael
Faraday in 1834, is that for every ampere that flows for a period of time, a matching chemical reaction or other change
must take place. The extent of such changes is dependent on the molecular and electronic structure of the elements
constituting the battery electrodes and electrolyte. Secondary changes may also occur, but a primary pair of theoretically
reversible reactions must take place at the electrodes for electricity to be produced. The actual energy generated by a
battery is measured by the number of amperes produced × the unit of time × the average voltage over that time. For a
cell with electrodes of zinc and manganese dioxide (e.g., the common flashlight dry cell), one finds that a chemical
equivalent of zinc weighs 32.5 grams (1.4 ounces) and that of manganese dioxide about 87 grams (3.1 ounces). The
discharge of one equivalent weight of each of these electrodes will cause 32.5 grams of zinc to dissolve and 87 grams of
manganese dioxide to change into a different oxide containing more hydrogen and zinc ions. Some of the electrolyte also
will be consumed in the reaction. One chemical equivalent of each electrode produces one faraday, or 96,485 coulombs
of current equal to 26.8 amperes per hour. If the cells operate at an average of 1.2 volts, this would yield 32.2 watt-hours
of DC energy. Expressed another way, where n equals the number of chemical equivalents

voltage of the cell for the period of the discharge, and 1 joule ≅ 2.78 × 10−4 watt-hours.
4
discharged, F is the Faraday constant (9.6485 × 10 coulombs per mole), V is the average (not necessarily constant)

There are a large number of elements and compounds from which to select potentially useful combinations for batteries.
The commercial systems in common use represent the survivors of numerous tests where continued use depends on
adequate voltage, high current-carrying capacity, low-cost materials, and tolerance for user neglect. Better sealing
technology and plastics are making further development of all cell systems possible, particularly those using very active
lithium for the anode. This situation has yielded commercial cells with as much as 3.9 volts on load and very high
current-carrying capability.

Battery manufacturers have designed many different sizes, voltages, and current loads for different specialized
applications. In the case of common household batteries (see table), standard sizes and electrical properties have been
established by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC).
The most common sizes, given in the form ANSI (IEC), are AAA (R03), AA (R6), C (R14), D (R20), and 9V (6F22).

spectroscopy, study of the absorption and emission of light and other radiation by matter, as related to the dependence
of these processes on the wavelength of the radiation. More recently, the definition has been expanded to include the
study of the interactions between particles such as electrons, protons, and ions, as well as their interaction with other
particles as a function of their collision energy. Spectroscopic analysis has been crucial in the development of the most
fundamental theories in physics, including quantum mechanics, the special and general theories of relativity, and
quantum electrodynamics. Spectroscopy, as applied to high-energy collisions, has been a key tool in developing scientific
understanding not only of the electromagnetic force but also of the strong and weak nuclear forces.

Spectroscopic techniques have been applied in virtually all technical fields of science and technology. Radio-frequency
spectroscopy of nuclei in a magnetic field has been employed in a medical technique called magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) to visualize the internal soft tissue of the body with unprecedented resolution. Microwave spectroscopy was used
to discover the so-called three-degree blackbody radiation, the remnant of the big bang (i.e., the primeval explosion)
from which the universe is thought to have originated (see below Survey of optical spectroscopy: General principles:
Applications). The internal structure of the proton and neutron and the state of the early universe up to the first
thousandth of a second of its existence are being unraveled with spectroscopic techniques using high-energy particle
accelerators. The constituents of distant stars, intergalactic molecules, and even the primordial abundance of the
elements before the formation of the first stars can be determined by optical, radio, and X-ray spectroscopy. Optical
spectroscopy is used routinely to identify the chemical composition of matter and to determine its physical structure.

Spectroscopic techniques are extremely sensitive. Single atoms and even different isotopes of the same atom can be
detected among 1020 or more atoms of a different species. (Isotopes are all atoms of an element that have unequal mass
but the same atomic number. Isotopes of the same element are virtually identical chemically.) Trace amounts of
pollutants or contaminants are often detected most effectively by spectroscopic techniques. Certain types of microwave,
optical, and gamma-ray spectroscopy are capable of measuring infinitesimal frequency shifts in narrow spectroscopic
lines. Frequency shifts as small as one part in 1015 of the frequency being measured can be observed with ultrahigh
resolution laser techniques. Because of this sensitivity, the most accurate physical measurements have been frequency
measurements.

Spectroscopy now covers a sizable fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum. The table summarizes the electromagnetic
spectrum over a frequency range of 16 orders of magnitude. Spectroscopic techniques are not confined to
electromagnetic radiation, however. Because the energy E of a photon (a quantum of light) is related to its frequency ν
by the relation E = hν, where h is Planck’s constant, spectroscopy is actually the measure of the interaction of photons
with matter as a function of the photon energy. In instances where the probe particle is not a photon, spectroscopy
refers to the measurement of how the particle interacts with the test particle or material as a function of the energy of
the probe particle.

Electromagnetic phenomena

approximate wavelength range (metres) approximate frequency range (hertz)

radio waves 10–1,000 3 × 105–3 × 107

television waves 1–10 3 × 107–3 × 108

microwaves, radar 1 × 10−3–1 3 × 108–3 × 1011

infrared 8 × 10−7–1 × 10−3 3 × 1011–4 × 1014

visible light 4 × 10−7–7 × 10−7 4 × 1014–7 × 1014

ultraviolet 1 × 10−8–4 × 10−7 7 × 1014–3 × 1016

X-rays 5 × 10−12–1 × 10−8 3 × 1016–6 × 1019

gamma rays (γ rays) <5 × 10−12 >6 × 1019

An example of particle spectroscopy is a surface analysis technique known as electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
that measures the energy lost when low-energy electrons (typically 5–10 electron volts) collide with a surface.
Occasionally, the colliding electron loses energy by exciting the surface; by measuring the electron’s energy loss,
vibrational excitations associated with the surface can be measured. On the other end of the energy spectrum, if an
electron collides with another particle at exceedingly high energies, a wealth of subatomic particles is produced. Most of
what is known in particle physics (the study of subatomic particles) has been gained by analyzing the total particle
production or the production of certain particles as a function of the incident energies of electrons and protons.

The following sections focus on the methods of electromagnetic spectroscopy, particularly optical spectroscopy.
Although most of the other forms of spectroscopy are not covered in detail, they have the same common heritage as
optical spectroscopy. Thus, many of the basic principles used in other spectroscopies share many of the general features
of optical spectroscopy.

Survey of optical spectroscopy

General principles

Basic features of electromagnetic radiation

Electromagnetic radiation is composed of oscillating electric and magnetic fields that have the ability to transfer energy
through space. The energy propagates as a wave, such that the crests and troughs of the wave move in vacuum at the
speed of 299,792,458 metres per second. The many forms of electromagnetic radiation appear different to an observer;
light is visible to the human eye, while X rays and radio waves are not.
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The distance between successive crests in a wave is called its wavelength. The various forms of electromagnetic radiation
differ in wavelength. For example, the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum lies between 4 × 10−7 and 8 × 10−7
metre (1.6 × 10−5 and 3.1 × 10−5 inch): red light has a longer wavelength than green light, which in turn has a longer
wavelength than blue light. Radio waves can have wavelengths longer than 1,000 metres, while those of high-energy
gamma rays can be shorter than 10−16 metre, which is one-millionth of the diameter of an atom. Visible light and X rays
are often described in units of angstroms or in nanometres. One angstrom (abbreviated by the symbol Å) is 10−10 metre,
which is also the typical diameter of an atom. One nanometre (nm) is 10−9 metre. The micrometre (μm), which equals
10−6 metre, is often used to describe infrared radiation.

The decomposition of electromagnetic radiation into its component wavelengths is fundamental to spectroscopy.
Evolving from the first crude prism spectrographs that separated sunlight into its constituent colours, modern
spectrometers have provided ever-increasing wavelength resolution. Large-grating spectrometers (see below Practical
considerations: Methods of dispersing spectra) are capable of resolving wavelengths as close as 10−3 nanometre, while
modern laser techniques can resolve optical wavelengths separated by less than 10−10 nanometre.

The frequency with which the electromagnetic wave oscillates is also used to characterize the radiation. The product of
the frequency (ν) and the wavelength (λ) is equal to the speed of light (c); i.e., νλ = c. The frequency is often expressed as
the number of oscillations per second, and the unit of frequency is hertz (Hz), where one hertz is one cycle per second.
Since the electromagnetic spectrum spans many orders of magnitude, frequency units are usually accompanied by a
Latin prefix to set the scale of the frequency range. (See measurement system: The metric system of measurement: The
International System of Units for a table of the prefixes commonly used to denote these scales.)

Basic properties of atoms

An isolated atom can be described in terms of certain discrete states called quantum states. Each quantum state has a
definite energy associated with it, but several quantum states can have the same energy. These quantum states and their
energy levels are calculated from the basic principles of quantum mechanics. For the simplest atom, hydrogen, which
consists of a single proton and a single electron, the energy levels have been calculated and tested to an uncertainty of
better than one part in 1011, but for atoms with many electrons, the accuracy of the calculations may not be much better
than a few percent of the energy of the levels.

Atomic energy levels are typically measured by observing transitions between two levels. For example, an atom in its
lowest possible energy state (called the ground state) can be excited to a higher state only if energy is added by an
amount that is equal to the difference between the two levels. Thus, by measuring the energy of the radiation that has
been absorbed by the atom, the difference in its energy levels can be determined. The energy levels are identical for
atoms of the same type; allowed energies of a particular atom of silver are equal to those for any other atom of the
same isotope of silver.

Other isolated systems, including molecules, ions (charged atoms or molecules), and atomic nuclei, have discrete allowed
energies. The analysis of these simple systems is carried out with techniques that are analogous to those that were first
applied to simple atomic spectra. More complex structures, such as clusters of atoms, and bulk condensed matter, such
as solids and liquids, also have energy levels describable by quantum mechanics. The energy levels in these complex
systems, however, are so closely spaced that they smear into a continuous band of energies. Transitions between these
bands allow researchers to discern many important properties of a given material. The location and properties of the
energy states are often referred to as the electronic structure of the material. By comparing spectroscopic measurements
to quantum mechanical calculations based on an assumed model of the material, one can use knowledge of a material’s
electronic structure to determine its physical structure.
If an atom in its ground state is given some amount of energy so that it is promoted to an excited state, the atom will
release that extra energy spontaneously as it moves back into lower states, eventually returning to the ground state. For
an isolated atom, the energy is emitted as electromagnetic radiation. The emitted energy E equals the upper-state
energy minus the lower-state energy; this energy is usually carried by a single quantum of light (a photon) having a
frequency ν in which photon energy (E) is equal to a constant times the frequency, E = hν, where h, Planck’s constant,
equals 6.626 × 10−34 joule second. This relationship determines the frequencies (and wavelengths, because λ = c/ν) of
light emitted by atoms if the energies of the states are known. Conversely, the relationship allows the energy states of an
atom to be determined from measurements of its frequency or wavelength spectrum. The analysis of the discrete
wavelengths emitted or absorbed by an atom or molecule was historically carried out using prism or grating
spectrometers; because of the appearance of the separated light in these instruments, these discrete wavelengths are
sometimes called spectral lines.

Historical survey

The basis for analytical spectroscopy is the discovery, made in 1859 by the German physicist Gustav R. Kirchhoff, that
each pure substance has its own characteristic spectrum. Another German physicist, Joseph von Fraunhofer, repeating
more carefully an earlier experiment by a British scientist, William Wollaston, had shown in 1814 that the spectrum of
the Sun’s electromagnetic radiation does not grade smoothly from one colour to the next but has many dark lines,
indicating that light is missing at certain wavelengths because of absorption. These dark lines, sometimes called
Fraunhofer lines, are also collectively referred to as an absorption spectrum. The spectra of materials that were heated in
flames or placed in electric-gas discharges were studied by many scientists during the 18th and 19th centuries. These
spectra were composed of numerous bright discrete lines, indicating that only certain wavelengths were present in the
emitted light. They are called brightline, or emission, spectra.

Although the possibility that each chemical element has a unique characteristic spectrum had been considered by
numerous investigators, the early studies were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining relatively pure substances. Any
sample could contain impurities that would result in the simultaneous production of many spectra. By using carefully
purified substances, Kirchhoff demonstrated characteristic spectra and initiated the technique of spectroscopic analysis
of the chemical composition of matter. The technique was applied by Kirchhoff and his colleague the German chemist
Robert Bunsen in 1861 to the analysis of the Sun’s electromagnetic spectrum and the identification of the chemical
elements in the Sun.

The Balmer series of hydrogen as seen by a low-resolution spectrometer.

Before the 20th century, there was no theory that could satisfactorily explain the origin of the spectra of the elements or
the reason why different elements have different spectra. The quantitative understanding of the elemental spectra
needed the development of a fundamentally new physical theory, and the spectra of the simplest atoms played the key
role in the development of this theory. Many of the major developments in 20th-century physics were motivated by an
ever-increasing accuracy in the measurement of the spectra of the hydrogen atom; highlights include the discovery in
1885 by the Swiss scientist Johann J. Balmer that the frequency spectrum of hydrogen followed a simple numerical
pattern, later revised by the Swedish physicist Johannes R. Rydberg and given in modern notation as 1/λ = RH (1/22 −
1/n2), where RH is the so-called Rydberg constant for hydrogen. In 1913 the Danish physicist Niels Bohr presented the first
theoretical model that could give quantized energy levels that were in quantitative agreement with measurements of the
hydrogen spectrum.

Despite the success of the Bohr theory in describing the hydrogen spectrum, the theory failed badly when applied to the
next simplest atom, helium, which contains two electrons. It was also incapable of predicting the likelihood of transitions
between energy levels. In 1925–26 a new theory that could explain the discrete, quantum nature of the spectra was
developed by the German physicists Werner Heisenberg and Erwin Schrödinger. This theory, known as quantum
mechanics, was extended by the Austrian-born Swiss physicist Wolfgang Pauli, the German physicist Max Born, and
others. It has been remarkably successful in describing the spectra of complex atoms, ions, simple molecules, and solids.
As the spectral lines of the hydrogen atom were measured with increased accuracy, greater demands were placed on the
theoretical understanding of atomic spectra. The British physicist Paul A.M. Dirac combined quantum mechanics with the
special theory of relativity in 1928 to describe particles moving close to the speed of light. His formulation of relativistic
quantum mechanics provided an explanation for the so-called fine structure of the hydrogen spectrum (see below
Foundations of atomic spectra: Hydrogen atom states: Fine and hyperfine structure of spectra). At still higher resolution,
two energy levels of the hydrogen atom in the first excited state were predicted by Dirac’s theory to be exactly the same.
In 1947, the American physicists Willis Lamb and Robert Retherford discovered that the levels actually differ by roughly
109 hertz (see below X-ray and radio-frequency spectroscopy: Radio-frequency spectroscopy: Methods). In contrast, the
transition frequency between the ground state and the first excited states was calculated as approximately 2.5 × 1015
hertz. Two American physicists, Richard Feynman and Julian Schwinger, and a Japanese physicist, Shinichirō Tomonaga,
developed yet another refinement to quantum mechanics to explain this measurement. The theory, known as quantum
electrodynamics (QED), had its foundations in the discoveries of Dirac, Heisenberg, and Pauli. It is a complete description
of the interaction of radiation with matter and has been used to calculate the energy levels of the hydrogen atom to an
accuracy of better than 1 part in 1011. No other physical theory has the ability to predict a measurable quantity with such
precision, and, as a result of the successes of quantum electrodynamics, the theory has become the paradigm of physical
theories at the microscopic level.

Applications

Spectroscopy is used as a tool for studying the structures of atoms and molecules. The large number of wavelengths
emitted by these systems makes it possible to investigate their structures in detail, including the electron configurations
of ground and various excited states.

Spectroscopy also provides a precise analytical method for finding the constituents in material having unknown chemical
composition. In a typical spectroscopic analysis, a concentration of a few parts per million of a trace element in a
material can be detected through its emission spectrum.

In astronomy the study of the spectral emission lines of distant galaxies led to the discovery that the universe is
expanding rapidly and isotropically (independent of direction). The finding was based on the observation of a Doppler
shift of spectral lines. The Doppler shift is an effect that occurs when a source of radiation such as a star moves relative to
an observer. The frequency will be shifted in much the same way that an observer on a moving train hears a shift in the
frequency of the pitch of a ringing bell at a railroad crossing. The pitch of the bell sounds higher if the train is
approaching the crossing and lower if it is moving away. Similarly, light frequencies will be Doppler-shifted up or down
depending on whether the light source is approaching or receding from the observer. During the 1920s, the American
astronomer Edwin Hubble identified the diffuse elliptical and spiral objects that had been observed as galaxies. He went
on to discover and measure a roughly linear relationship between the distance of these galaxies from Earth and their
Doppler shift. In any direction one looks, the farther the galaxy appears, the faster it is receding from Earth.

Spectroscopic evidence that the universe was expanding was followed by the discovery in 1965 of a low level of isotropic
microwave radiation by the American scientists Arno A. Penzias and Robert W. Wilson. The measured spectrum is
identical to the radiation distribution expected from a blackbody, a surface that can absorb all the radiation incident on
it. This radiation, which is currently at a temperature of 2.73 kelvin (K), is identified as a relic of the big bang that marks
the birth of the universe and the beginning of its rapid expansion.

Practical considerations

General methods of spectroscopy

Production and analysis of a spectrum usually require the following: (1) a source of light (or other electromagnetic
radiation), (2) a disperser to separate the light into its component wavelengths, and (3) a detector to sense the presence
of light after dispersion. The apparatus used to accept light, separate it into its component wavelengths, and detect the
spectrum is called a spectrometer. Spectra can be obtained either in the form of emission spectra, which show one or
more bright lines or bands on a dark background, or absorption spectra, which have a continuously bright background
except for one or more dark lines.

Absorption spectroscopy measures the loss of electromagnetic energy after it illuminates the sample under study. For
example, if a light source with a broad band of wavelengths is directed at a vapour of atoms, ions, or molecules, the
particles will absorb those wavelengths that can excite them from one quantum state to another. As a result, the
absorbed wavelengths will be missing from the original light spectrum after it has passed through the sample. Since most
atoms and many molecules have unique and identifiable energy levels, a measurement of the missing absorption lines
allows identification of the absorbing species. Absorption within a continuous band of wavelengths is also possible. This
is particularly common when there is a high density of absorption lines that have been broadened by strong
perturbations by surrounding atoms (e.g., collisions in a high-pressure gas or the effects of near neighbours in a solid or
liquid).

In the laboratory environment, transparent chambers or containers with windows at both ends serve as absorption cells
for the production of absorption spectra. Light with a continuous distribution of wavelength is passed through the cell.
When a gas or vapour is introduced, the change in the transmitted spectrum gives the absorption spectrum of the gas.
Often, absorption cells are enclosed in ovens because many materials of spectroscopic interest vaporize significantly only
at high temperatures. In other cases, the sample to be studied need not be contained at all. For example, interstellar
molecules can be detected by studying the absorption of the radiation from a background star.

The transmission properties of Earth’s atmosphere determine which parts of the electromagnetic spectrum of the Sun
and other astronomical sources of radiation are able to penetrate the atmosphere. The absorption of ultraviolet and X-
ray radiation by the upper atmosphere prevents this harmful portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from irradiating
the inhabitants of Earth. The fact that water vapour, carbon dioxide, and other gases reflect infrared radiation is
important in determining how much heat from Earth is radiated into space. This phenomenon is known as the
greenhouse effect since it works in much the same way as the glass panes of a greenhouse; that is to say, energy in the
form of visible light is allowed to pass through the glass, while heat in the form of infrared radiation is absorbed and
reflected back by it, thus keeping the greenhouse warm. Similarly, the transmission characteristics of the atmosphere are
important factors in determining the global temperature of Earth.

The second main type of spectroscopy, emission spectroscopy, uses some means to excite the sample of interest. After
the atoms or molecules are excited, they will relax to lower energy levels, emitting radiation corresponding to the energy
differences, ΔE = hν = hc/λ, between the various energy levels of the quantum system. In its use as an analytical tool, this
fluorescence radiation is the complement of the missing wavelengths in absorption spectroscopy. Thus, the emission
lines will have a characteristic “fingerprint” that can be associated with a unique atom, ion, or molecule. Early excitation
methods included placing the sample in a flame or an electric-arc discharge. The atoms or molecules were excited by
collisions with electrons, the broadband light in the excitation source, or collisions with energetic atoms. The analysis of
the emission lines is done with the same types of spectrometer as used in absorption spectroscopy.

Types of electromagnetic-radiation sources

Broadband-light sources

Although flames and discharges provide a convenient method of excitation, the environment can strongly perturb the
sample being studied. Excitation based on broadband-light sources in which the generation of the light is separated from
the sample to be investigated provides a less perturbing means of excitation. Higher energy excitation corresponds to
shorter wavelengths, but unfortunately, there are not many intense sources of ultraviolet and vacuum-ultraviolet
radiation, and so excitation in an electron discharge remains a common method for this portion of the spectrum. (The
term vacuum ultraviolet refers to the short-wavelength portion of the electromagnetic spectrum where the photons are
energetic enough to excite a typical atom from the ground state to ionization. Under these conditions, the light is
strongly absorbed by air and most other substances.)
A typical broadband-light source that can be used for either emission or absorption spectroscopy is a metal filament
heated to a high temperature. A typical example is a tungsten lightbulb. Because the atoms in the metal are packed
closely together, their individual energy levels merge together; the emitted lines then overlap and form a continuous—
i.e., nondiscrete—spectrum. Similar phenomena occur in high-pressure arc lamps, in which broadening of spectral lines
occurs owing to high collision rates.

An arc lamp consists of a transparent tube of gases that are excited by an electric discharge. Energetic electrons bombard
the atoms, exciting them to either high-energy atomic states or to an ionized state in which the outermost electron is
removed from the atom. The radiation that is emitted in this environment is usually a mixture of discrete atomic lines
that come from the relaxation of the atoms to lower energy states and continuum radiation resulting from closely spaced
lines that have been broadened by collisions with other atoms and the electrons. If the pressure of the gas in the arc
lamp is sufficiently high, a large fraction of the light is emitted in the form of continuum radiation.

Line sources

Light sources that are capable of primarily emitting radiation with discrete, well-defined frequencies are also widely used
in spectroscopy. The early sources of spectral emission lines were simply arc lamps or some other form of electrical
discharge in a sealed tube of gas in which the pressure is kept low enough so that a significant portion of the radiation is
emitted in the form of discrete lines. The Geissler discharge tube, such as the neon lamp commonly used in advertising
signs, is an example of such a source. Other examples are hollow cathode lamps and electrodeless lamps driven by
microwave radiation. If specific atomic lines are desired, a small amount of the desired element is introduced in the
discharge.

Laser sources

Lasers are line sources that emit high-intensity radiation over a very narrow frequency range. The invention of the laser
by the American physicists Arthur Schawlow and Charles Townes in 1958, the demonstration of the first practical laser by
the American physicist Theodore Maiman in 1960, and the subsequent development of laser spectroscopy techniques by
a number of researchers revolutionized a field that had previously seen most of its conceptual developments before the
20th century. Intense, tunable (adjustable-wavelength) light sources now span most of the visible, near-infrared, and
near-ultraviolet portions of the spectrum. Lasers have been used for selected wavelength bands in the infrared to
submillimetre range, and on the opposite end of the spectrum, for wavelengths as short as the soft X-ray region (that of
lower energies).

Typically, light from a tunable laser (examples include dye lasers, semiconductor diode lasers, or free-electron lasers) is
directed into the sample to be studied just as the more traditional light sources are used in absorption or emission
spectroscopy. For example, in emission (fluorescence) spectroscopy, the amount of light scattered by the sample is
measured as the frequency of the laser light is varied. There are advantages to using a laser light source: (1) The light
from lasers can be made highly monochromatic (light of essentially one “colour”—i.e., composed of a very narrow range
of frequencies). As the light is tuned across the frequency range of interest and the absorption or fluorescence is
recorded, extremely narrow spectral features can be measured. Modern tunable lasers can easily resolve spectral
features less than 106 hertz wide, while the highest-resolution grating spectrometers have resolutions that are hundreds
of times lower. Atomic lines as narrow as 30 hertz out of a transition frequency of 6 × 1014 hertz have been observed with
laser spectroscopy. (2) Because the laser light in a given narrow frequency band is much more intense than virtually all
broadband sources of light used in spectroscopy, the amount of fluorescent light emitted by the sample can be greatly
increased. Laser spectroscopy is sufficiently sensitive to observe fluorescence from a single atom in the presence of 10 20
different atoms.

A potential limitation to the resolution of the spectroscopy of gases is due to the motion of the atoms or molecules
relative to the observer. The Doppler shifts that result from the motion of the atoms will broaden any sharp spectral
features. A cell containing a gas of atoms will have atoms moving both toward and away from the light source, so that
the absorbing frequencies of some of the atoms will be shifted up while others will be shifted down. The spectra of an
absorption line in the hydrogen atom as measured by normal fluorescence spectroscopy is shown in Figure 1A. The width
of the spectral features is due to the Doppler broadening on the atoms (see Figure 1B.

Techniques for obtaining Doppler-free spectra

saturation spectroscopyFigure 2: The transmission of the weak probe beam is modulated by the high-intensity saturating
beam if the atoms that are excited by the saturating beam and those that are addressed by the probe beam are not
Doppler-shifted relative to either of the beams.

The high intensity of lasers allows the measurement of Doppler-free spectra. One method for making such
measurements, invented by Theodore Hänsch of Germany and Christian Borde of France, is known as saturation
spectroscopy (see Figure 2). Here an intense monochromatic beam of light is directed into the sample gas cell. If the
frequency spread of the light is much less than the Doppler-broadened absorption line, only those atoms with a narrow
velocity spread will be excited, since the other atoms will be Doppler-shifted out of resonance. Laser light is intense
enough that a significant fraction of the atoms resonant with the light will be in the excited state. With this high
excitation, the atoms are said to be saturated, and atoms in a saturated state absorb less light.

If a weaker probe laser beam is directed into the sample along the opposite direction, it will interact with those atoms
that have the appropriate Doppler shift to be resonant with the light. In general, these two frequencies will be different
so that the probe beam will experience an absorption that is unaffected by the stronger saturating beam. If the laser
frequency is tuned to be resonant with both beams (this can happen only when the velocity relative to the direction of
the two beams is zero), the intense beam saturates the same atoms that would normally absorb the probe beam. When
the frequency of the laser is tuned to the frequency of the atoms moving with zero velocity relative to the laser source,
the transmission of the probe beam increases. Thus, the absorption resonance of the atoms, without broadening from
the Doppler effect, can be observed. Figure 1C shows the same hydrogen spectra taken with saturation spectroscopy.

In addition to saturation spectroscopy, there are a number of other techniques that are capable of obtaining Doppler-
free spectra. An important example is two-photon spectroscopy, another form of spectroscopy that was made possible
by the high intensities available with lasers. All these techniques rely on the relative Doppler shift of counterpropagating
beams to identify the correct resonance frequency and have been used to measure spectra with extremely high
accuracy. These techniques, however, cannot eliminate another type of Doppler shift.

This other type of frequency shift is understood as a time dilation effect in the special theory of relativity. A clock moving
with respect to an observer appears to run slower than an identical clock at rest with respect to the observer. Since the
frequency associated with an atomic transition is a measure of time (an atomic clock), a moving atom will appear to have
a slightly lower frequency relative to the frame of reference of the observer. The time dilation can be minimized if the
atom’s velocity is reduced substantially. In 1985 American physicist Steven Chu and his colleagues demonstrated that it is
possible to cool free atoms in a vapour to a temperature of 2.5 × 10−4 K, at which the random atomic velocities are about
50,000 times less than at room temperature. At these temperatures the time dilation effect is reduced by a factor of 10 8,
and the Doppler effect broadening is reduced by a factor of 103. Since then, temperatures of 2 × 10-8 K have been
achieved with laser cooling.

Pulsed lasers
Not only have lasers increased the frequency resolution and sensitivity of spectroscopic techniques, they have greatly
extended the ability to measure transient phenomena. Pulsed, so-called mode-locked, lasers are capable of generating a
continuous train of pulses where each pulse may be as short as 10−14 second. In a typical experiment, a short pulse of
light is used to excite or otherwise perturb the system, and another pulse of light, delayed with respect to the first pulse,
is used to probe the system’s response. The delayed pulse can be generated by simply diverting a portion of the light
pulse with a partially reflecting mirror (called a beam splitter). The two separate pulses can then be directed onto the
sample under study where the path taken by the first excitation pulse is slightly shorter than the path taken by the
second probe pulse. The relative time delay between the two pulses is controlled by slightly varying the path length
difference of the two pulses. The distance corresponding to a 10−14-second delay (the speed of light multiplied by the
time difference) is three micrometres (1.2 × 10−4 inch).

Methods of dispersing spectra

A spectrometer, as mentioned above, is an instrument used to analyze the transmitted light in the case of absorption
spectroscopy or the emitted light in the case of emission spectroscopy. It consists of a disperser that breaks the light into
its component wavelengths and a means of recording the relative intensities of each of the component wavelengths. The
main methods for dispersing radiation are discussed here.

Refraction

refraction of light by a prismFigure 3: Refraction of light by a prism having index n2 immersed in a medium having
refractive index n1. The angles i and r that the rays make with the normal are the angles of incidence and refraction.
Because n2 depends upon wavelength, the incident white ray separates into its constituent colours upon refraction, with
deviation of the red ray the least and the violet ray the most.

Historically glass prisms were first used to break up or disperse light into its component colours. The path of a light ray
bends (refracts) when it passes from one transparent medium to another—e.g., from air to glass. Different colours
(wavelengths) of light are bent through different angles; hence a ray leaves a prism in a direction depending on its colour
(see Figure 3). The degree to which a ray bends at each interface can be calculated from Snell’s law, which states that if n1
and n2 are the refractive indices of the medium outside the prism and of the prism itself, respectively, and the angles i
and r are the angles that the ray of a given wavelength makes with a line at right angles to the prism face as shown in
Figure 3, then the equation n1 sin i = n2 sin r is obtained for all rays. The refractive index of a medium, indicated by the
symbol n, is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in the medium. Typical values for
n range from 1.0003 for air at 0° C and atmospheric pressure, to 1.5–1.6 for typical glasses, to 4 for germanium in the
infrared portion of the spectrum.

Since the index of refraction of optical glasses varies by only a few percent across the visible spectrum, different
wavelengths are separated by small angles. Thus, prism instruments are generally used only when low spectral resolution
is sufficient.

Diffraction
Huygens' principle(A) Huygens' principle applied to both plane and spherical waves. Each point on the wave front AA′ can
be thought of as a radiator of a spherical wave that expands out with velocity c, traveling a distance ct after time t. A
secondary wave front BB′ is formed from the addition of all the wave amplitudes from the wave front AA′. (B) Huygens'
construction of a diffracted wave from a transmission grating. The wave front is constructed by adding spherical waves
from each slit of the grating. The wave emitted at a given slit is delayed by one full cycle with respect to the wave from
an adjacent slit.

At points along a given wavefront (crest of the wave), the advancing light wave can be thought of as being generated by a
set of spherical radiators, as shown in Figure 4A, according to a principle first enunciated by the Dutch scientist Christiaan
Huygens and later made quantitative by Fraunhofer. The new wavefront is defined by the line that is tangent to all the
wavelets (secondary waves) emitting from the previous wavefront. If the emitting regions are in a plane of infinite extent,
the light will propagate along a straight line normal to the plane of the wavefronts. However, if the region of the emitters
is bounded or restricted in some other way, the light will spread out by a phenomenon called diffraction.

Diffraction gratings are composed of closely spaced transmitting slits on a flat surface (transmission gratings) or alternate
reflecting grooves on a flat or curved surface (reflection gratings).

If collimated light falls upon a transmission grating, the wavefronts successively pass through and spread out as
secondary waves from the transparent parts of the grating. Most of these secondary waves, when they meet along a
common path, interfere with each other destructively, so that light does not leave the grating at all angles. At some exit
angles, however, secondary waves from adjacent slits of the grating are delayed by exactly one wavelength, and these
waves reinforce each other when they meet—i.e., the crests of one fall on top of the other. In this case, constructive
interference takes place, and light is emitted in directions where the spacing between the adjacent radiators is delayed
by one wavelength (see Figure 4B). Constructive interference also occurs for delays of integral numbers of wavelengths.
The light diffracts according to the formula mλ = d(sin i − sin r), where i is the incident angle, r is the reflected or
transmitted angle, d is the spacing between grating slits, λ is the wavelength of the light, and m is an integer (usually
called the order of interference). If light having several constituent wavelengths falls upon a grating at a fixed angle i,
different wavelengths are diffracted in slightly different directions and can be observed and recorded separately. Each
wavelength is also diffracted into several orders (or groupings); gratings are usually blazed (engraved) so that a particular
order will be the most intense. A lens or concave mirror can then be used to produce images of the spectral lines.

As the grating in a spectrometer is rotated about an axis parallel to the slit axis, the spectral lines are transmitted
successively through the instrument. An electronic photodetector placed behind the slit can then be used to measure
the amount of light in each part of the spectrum. The advantage of such an arrangement is that photodetectors are
extremely sensitive, have a fast time response, and respond linearly to the energy of the light over a wide range of light
intensities (see below Optical detectors).

Interference

A third class of devices for dispersing spectra are known as interferometers. These instruments divide the light with
semitransparent surfaces, producing two or more beams that travel different paths and then recombine. In spectroscopy,
the principal interferometers are those developed by the American physicist A.A. Michelson (1881) in an attempt to find
the luminiferous ether—a hypothetical medium thought at that time to pervade all space—and by two French physicists,
Charles Fabry and Alfred Pérot (1896), specifically for high-resolution spectroscopy.

In the Michelson interferometer, an incident beam of light strikes a tilted semitransparent mirror and divides the light
into a reflected and transmitted wave. These waves continue to their respective mirrors, are reflected, and return to the
semitransparent mirror. If the total number of oscillations of the two waves during their separate paths add up to be an
integral number just after recombining on the partially reflecting surface of the beam splitter, the light from the two
beams will add constructively and be directed toward a detector. This device then acts as a filter that transmits
preferentially certain wavelengths and reflects others back to the light source, resulting in a visible interference pattern.
A common use of the Michelson interferometer has one mirror mounted upon a carriage so that length of the light path
in that branch can be varied. A spectrum is obtained by recording photoelectrically the light intensity of the interference
pattern as the carriage is moved when an absorption cell is placed in one of the arms of the interferometer. The resulting
signals contain information about many wavelengths simultaneously. A mathematical operation, called a Fourier
transform, converts the recorded modulation in the light intensity at the detector into the usual frequency domain of the
absorption spectrum (see analysis: Fourier analysis). The principal advantage of this method is that the entire spectrum is
recorded simultaneously with one detector.

The Fabry-Pérot interferometer consists of two reflecting mirrors that can be either curved or flat. Only certain
wavelengths of light will resonate in the cavity: the light is in resonance with the interferometer if m(λ/2) = L, where L is
the distance between the two mirrors, m is an integer, and λ is the wavelength of the light inside the cavity. When this
condition is fulfilled, light at these specific wavelengths will build up inside the cavity and be transmitted out the back
end for specific wavelengths. By adjusting the spacing between the two mirrors, the instrument can be scanned over the
spectral range of interest.

Optical detectors

The principal detection methods used in optical spectroscopy are photographic (e.g., film), photoemissive
(photomultipliers), and photoconductive (semiconductor). Prior to about 1940, most spectra were recorded with
photographic plates or film, in which the film is placed at the image point of a grating or prism spectrometer. An
advantage of this technique is that the entire spectrum of interest can be obtained simultaneously, and low-intensity
spectra can be easily taken with sensitive film.

Photoemissive detectors have replaced photographic plates in most applications. When a photon with sufficient energy
strikes a surface, it can cause the ejection of an electron from the surface into a vacuum. A photoemissive diode consists
of a surface (photocathode) appropriately treated to permit the ejection of electrons by low-energy photons and a
separate electrode (the anode) on which electrons are collected, both sealed within an evacuated glass envelope. A
photomultiplier tube has a cathode, a series of electrodes (dynodes), and an anode sealed within a common evacuated
envelope. Appropriate voltages applied to the cathode, dynodes, and anode cause electrons ejected from the cathode to
collide with the dynodes in succession. Each electron collision produces several more electrons; after a dozen or more
dynodes, a single electron ejected by one photon can be converted into a fast pulse (with a duration of less than 10 −8
second) of as many as 107 electrons at the anode. In this way, individual photons can be counted with good time
resolution.

Other photodetectors include imaging tubes (e.g., television cameras), which can measure a spatial variation of the light
across the surface of the photocathode, and microchannel plates, which combine the spatial resolution of an imaging
tube with the light sensitivity of a photomultiplier. A night vision device consists of a microchannel plate multiplier in
which the electrons at the output are directed onto a phosphor screen and can then be read out with an imaging tube.

Solid-state detectors such as semiconductor photodiodes detect light by causing photons to excite electrons from
immobile, bound states of the semiconductor (the valence band) to a state where the electrons are mobile (the
conduction band). The mobile electrons in the conduction band and the vacancies, or “holes,” in the valence band can be
moved through the solid with externally applied electric fields, collected onto a metal electrode, and sensed as a
photoinduced current. Microfabrication techniques developed for the integrated-circuit semiconductor industry are used
to construct large arrays of individual photodiodes closely spaced together. The device, called a charge-coupled device
(CCD), permits the charges that are collected by the individual diodes to be read out separately and displayed as an
image.