Chapter 2

Processes in Conducting Research

What is State of the Art?
 State of the art is the most advance technology, Process, methods, technique or
knowledge in a particular area at a point in time.
 The term is commonly used as in advertising to imply that a product or service is
ahead of the competition.
 It also applied as a legal term to determine the novelty of patents and to asses
organizational and professional due diligence.
Current State of the Art Area and Techniques in Computing
 Computer technology and, more broadly, information technology, are bringing
about a fundamental transformation in our society from an industrial economy to
an information economy.
 A review of the short history and present state of information technology
identifies two major undercurrents:
I) the miniaturization of computer components, which has produced a million fold
increase in the complexity possible in a single chip of silicon, and
2) The integration of four previously separate areas of information technology:
computation, communication, databases and the user interface.
 Microelectronics, computer networks, data storage and user amenities are the
basic technologies that support these four areas and stimulate their progress.
 Future trends in speech recognition, voice synthesis, artificial intelligence, expert
systems, computational imaging and scientific workstations are also examined.
Research Process
 A process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and
 The desired sequencing of these steps.
 Consists of a number of closely related activities.
 But such activities can overlap continuously rather than following a strictly
prescribed sequence.
 At times, the first step determines the nature of the last step to be undertaken.
 Steps are not exhaustive, nor mutually exclusive, but a series of closely related,
continuously overlapping and interdependent nonlinear steps/ actions.
 One should remember that the various steps involved in a research process are not
mutually exclusive; nor are they separate and distinct.
 They do not necessarily follow each other in any specific order.

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 The researcher has to be constantly anticipating at each step in the research
process the requirements of the subsequent steps.
 However, the following order concerning various steps provides a useful
procedural guideline regarding the research process (i.e. Research involves the
following Process):
 Selecting a broad area of study
 Problem definition
 Literature review
 Developing objectives and hypothesis/research question formulation
 Design of Research/Research Methodology
 Execution of the research: Data collection, analysis and generalization and
interpretation. And finally,
 Reporting/Writing research findings in report form
1. Selecting a research area/topic
 Look for a subject that interests you and will maintain your interest throughout
the various stages of research that will help you to obtain the maximum self-
development from the research.
 It should be related with your career.
 Some preliminary reading will help to determine the extent of your interest.
 Keep in mind the time allotted to you and the expected length of the research
paper.
 You commonly begin with fairly general topic and then refine it by research and
thought into a more specific one.
 Commonly begin with fairly general topic and then refine it into a more specific
one.
 Try to narrow your topic/idea by focusing on a particular aspect of a particular
approach.
 Be original as much as you can, avoid duplicate work on a specific topic/idea by
review literatures.
 The eventual successful completion of a research study is dependent on the
selection of an appropriate topic.
 Before beginning the research, make sure you understand the amount and depth
of research required, & the type of paper expected.

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2. Formulating the Research Problem
 The task of formulating/defining a research problem is the core point in the entire
research process.
 The task of formulating, or defining a research problem is a step of greatest
importance in the entire research process. Because:
- It determines the data to be collected,
- It determines the characteristic of the data which are relevant,
- It determines the type of techniques to be used,
- It determines the form of the final report.
 Therefore, the researcher must single out the problem he/she wants to study.
 The researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject
matter that he/she would like to inquire into/study.
 The best way of formulating the research problem is:
 To discuss it with colleagues.
 To discuss it with those have some experience with the issue.
 Note:-A problem clearly stated is a problem half solved.
 Some general principles in problem formulation
- Be sure the problem really exists.
- Learn as much as possible about the problem to be solved.
- Consider alternative formulations in case one is not feasible.
- Be aware that the problem formulation may influence the phenomena being
studied.
 Evaluation of a research problem (some questions to be asked):
- Is the problem in line with my goals or expectations and the expectation of
others?

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- Will the solution of the problem advance knowledge?
- What is the value of potential outcome? (Who are the beneficiaries?)
- Do I possess or can I acquire the necessary skills, abilities and background
knowledge to study the problem? (Researcher’s capability and interest).
- Will the data be accessible?
- Do I have access to the necessary resources (time, money, tools, equipment's,
laboratory, subjects, etc.) to conduct the investigation?

3. Literature Survey

The researcher should also examine all available literatures to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem.
 May continue from beginning to end.
 It is important in defining problems and hypotheses formulation as well as
selection of methods.
 Extensive review is required to know:
 What others have done in the area?
 How did they do it?
 What were the research variables?
 How were the variables measured?
 What were the constraints?
 What could possibly be modified?
 The Researcher may review two types of literature
 Conceptual literature
- Concerning the concepts and theories.
 Empirical literature
- Consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed.
 Basic Outcomes of the Review
 To understand what data and other materials are available for operational
purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own research
problem in a meaningful context.
 Literature survey and problem formulation are inter-related, because the problem
can only be specifically defined if extensive literature survey is done.
 For this purpose - Journals, Conference proceedings, published or
unpublished bibliographies, Government Reports can be used.
 Remember – One Source leads to another.

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 4. Developing objectives and Working Hypothesis:
 Objectives: Statements that indicate what a researcher intends to accomplish in a
more specific term.
 Hypothesis:
- An assertion about the relationship between two or more concepts.
- Important bridges between empirical inquiry and theory.
 Some guidelines in developing objectives:
- Objectives must be specific, concrete and achievable statements.
- The objectives should clearly fit to the statement of the problem.
- The objectives must propose to do things as per the capability of the design of the
study.
- Objectives should be in their approximate order of importance.
 Developing research hypotheses is important since they provide the focal point of
the research.
- They indirectly determine the quality of data which is required for the analysis.
- The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher and keep him on the right
track.
- Working hypotheses arise as a result of prior thinking about the subject.
 A hypothesis must beSpecific.
 Limited to the piece of research in hand because it has to be tested.
 Conceptually clear in terms of common definitions.
 Testable (verification or rejection) by available techniques and resources.
 Related to a body of theory;
 Stated to provide direction for the research;
 Formulated as causal relationships;
 Example of hypothesis
 Improved training provision will create a more productive reliable and satisfied
workforce.
 Smoking and lung cancer are independent.
 As a general a rule, working with hypothesis is another basic step of the research
process in most research problems --- but may not be always necessary.
 Eg. In Exploratory researches.
5. Design of the Research
 Once the research problem is formulated and working hypothesis developed, the
researcher will be required to prepare a research Design/methodology.
 Research design refers to the arrangement of the conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that will satisfy or achieve the objectives of a research
undertaking.

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  It is intended to enable the researcher to answer questions as validly,
objectively, accurately and economically as much as possible;
 It provides for the collection of relevant data with minimum effort, time
and budget.
 Research Design: - Conceptual structure within which research would be
conducted.
 It sets up the framework for adequate tests of relationships among study
variables.
 The research design tells us:
- What observations to make?
- What variables to measure?
- How to make them/measure them?
- How to analyze the data?
- Sample Design
- Data collection tools/techniques
- It also suggests how many observations to make.
- The type of statistical analysis to be used.
 The research design preparation should consider:
 The time available for research.
 The finance available for the purpose.
 The availability and skills of the researcher and his/her staff (if any).
 Identifying the study variables.
 Identifying study subjects /experimental units,
 The means of obtaining the information and reasoning leading to selection.
 The function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money.
6. Execution of the Research
 It is a very important step in the research process.
 If the execution of the research proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable.
 Under this phase the following tasks will be done:
 Data Collection
 Data Analysis
 Generalizations and Interpretation of the results
Data collection
 Data can be collected by any one or more of the data collection techniques/tools
ways. It may involve:
 Field survey /experiments
 Laboratory

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  Questionnaire
 Observation
 Document Analysis
 Interview, etc.
 The researcher should select one/more of these methods of collecting data by
taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the
inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
Data collection
 Data can be collected by any one or more of the data collection techniques/tools
ways. It may involve:
 Field survey /experiments
 Laboratory
 Questionnaire
 Observation
 Document Analysis
 Interview, etc.
 The researcher should select one/more of these methods of collecting data by
taking into consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the
inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
Data Analysis
 After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analyzing
them.
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations.
 Before analyzing the data the following operation are processed on collected
data:
 Coding
 Editing
 Tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.
 Quantitative data analysis– quantitative figures
 Qualitative data analysis– analytical thinking
 Hypothesis testing
 Generalizations and Interpretation of the results
 If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the
researcher to arrive at generalization, i.e., to build a theory.
 As a matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to
arrive at certain generalizations.
 If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain
his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation.

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  The process of interpretation may quite often trigger off new
questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
7. Reporting/Writing Research Reports
 Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report of what has been done.
 The result should be communicated to others.
 Peers
 Policy makers/Developers
 Extension workers
 General public
 Report should be written in a concise and objective style in simple language
avoiding vague expressions such as ‘it seems,’ ‘there may be’, and the like.
 The style and content varies depending on to whom the research is written to.
 The mode of presentation depends on the target audience.
 Some principal guidelines for writing reports of scholarly journals are:
 Avoid using first person pronouns: I, Me, My, We and so on.
 Be stylistically consistent with regard to tables, charts, graphs, section
headings, and so forth.
 Tables, for example, should follow the same format and should be
numbered consecutively.
 Clearly label all displays with meaningful title
 Each table, graph, chart, or figure caption should accurately describe
the material presented and its contribution to the report.
 Use simple language (i.e. avoiding vague expressions)
 Express findings clearly, simply, and accurately.
 Any types of research should meet the scientific research procedures.
 To be a scientific research the research should satisfy the following criteria: (The
scientific research method employed ensures :)
 Purpose/ objectives clearly defined in common concepts.
 Procedure enumerated to keep continuity.
 The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail
to permit another researcher to repeat the research for further
advancement, keeping the continuity of what has already been
attained.
 The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
 The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
 Adequate analysis of data with appropriate methods of analysis.

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  The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal
its significance and the methods of analysis used should be
appropriate.
 Carefully checked data for validity & reliability.
 Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
 Confidence, competence/ reputation, experience, honesty & integrity of
researcher.
 Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity/honesty.
 In other words, we can state the qualities of a good research as follows:
 Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with
specified steps to be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the
well-defined set of rules.
 Systematic characteristic of the research
 Does not rule out creative thinking.
 Reject the use of guessing & intuition in arriving at
conclusions.
 Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by rules of logical
reasoning & logical process of induction & deduction.
– The logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying out
research.
– In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context of
decision making.
 Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or
more aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis
for external validity to research results (validation).
 Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified
by replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
 Verified by replicating the study.
 Good research is controlled: variables are identified & controlled, wherever
possible.
Proposal Preparation
Source of Information
 What sources of information could be used to devise a research topic?
 Proposals by academic staff or departments
 Past researches
 Brainstorming
 Your own goals and learning objectives

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  Reading about / working in the subject area
 Systematic analysis of the subject area
 Research Territory Maps
 Show how topics related to each other
 Relevance Trees
 Break down a particular subject or research question into
lower and lower levels of detail
Suitability Tests for a Research Title
 ‘So what?’ test
 Is the topic meaningful?
 Will it be of value for anyone?
 What contribution will it make?
 Justification
 Can you explain your research topic and justify it in simple terms?
 Estimating your understanding
 Can you put a figure on what you know about your chosen subject?
Suitability Tests for a Research Title (cont’d)
 Contacts
 Are the contacts you require for your research (including your supervisor)
available, accessible, and willing to help?
Expanding Knowledge
 It is describable to expand your breadth of knowledge on the selected topic
 Read the fundamentals on the topic to build up the foundation for your research
 Although not immediately evident, these efforts pay off in the longer run
 Feel open about broadening the scope of the topic as you build up on it
Preparing a Research Proposal: Implicit Content
 Introduction to the subject area
 Sets the context for the research
 Should motivate the relevance of the subject area
 Overview of current research in the area
 Demonstrates current activities in the subject area
 Shows your understanding of current research
 Identify a gap
 Identify a need for further investigation or re-interpretation
 Identify how your work fills the gap
 Explain how your research fills the gap
 Identify risks and solutions
 Highlight the benefits that can be derived from your research
 Account for the risks to your research

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Preparing a Project Proposal: Explicit Structure
 Title
 Clear, Concise, Preferably no acronyms
 Aims and Objectives
 Aims: Broad statement(s) of intent Identify the research’s purpose
 Objectives: Identify specific, measurable achievements Quantitative and
qualitative measures by which completion of the research can be judged
 Expected outcomes/deliverables
 Identify what will be produced/submitted in the research
 Keywords
 Identify the topic areas that the research draws on
 Introduction/Background/Overview
 Overview of the research(Identification of research questions and
hypotheses, elaboration of aims)
 Motivation for the research
 Motivation for you conducting the research
 Related Research
 Identifies other work and publications related to the topic
Preparing a Project Proposal: Explicit (cont’d)
 Methods
 Identifies the research methods and research methods that will be used (e.g.
theoretical investigation, case study)
 Research Requirements
 Identifies the resources that will be needed for the research (e.g. hardware,
software, data, personnel)
 Research Plan
 More or less detailed ‘timetable’ for the research
 Deadlines for deliverables
 E.g., Computer Networks->Wireless Networks->Cellular Networks
->Performance, reliability, security
 E.g., Operating Systems->Resource management->Power conservation->Specific
versus general
 Activities: Broad topic selection
Preparing a Project Proposal: Explicit (cont’d)
 Methods
 Identifies the research methods and research methods that will be used (e.g.
theoretical investigation, case study)
 Research Requirements

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  Identifies the resources that will be needed for the research (e.g. hardware,
software, data, personnel)
 Research Plan
 More or less detailed ‘timetable’ for the research
 Deadlines for deliverables
 E.g., Computer Networks->Wireless Networks->Cellular Networks
->Performance, reliability, security
 E.g., Operating Systems->Resource management->Power conservation->Specific
versus general
 Activities: Broad topic selection
Review of Literature
 This is where you provide about what others have done in the area, and what
you propose to do.
 The literature review is a critical look at the existing research that is significant to
the work that you are carrying out.
 Obviously, at this point you are not likely to have read everything related to your
research questions, but you should still be able to identify the key texts with which
you will be in conversation as you write your dissertation.
 Literature reviews often include both the theoretical approaches to your topic and
research (empirical or analytical) on your topic.
Cont’d
 Writing the literature review allows you to understand:
 How other scholars have written about your topic (in addition to what they have
written).
 The range of theories scholars use to analyze their primary materials or data
 How other scholars connect their specific research topics to larger issues, questions,
or practices within the field.
 The best methodologies and research techniques for your particular topic.
 The literature review has four major functions or rhetorical goals that you should
keep in mind as you write:
 It situates the current study within a wider disciplinary conversation.
 It illustrates the uniqueness, importance of and need for your particular project by
explaining how your research questions and approach are different from those of
other scholars.
 It justifies methodological choices.
 It demonstrates your familiarity with the topic and appropriate approaches to
studying it.
Cont’d
 Effective literature reviews should:

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  Flesh out the Introduction’s brief description of the background of your
study.
 Critically assess important research trends or areas of interest relevant to
your study.
 Identify potential gaps in knowledge.
 Establish a need for current and/or future research projects.

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