10.1515_ntrev-2023-0215

Nanotechnology Reviews 2024; 13: 20230215
Research Article
M. A. Motalib Hossain, Pin Jern Ker, Sieh Kiong Tiong*, T. M. Indra Mahlia, and M. A. Hannan*
Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery

energy storage: A patent landscape analysis,
technology updates, and future prospects
https://doi.org/10.1515/ntrev-2023-0215 studies are necessary to accelerate the widespread usage
received December 15, 2023; accepted August 9, 2024 of NMs in energy storage systems using cost-effective and
Abstract: The world’s energy demand has significantly environmentally friendly technologies.
increased as a result of the growing population and accom- Keywords: nanomaterials, patent landscape analysis, bat-
panying rise in energy usage. Fortunately, the innovation tery energy storage, nanostructured materials, technology
of nanomaterials (NMs) and their corresponding proces- updates
sing into devices and electrodes could enhance the function-
ality and/or advancement of the current battery energy
storage systems (BESSs). Patent landscape analysis (PLA)
can offer a comprehensive overview of technological devel- 1 Introduction
opment trends and enable discussion in interdisciplinary
areas that facilitate more rational technology planning in The primary power source for most energy use is moving
the future. In this study, PLA of recent advancements in quickly and dramatically toward electricity. The demand for
the NM-based BESS was critically analyzed, future technol- portable consumer devices, medical devices, electric vehi-
ogies forecasted, and potential challenges outlined. A search cles, and electric grids, as well as the growing Internet of
was performed in the Lens database using “energy storage Things and wearable devices, has made reversible electri-
system,” “battery,” and “nanomaterial,” and related patents city storage and release an important technology. These
under the simple family were extracted. Finally, after uses, the requirement to store power energy generated by
excluding duplicates and irrelevant patents, a total of 89 piezoelectric and triboelectric generators, wind turbines,
patents were selected for analysis using various parameters. heat sources, solar panels, and moving machinery all neces-
The article provides a current technical overview along with sitate significant advancements in and diversification of the
an extensive bibliographic review of the patent family, technology of energy storage [1,2]. New, inexpensive, and
trends of patent growth, key inventors and owners, patent environmentally acceptable energy conversion and storage
legal status, patent jurisdiction, top cited patents, etc., as well devices must now be developed in order to meet the
as technological updates. Overall, nanotechnology has great demands of contemporary society and growing ecological
potential for the future; however, further research and concerns; this is the reason for the field’s fast advancement
of research. The features of the materials used in these
devices have a significant impact on their operational effi-
 ciency. The key to the advancements in energy conversion
* Corresponding author: Sieh Kiong Tiong, Institute of Sustainable and storage that have already been accomplished is the
Energy, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, 43000, Malaysia, chemistry of innovative materials. In this instance, materials
e-mail: [email protected]
with large electrochemically active surfaces and nanometer-
* Corresponding author: M. A. Hannan, School of Engineering and
Technology, Sunway University, Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, 47500, sized structural characteristics can shift the usual approach
Malaysia; School of Electrical Engineering, Korea University, Seongbuk- for energy storage [3]. Numerous forms of research and
Gu, Seoul, 136-701, Republic of Korea, e-mail: [email protected] studies have been focused on the creation of ideal energy
M. A. Motalib Hossain: Institute of Sustainable Energy, Universiti storage systems (ESSs) worldwide as a result of the rising
Tenaga Nasional, Kajang, 43000, Malaysia
demand for attractive ESSs. Energy storage and conversion
Pin Jern Ker: School of Engineering and Technology, Sunway University,
Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, 47500, Malaysia
technologies, including batteries, supercapacitors, and solar
T. M. Indra Mahlia: School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, cells, have undergone substantial development in response
University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW 2007, Australia to the looming depletion of traditional fossil fuels and the
Open Access. © 2024 the author(s), published by De Gruyter. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
2  M. A. Motalib Hossain et al.
growing challenge posed by the carbon dioxide footprint. investigated as electrodes for supercapacitors and/or LIB
These erratic and intermittent sources must be seamlessly and Na-ion battery applications [8]. In comparison to most
incorporated into the power grid system, which calls for an other shapes of substances, the structures of NMs, particu-
experienced, substantial, and reasonably priced ESS. Due to larly their length, large surface area, and high porosity, offer
their special characteristics, such as high energy density, distinct advantages, and their versatility in that they may be
long life, availability, low cost, and high safety, batteries adapted to particular needs and increase their utilization.
have received a lot of interest from academics, scientists, The employment of NMs as an anode and cathode will increase
and researchers throughout the world [4]. Conte [5] pre- surface reactivity and, consequently, the effectiveness of energy
sented an overview of the performance of the various products due to their vast surface area [9]. Therefore, current
electro-static discharges (ESDs) (Table 1). It is obvious that progress in ESDs is due to the manufacturing of nanostructured
lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) have higher power and energy electroactive materials on a large scale.
densities than other energy storage technologies. It also has A patent is a document that comprises technical infor-
certain appealing characteristics including high efficiency, a mation that was created through scientific invention by its
long life cycle, a low discharge rate, and a high voltage. creators and is registered with the appropriate interna-
Nanomaterials (NMs) have characteristics that allow tional agencies to safeguard its intellectual property rights
them excellent candidates for a variety of energy storage [4]. Patents are the rights to intellectual property that can
technologies. NMs can differ greatly from one another in be given in exchange for the disclosure of an invention and
their properties, giving researchers countless opportunities are used to protect inventions within the borders of spe-
to enhance devices for energy storage. The superior elec- cific jurisdictions. A granted patent has commercial signif-
trical conductivity and charge carrier mobility of certain icance since it grants the exclusive right to prevent anyone
NMs, which allow electrons to move and be stored effec- from producing, using, or selling the invention in the desig-
tively, is one of the key advantages of ESDs [6]. Due to the nated territory. A patent’s capacity to keep competitors out
remarkable mechanical, electrical, and optical features con- of a market or from using a protected technology has led to
ferred by restricting the dimensions of such materials, as the term “limited monopoly” being applied to it. Under-
well as the contribution of both bulk and surface attributes standing which companies own patents and what technology
to overall behavior, nanostructured materials have gained fields they cover can have a big impact on legislation and
considerable interest in recent years. To understand the corporate decision-making because of the potential commer-
possibilities of smaller-scale materials, one needs to look cial and legal implications. In addition, patents are not avail-
at the incredible advances in microelectronics. Materials able everywhere else; hence, it is considered critical sources
with nanostructures are becoming more and more crucial of innovation [10]. The application of patent data and the
for electrochemical energy storage [3,7]. analysis of this data is essential to the management of tech-
Due to their large specific surface area and excellent nology. Usually, the analysis of the technology revealed in
electrical, physicochemical, and mechanical properties, NMs patents and the identification of the legal status and specific
have received a lot of attention for energy storage. A wide features of patents provide an important tool that may be
range of innovative nanostructured materials and compo- properly understood [4].
sites with customized morphologies have arisen thanks to A popular technique for analyzing current trends in
cutting-edge nanofabrication processes, and they have been research, developments, and patenting patterns, as well as
Table 1: An overview of the performance of the various ESDs
Battery Temperature (°C) η (%) Energy Power Voltage (V) Self-discharge Cycle life at Cost estimation
types (W/kg) (%/month) 80%DOD
(W h/l) (Wh/kg) ($/kW h) ($/kW)
Lead acid −30 to 60 85 50–70 20–40 300 2.1 4–8 200 150 10
Nickel metal −20 to 50 80 200 40–60 1,300–500 1.2 20 >2,500 500 20
hydride
Li-ion −20 to 55 93 150–200 100–200 3,000–800 ∼3.6 1–5 <2,500 800 50–75
Electric −30 to 65 97 5 5–20 1,500 ∼2.5 30 Not 2,000 50
double-layer applicable
capacitor
Reproduced with permission from Conte [5].

Nanomaterials of battery energy storage  3
the regulations pertaining to the current technology, is the notes, and visualizations that may be annotated (see https://
patent landscape (PL) review. Inventors and researchers www.lens.org/lens/). To create an open map of the world of
can use patent landscape analysis (PLA) to gain important knowledge-directed innovation, the Lens will enable the
technological insights that will help them create fresh solu- sharing, aggregation, and embedding of document collections,
tions to real-world problems [11]. In addition to assisting in aggregates, and analyses. In the end, this will reinstate the
the understanding of current technology developments, patent system’s function as a learning tool to educate and
patent landscaping serves as a tool in locating key industry motivate businesspeople, citizens, and decision-makers [16].
players that potential rivals may encounter. These studies Until now, numerous PLA reviews have been reported
may also be used to license or purchase prospects for busi- for various fields of research. However, no PLA review has
nesses with patents on their names. PLs identify areas for been introduced related to technological advances in NM-
future growth and provide data that enable decisions to be based battery energy storage systems (BESSs). However,
made with knowledge and based on evidence. The main demands for the NM-based BESS are increasing day by
advantage of a PLA is an in-depth understanding of the day. According to Stratview Research, the global market
product, technology, and competition in the chosen geo- for ESS is anticipated to reach 440.71 GW in 2028, expanding
graphic region for the search [12]. at a common annual growth rate of 11.1% from 2022 to 2028.
A tried-and-true multistep process known as PLA-often The present study aims to summarize the historical devel-
defined as “patent mapping” – uses both human intelli- opment of scientific literature and the PL beyond the inven-
gence and computer tools to filter through, compile, and tion of NM-based BESS in order to provide an overview of
extract value from this vast amount of data. In summary, current advancements in basic and applied research using
PLA clarifies the discoveries that serve as the foundation the Lens database. To the best of our knowledge, this study
for goods and technologies. A complete PL analysis project is the first analysis of the NM-based BESS PL. Herein, an
consists of a set of technological references and accompa- overview of patents and scientific articles is provided, incor-
nying analytics from which important legal, technical, and porating the advancement of scientific knowledge with the
commercial data can be obtained. Large organizations, PL for NM-based BESS. In general, reviewing the technology
research centers, universities, investors, and startups may revealed in patents and determining its legal status and
comprehend and make informed decisions before investing features yield a useful tool that can be easily comprehended.
time and money in new innovation and product develop- Therefore, the following contributions, objectives, and novelty
ment alternatives [13]. Researchers and decision-makers are achieved by this article:
from a variety of disciplines are interested in statistical • Conducting a comprehensive search and retrieval of
analyses based on patent data because patents can act as relevant patents related to an NM-based BESS.
quantitative indicators of phenomena that are challenging • The identification of markets that are safeguarded by
to evaluate such as knowledge spillovers, innovation, colla- competitors within the realm of technology.
boration, and technical space [14]. Therefore, institutions, • This study provides an overview of innovation in a spe-
companies, and organizations could benefit significantly cific technical field at any given period. It may also depict
from the analysis of patent documents. the trajectory of technologies, key players (top interna-
There are numerous internet databases available to sim- tional companies), and locations of innovation.
plify and facilitate PLA such as the United States Patent Office, • Scientists and researchers acquire crucial information
the European Patent Office, the United States Food and Drug and recent awareness about a certain technology in
Administration (Orange Book), Google Scholar, the Lens data- order to develop, modify, or improve it.
base, ClinicalTrials.gov, etc. [15]. Among these databases, Lens • It provides an obvious depiction of how the novel idea
currently attracts more attention from researchers due to its would function in practice.
abundant facilities. With the addition of OpenAlex and • Teams of business developers identify the significant
UnPaywall open-access information linkages and more assignees (owners) of the pertinent technology, which
than 200 million academic records collated and managed is useful information to take into account when consid-
by Microsoft Academic, PubMed, and Crossref, Lens offers ering potential merger and acquisition partners, in- and
a wealth of information. For the first time, the entire Scho- out-licensing prospects, clients, or suppliers, as well as
larly Citation Map is accessible as a free public resource. To when determining whether it would be more profitable
locate the most pertinent and significant patents, the Lens to develop the technology.
patent search feature provides advanced Boolean opera- • A great forum of thoughts to exchange ideas on impor-
tions, structured search, biological search, taxonomy search, tant commercial challenges is provided by PLA. A com-
filtering, and sorting choices. Make shareable collections, prehensive and unified internal business process that
spans the entire organization is stimulated by PLA, which It has been proposed to use colloidal quantum mate-
also improves communications between departments. rials made of nanoparticles based on semiconductors as
• This analysis supports academic institutions, large cor- photocatalysts to convert solar energy into chemical work.
porations, new ventures, and the like in making the right Water splitting is one of the primary photocatalytic pro-
decisions prior to investing time and resources in the cesses that has been studied. It tries to use the energy
development of an innovative concept in the field. absorbed by nanocrystals to directly produce hydrogen
gas and oxygen by reducing and oxidizing water, respec-
tively. The hydrogen gas can then be managed to react
with oxygen to create backwater in a fuel cell, producing
2 NM-based energy storage power and creating a cycle with no emissions. Being able to
tune and tailor the electronic band structure of the nano-
technology updates particles by composition, shape, and size, the high surface-
to-volume ratio and the capability to use tiny particles either
Nowadays, the consumption of energy in all its forms is
directly in solution or incorporated into a matrix have all
unavoidable and increasing. Fossil fuels currently make up
led to the investigation of various systems for water split-
the majority of energy sources. The growth of renewable
ting, primarily by separation of the two half-cell reactions.
energy sources has, however, gained much attention due to
Furthermore, because of their properties’ adaptability, sys-
the serious condition of global warming. The employment
tematic investigations might be carried out to identify the
of nanoparticles as an anode and cathode will increase
key variables that control their performances and under-
surface activity and, consequently, the efficiency of energy
stand their mode of operation [19].
products due to the huge surface area. Already, advances
Nanostructured materials that are less than 100 nm in
in nanotechnology are enhancing the conversion, storage,
at least one dimension are referred to as low-dimensional
and transfer of energy. Future developments in the energy
materials (LDMs). Metals, insulators, and semiconductors
sector may heavily rely on nanotechnology solutions, par-
are examples of LDMs. The LDMs can be categorized into
ticularly when it comes to the creation of novel methods
various groups based on their morphologies such as zero-
for energy storage [17]. Through innovative technological
dimensional (0D), one-dimensional (1D), two-dimensional
solutions and improved manufacturing technologies, nano-
(2D), and three-dimensional (3D) [20–22]. LDMs have excep-
technologies play a significant role in improving energy
tional chemical, electrical, mechanical, and optical character-
effectiveness in every sector of the industry and boosting
istics that result from the quantum confinement effect, and
the economic viability of renewable energy generation.
their large surface area-to-volume ratio greatly enhances the
Innovations in nanotechnology may have an impact on
opportunity to be used in energy conversion and storage.
all sectors in the value-added chain of the energy field.
Comparable to their bulk counterparts, low-dimensional
semiconductor materials have distinctive optical and elec-
trical characteristics. A brief discussion of LDMs is given
2.1 Energy conversion below, and relevant diagrams are illustrated in Figure 1.
The quantum confinement effect describes how the nanos-
Nanotechnology can improve how effectively and sustain- tructures of LDMs constrain the motion of electrons. Low-
ably basic energy sources, such as the sun, are converted dimensional NMs have special features as a result of
into electrical, thermal, and kinetic energy. Currently, new quantum confinement, which might improve the effi-
techniques such as size/facet control, atomic regulation, ciency of photocatalysts [23]. Due to their extremely small
vacancy engineering, structural engineering, and the crea- size (usually 1.2–10 nm), quantum dots (QDs), which exhibit
tion of nanocomposites change the active sites’ physico- distinctive optical and electrical properties, are 0D nanos-
chemical characteristics (e.g., optical, electronic, textural, tructures in which the transport of electrons is spatially
and band properties). Consequently, this leads to a signifi- constrained in three dimensions. Numerous QD photocata-
cant increase in the ability of NMs to convert and store lysts have been shown to work with a variety of materials,
energy [18]. Nanostructured materials and nanotechnology including graphene [24], ZnSe [25], CdS [26], CuInS2 [27], NiS2
are making significant contributions to the field of solar [28], PbS [29], etc., all of which exhibit these advantageous
photovoltaics, or solar cells, which convert sunlight into features as well as excellent candidates for effective CO2
electricity. A successful study could lead to a significant conversion.
decrease in the cost of making these solar cells while simul- Materials with a 1D structure have 2D confinement to
taneously increasing efficiency. the electron’s mobility. For 1D NMs, nanowires (NWs),
Figure 1: Overview of different types of LDMs based on their morphology: 0D, 1D, 2D, and 3D NMs. An illustration of the chemical, structural, and
morphological features, advantages, and limitations of the LDMs that can be used for ESDs with improved performance. Reproduced with permission
from Pomerantseva et al. [1].
nanotubes, and nanorods are typical morphologies. The 1D surface area, excellent ion transport efficiency, and abun-
structure gives materials exceptional charge transport and dance of easily accessible active sites, 2D materials are
longer carrier lifetimes because of the special state density highly suitable for ESDs [38,39]. Because of the quantum
distribution and innately higher reactivity resulting from a confinement phenomenon, 2D materials exhibit different
larger surface area compared to bulk materials [30–32]. electrical and optical characteristics from bulk materials.
Numerous semiconductor materials have been created However, when these materials are thinned to extremely
with a 1D structure to take advantage of these intriguing thin NSs (monolayers), the optical and electrical properties
properties, and these nanostructures have drawn a lot of of NS are further enhanced [33]. In addition, graphene pos-
interest in increasing the photocatalytic conversion of CO2 sesses a range of exceptional properties due to its distinctive
into solar fuels [33]. Due to its low cost, nontoxicity, and 2D planar structure. These properties include the half-
chemical stability, TiO2 is one of the photocatalytic mate- integer quantum Hall effect, ultrahigh carrier mobility as
rials for CO2 conversion that has been studied the most [30]. predicted by theoretical calculations and observed in elec-
Another material with promise for photocatalytic CO2 conver- tronic devices, high thermal conductivity, large specific sur-
sion is graphitic carbon nitride (g-C3N4). A polymeric semi- face area, and the utmost durability [40]. Due to its great
conductor photocatalyst without metals is called g-C3N4. Due charge carrier mobility, graphene, the most prevalent 2D
to its excellent photocatalytic efficiency, g-C3N4 has attracted a material, has been researched in a variety of domains,
lot of attention in photocatalysis research. The photocatalytic including photocatalysis [41]. Materials composed of 2D
activity of g-C3N4 has been greatly enhanced by means of NSs exhibit several distinctive characteristics that make
nanostructuralization, elemental doping, surface modifica- them highly desirable for future energy storage devices.
tion, and hybridization [34,35]. 2D NMs have promising appli- These properties include an ultrathin thickness and a sub-
cations for developing ESSs having high power density and stantial lateral size, resulting in a layered structure. Addition-
volumetric energy [36]. Nanosheets (NSs) are 2D materials ally, these materials possess an abundance of catalytically
with flake-shaped morphologies and thicknesses ranging active sites that are easily accessible. Furthermore, they
from a few atoms to about 100 nm [37]. Due to their large exhibit unconventional physical, chemical, and electronic
properties, further enhancing their appeal as potential candi- Fe3O4/C composites using porous spongy carbon and FeCl3⸱6H2O
dates for next-generation energy storage [42]. Researchers raw materials and a facile solvothermal method. The
demonstrated numerous 2D materials to produce solar fuels composite showed remarkable electrochemical proper-
including boron-nitride (BN) [43], bismuth-based materials ties that achieved relatively large reversible specific
[44,45], WS2 [46], MoS2 [47], etc. There are some challenges capacity, strong cycle stability, and significant rate cap-
to overcome for 2D transition metal oxides and hydroxides, ability. A brief discussion is given below, and relevant
such as the few types of 2D parent materials that are available diagrams are illustrated in Figure 1.
in bulk, the controlled synthesis of 2D nanostructures with
unlayered structures, and the capacity to regulate the char-
acteristics of layers by adjusting the chemistry and nano-
scopic features [48]. 2.2 Energy storage
Recently, in the production of electrodes for high-per-
forming electrochemical ESSs, 3D structures have received Batteries and supercapacitors in particular can benefit
greater interest. In contrast to other types of LDMs, 3D greatly from the use of nanotechnology in ESSs. When
materials have the ability to speed up electron transporta- not linked to the electricity grid, such as when a mobile
tion by reducing conductive pathways. In addition, 3D phone is being used, batteries are required to supply elec-
materials improve the performance of the devices because trical energy. Nanotechnology can be used to develop
their porous composite structure and large surface area materials to create heat-resistant, flexible, and high-perfor-
create large contact areas with the electrolyte and contin- mance electrodes for LIBs. Nano-porous materials like
uous paths for ions to move through the whole area [49]. It zeolites, which might be employed as heat stores in both
is essential to create 3D architecture that is optimized for residential and commercial grids, could also be better uti-
both electron and ion transport in order to create thicker lized for thermal energy storage. Nanotechnologies have
electrodes (e.g., 100–200 mm) with high area and volumetric the potential to significantly increase the capacity and
storage properties. These architectural designs would security of LIBs, as demonstrated by innovative ceramic,
reduce the number of passive components such as current heat-resistant, and stiff-flexible separators and high-per-
collectors and separators, which take up extra space and formance electrode materials, for example [57].
dead weight-in cells [1]. In order to assure incredibly effi- Another significant advancement in energy research is
cient charge distribution to and from the electrodes, 3D the use of nanotechnology to improve ESSs. For example,
architectural material provides interpenetrating transport nickel-cobalt metal-organic framework (NiCo-MOF) NSs
channels for ions and electrons. To convert the remarkable with several layers were developed by Chi et al. [58] as
performance of 3D materials into macroelectrodes with sig- durable electrode materials for enhanced electrochemical
nificant mass loading, several transport pathways are energy storage over 3,000 cycles at 5 A g−1. In a silicon
required [50]. Furthermore, the 3D graphene networks oxycarbide (SiOC) matrix, Dubey et al. [59] reported a gen-
exhibit a significantly porous structure, hence enhancing eration of homogeneously implanted Sb nanoparticles that
the rate of reaction kinetics and resulting in elevated energy were able to offer a very large Li-ion storage capacity. For
and power density [51]. Until now, numerous 3D materials improved charge storage capacity and rate performance
have been developed to enhance the performance of ESSs for LIBs, Gu et al. [60] developed the intercalative hybridi-
[50,52–54]. However, fabricating 3D architecture material- zation of MoS2 with chromium hydroxide nanoclusters,
based energy storage system devices in an efficient and which stabilizes the open porous stacking structure, speeds
cost-effective manner is still challenging. To fabricate dense up charge kinetics and basal spacing. In addition, the
and high-mass-load electrodes with convenient 3D struc- separator was built by Jiang et al. [61] using a thin porous
tures, new techniques and methods need to be developed. carbon NS with embedded TiO2 nanoparticles as an inter-
Among fabrication techniques, holographic patterning and layer, which promotes faster Li-ion diffusion while concur-
3D printing are considered rapid, inexpensive, and scalable rently inhibiting polysulfide diffusion.
methods for manufacturing. Another method involves using Carbon is considered an excellent energy storage material
biological materials as templates to create ultra-thick elec- due to its unique properties, including its high availability,
trodes having 3D hierarchical structures [50,55]. Due to their lower specific weight, and high electronic conductivity.
considerable energy capacity and lower toxicity, 3D transi- Furthermore, a variety of carbon structures and morphologies
tion-metal oxides, particularly Fe3O4, have received a lot of are easily obtainable as a result of sp/sp2/sp3 hybridization.
interest recently as anode materials. For example, Yang et al. However, nanostructured carbons often offer little redox
[56] synthesized 3D nanostructured and hollow sphere potential, generally exhibiting redox capacity after being
functionalized. Consequently, instead of being used as the (∼300%) that occurs during cyclin, (ii) incidence of electrolytic
active material for ESDs, they are typically used as a con- side reactions, and (iii) with the poor volumetric capacity that
ducting support backbone or as a material for double-layer results from the material’s reduction in size to the nanometer
capacitors [62,63]. Conversely, graphite, which is made up of scale [73–76].
layers of ordered graphene, shows exceptional properties; it To overcome these challenges, Batool et al. [77] fabri-
has a capacity of 372 mA h g−1 for storing Li ions in the spaces cated nanostructured composites consisting of a silicon
between the layers [64]. core and a carbon shell (Si@C) consisting of a thin and homo-
geneous porous carbon layer at the interface (Figure 2a and b).
The utilization of mesoporous conductive carbon efficiently
2.2.1 NMs for anodes regulated the mechanical strain of silicon NPs, hence preser-
ving the structural integrity of Si@C nanocomposites. Addition-
The theoretical capacity (TC) of Si is much higher than that ally, it facilitated easy access to electrolytes and facilitated the
of other NMs; for example, its TC is ten times higher than efficient transport of short Li ions. The innovative Si@C anode
that of graphite (372 mA h g−1). Consequently, Si is a widely demonstrated a consistent specific capacity of around 868
used and favorite anode material for the ESSs of future mA h g−1 at a current rate of 0.1 A g−1 for up to 500 cycles,
generations. This higher capacity of Si NMs is due to their with a columbic efficiency of 99%. Similarly, Ding et al. [78]
alloying mechanism, which enables single Si to host up to effectively synthesized the SiO2@a–TiO2@Ag composite with a
4.4 Li ions. Moreover, Si NMs are capable of providing poor core–shell structure using a simple sol–gel technique. The com-
cyclability because of their ability to expand the volume posite plays a role in mitigating the expansion of the electrode
significantly (>300%) during lithiation [65–67]. The tension and offers additional pathways for Li-ion diffusion due to the
caused by the volume change causes the electrode to crack elastic behavior of the TiO2 layer. Furthermore, Ag NPs have
and possibly get pulverized, which results in a loss of elec- excellent electrical conductivity.
trical contact and fast capacity fading. Furthermore, the Conversely, due to its largest TC (3,860 mA h g−1) and
solid–electrolyte interphase (SEI) can be disrupted by con- lowest electrochemical potential (3.04 V vs the conventional
tinual expansion and contraction during cycling, which hydrogen electrode), Li metal is the ideal anode. The signifi-
leads to lower Coulombic efficiency (CE) because of repe- cant interfacial variation, which internally impairs the deli-
titive SEI production [68,69]. The Si anode serves as an cate SEI layer, promotes a dendritic Li deposition that may
excellent example of how nanotechnology can be used to result in an internal short circuit and damage battery safety.
solve material problems in battery development. The pul- The repetitive Li plating/stripping (deposition/dissolution)
verization problem was solved by decreasing the Si mate- operations produce a lot of Li dendrites on the anode sur-
rial size down to the nanoscale. According to previous face and have a lower CE, according to previous studies [79].
reports, Si is able to contract and expand except in pulver- Furthermore, the recurrent SEI breakdown/repair and high-
ization at sizes less than 300 nm, termed as the crucial surface-area dendrites drastically reduce the cycle life. Li
fracture size [70]. For instance, Guo et al. [71] used the metal research has recently seen a resurgence thanks to
thermal burst method for synthesizing Si nanotube sheets. the advancement of nanotechnology, and the results of
The Si nanotube sheets exhibit a discharge specific capacity of this study have been well-reviewed in various reviews
712.7 mA h g−1 at a current density of 5 A g−1. More recently, [79–82]. They were aiming to determine characterization
arrays of Si micropillars were developed by employing photo- techniques suited for in situ observation and study of SEI
lithographic patterning and optimized deep reactive ion development to gain insight into the electrochemical pro-
etching procedure utilizing a Si wafer. The Si micropillar cesses occurring in the cell while eliminating the parameters
electrode (length of 14 μm) exhibited a notable specific capa- that favor the generation of this type of surface structures.
city of 2,600 mA h g−1 and a significant areal capacity of 3 mA In order to get over the aforementioned issues, the
h cm−2, which remained stable for more than 100 cycles [72]. main objective is to provide homogenous Li deposition
For instance, Si NWs grown directly on the current collector throughout Li plating and stripping, protecting Li metal
using a vapor, liquid, and solid approach were used in the against dendrite growth. To date, numerous approaches
first-generation Si anode that our group reported at the end have been put forth to produce high-performance Li metal
of 2007, and a noticeable improvement in electrochemical anodes. Figure 3 summarizes the process and related
performance was found compared with thick films and big method or rationale for enhancing the Li metal anodes’
particles. However, there are a few challenges for using long-term cycle stability using an ionically conductive
silicon anodes, including (i) destabilization of the SEI and coating that is thick, thin, and protective (either before
structural degradation due to the significant volume change or during cycling) (Figure 3a). A protective layer or matrix
Figure 2: (a) A schematic mechanism for the fabrication of phenolic resins-based interfacial coating on commercial silicon nanoparticles through
ultrasonication and (b) further pyrolysis for anode material preparation and application in LIBs. Reproduced with permission from Batool et al. [77].
for the electron conductor was also used on the Li metal throughout the plating/stripping process, leading to the
anode in addition to the ion conductor (Figure 3b). In order fracturing of the SEI, the production of dendrites, the
to further enhance the stability of the reaction contact and depletion of electrolytes, and a low CE. By employing a
prevent the formation of Li dendrites, much effort was suitable Li host matrix that possesses consistent Li
made into designing lithiophilic hosts with complex topol- nucleation sites, it is possible to reduce the significant
ogies containing active Li (Figure 3c). Moreover, electrolyte change in the volume of Li metal and achieve uniform
modifications (Figure 3d), various binder designs (Figure 3e), regulation of Li dendrites throughout the cycling pro-
and modified separators are more effective for preventing Li cess [79].
dendrite penetration (Figure 3f) [79]. d) Electrolyte modification: Upon contact between the metal
A brief description of the process and related method anode and the nonaqueous electrolytes, it was discov-
for enhancing the long-term cycle stability of Li metal ered that a thin film of intricate composition was spon-
anodes is given as follows: taneously generated. The electrolyte composition has a
a) Ionic conductor: Movement of ions from one place to crucial role in the creation of the SEI, which is thin,
another according to an ionic gradient. This phenom- stable, dense, and elastic. Hence, altering the composi-
enon is described in elementary science as a character- tion of electrolytes, such as solvents, salts, and additives,
istic of liquid electrolyte solutions. Example: Type I and has been considered the most efficient approach to enhance
type II batteries, fuel cells, electrochromic windows and the stability of Li metal anodes. There are several methods
displays, solid-state sensors, etc. for modifying electrolytes, such as ion doping and substitu-
b) Electron conductor: Movement of electrons or charge tion, coating, composite method, etc. [79].
from one place to another in response to an electric e) Binder design: Binder designs have been utilized as suc-
field such as metals and semiconductors. cessful approaches to reduce volume changes and inhibit
c) Lithium host: Lithium (Li) hosts, which may electroche- the growth of Li dendrites in LIBs. Applying an appro-
mically deposit Li in existing pores of 3D frameworks, priate binder can effectively mitigate the formation of
have been studied as a sophisticated electrode structure cracks in Li metal anodes throughout the cycling process,
for Li-metal batteries with high energy density. The Li leading to the establishment of a consistent and stable
metal anode undergoes a substantial change in volume interphase [79]. For example, a binder made of poly
Figure 3: By preventing lithium metal from the formation of Li dendrites during Li plating and stripping, a uniform Li deposition may be achieved,
which will help overcome challenges. Principal methods for enhancing high-performance Li metal anodes and their justification: formation of (a) ion
conductor layer and (b) electron conductor layer on Li metal anode, (c) design of Li hosts, (d) modification of electrolyte, (e) binder design, and (f)
modification of separator. Reproduced with permission from Wang et al. [79].
(acrylic acid) incorporated with polyrotaxane is used to short circuit and the mechanical penetration caused by Li
enhance the mechanical integrity of the electrode in an dendrites [79]. For example, a commercially available
Li metal anode. This binder is able to tolerate the large separator coated with thermally conductive BN NSs effec-
stress caused by repeated Li uptake and release, pre- tively addresses safety concerns. It exhibits a high CE of
venting the formation of cracks during operation [83]. over 100 cycles at 0.5 mA cm−2 in a standard organic car-
f) Modified separator: Modifications to separators have been bonate-based electrolyte [84].
used as effective solutions to address volume change and
inhibit the formation of Li dendrites in LIBs. A separator The benefits of carbon-based materials include low
that is thermodynamically stable and strong is able to cost, simple processing, and a variety of shapes. Carbon-
withstand the thermal runaway resulting from an internal based materials are currently thought of as more realistic
anode materials as a representation of the Li-ion insertion/ Li–S batteries, issues with cycle life and efficiency limit their
extraction mechanism. Although graphite carbon, often application in commercial cells. Researchers will need innova-
known as soft carbon, has good crystallinity, its specific tive Li–S cell designs and sulfur composite cathodes with favor-
capacity is only 372 mA h g−1. This is because Li ions inter- able performance and characteristics to solve these enduring
calate into graphite carbon in stages to generate LiC6. The issues [86].
drawback restricts the use of graphite carbon as a material Carbon-based materials are the widely applied alter-
for negative electrodes in hybrid and electric automobiles. native for confining sulfur due to their high pore volume
Hard carbon, often known as non-graphite, has disorga- and strong electrical conductivity. Ding et al. [88] contri-
nized interior crystallites. Although it has high reversibility buted to this field by using the simple sulfur vapor adsorp-
and capacity loss issues, it has good stability. According to tion method to develop S@CNT hybrid film cathode.
studies, the main determinants of its great reversibility Conversely, a binder-free cathode has been developed
include particle size, additives, and high porosity. The Li- from a freestanding thin-film composite consisting of sul-
ion diffusion length can be significantly decreased thanks furized polyacrylonitrile with a conducting backbone of
to the carbon’s nanoscale size, which can also boost spe- carbon nanotubes (CNTs) using an electrospinning tech-
cific capacity and structural stability [85]. nique followed by vulcanization by Razzaq et al. [89].
The composite material exhibited a significant preliminary
discharge capacity of 1,610 mA h g−1 at a rate of 0.2 C and
2.2.2 NMs for cathodes exceptional cycle stability with a discharge capacity of
1,106 mA h g−1 at a rate of 1 C throughout 500 cycles. In
Since the design and capacity of the majority of LIBs are addition, Hwa et al. [90] fabricated a nanocomposite
cathode-constrained, optimizing LIB performance requires called cetyltrimethylammonium bromide-modified sul-
careful consideration of the cathode materials. In order to fur–graphene oxide–CNT (S-GO-CTA-CNT) by freeze-drying
meet this need, cathode materials can be designed and as a highly efficient cathode material. The nanocomposite
engineered in fundamentally new and diverse ways thanks exhibited efficient usage of S, with a capacity of 1,128 mA h g−1.
to nanotechnology. With an energy density of 800 W h kg−1 In order to introduce a straightforward, economical, and
and a cathode capacity of only 250 mA h g−1, LIBs based on scalable method for producing micro-mesoporous structure
insertion cathodes no longer meet the criterion of 500 km cathodes composed of sulfur and N, S-codoped carbons,
between charges for all-electric vehicles. Researchers are Sevilla et al. [91] used sodium thiosulfate and polypyrrole
looking for alternative cathode materials like sulfur and for homogeneously distributed sulfur throughout the
oxygen that can give capacities that are orders of magni- carbon host. The sulfur–carbon composites have a high spe-
tude more than those of traditional insertion cathodes like cific capacity of 1,100 mA h g−1 when subjected to a low C-
LiCoO2 and LiMn2O4 (>1,500 mA h g−1) in order to increase rate of 0.1 C and a capacity of over 500 mA h g−1 when
energy density [86]. Due to its enormous advantage in spe- exposed to a high rate of 2 C. Furthermore, Kim et al. [92]
cific energy (2,600 W h kg−1) and capacity (1,675 mA h g−1), designed and fabricated 3D sulfur papers that incorporate
which is five times more than that of state-of-the-art cath- interconnected carbon materials with excellent conductivity
odes, sulfur stands out as a suitable cathode contender [87]. (Figure 4a). These papers serve as flexible cathodes for Li–S
Additionally, one of the most prevalent elements on the batteries without the need for binders. The sulfur–carbon
globe, sulfur, is a substance that is electrochemically active, composite paper cathode demonstrated a notable reversible
and its electron acceptance capacity per atom is up to two specific capacity of 1,386 mA hg−1, along with a commend-
at 2.1 V versus Li/Li+. Consequently, lithium–sulfur (Li–S) able rate capability of up to 5 C.
batteries have a theoretical energy density of about The main factor enhancing the long-term electroche-
2,600 W h kg−1, while sulfur cathode materials have a high mical stability of the sulfur cathode would be the electro-
TC of 1,675 mA h g−1. Contrary to typical insertion cathode chemical reaction restricted only to the small micropores
materials, cycling causes sulfur to go through a number of described here. The primary factor enhancing the long-
compositional and structural modifications involving both term electrochemical stability of the sulfur cathode would
soluble polysulfides and insoluble sulfides. Consequently, be the electrochemical reaction restricted only to the small
researchers have encountered challenges in maintaining a micropores. In addition to porous carbon, 2D-nanostruc-
stable electrode structure, utilizing the active material to its tured graphene exhibits considerable potential due to its
maximum potential, and obtaining a sufficient cycle life to substantial surface area and varied surface chemistry
ensure excellent efficiency of the system. Although the last 10 [100,101]. A sandwich-style structure, a gradient structure,
years have seen great progress in the study of rechargeable unstacked graphene double layers, etc., are some further
examples of characteristic graphene–sulfur structures [65]. polar LPS species and nonpolar carbon. Active materials
Furthermore, 1D carbon nanostructures have received a are significantly detached as a result of the weak physical
lot of attention. To enhance the electrochemical perfor- binding. Therefore, polar hosts are therefore favored for
mance, sulfur-coated CNT coaxial architectures [102] and more powerful sulfur anchoring.
vertically aligned CNT-sulfur composites [103] have been Adopting conductive polymers (such as poly-(3,4-(ethy-
investigated. However, it was difficult to prevent sulfur lenedioxy)-thiophene) (PEDOT), polypyrrole, polyaniline,
residues outside of CNTs from dissolving while cycling. etc.) as coatings or binders is another method for reducing
The production of hollow carbon nanofibers using anodic the shuttling effect and enhancing the electrical conductivity
aluminum oxide template was consequently suggested as a of sulfur. Following thorough research on polymer-coated
more successful encapsulation technique, allowing sulfur hollow sulfur nanospheres, it was discovered that PEDOT
infusion to be contained solely inside the nanofibers [104]. had the best electrochemical performance due to its theoretical
Since a significant amount of research demonstrated that models’ predictions of its strongest sulfur binding [65]. These
batteries using sulfur–carbon composites perform well, observations may assist in the design of sulfur electrodes for
Zheng et al. [105] observed the weak interactions between Li–S batteries to attain high capacity and long cycle life.
Figure 4: (a) Schematic illustration of S-GO/SP and S-GO/MWCNT composite papers. (b) Schematic illustration of various NMs applied in cathodes to
achieve better ESS performance. (c) and (d) The diagram illustrates the morphological changes in Si that result from electrochemical cycling. (c)
Approximately 400% volume of silicon anodes changes while cycling which tends to pulverize in Si films and particles. The arrow shows how much of
the material loses contact with the current collector, which causes inadequate electron transfer. (d) After cycling, NWs evolved directly on the current
collector and do not pulverize or crack into smaller particles. Instead, the NWs’ facile strain relaxation enables them to expand in both length and
diameter without cracking. Each NW on this NW anode is connected to the current collector, enabling effective 1D electron transport throughout the
length of each NW. Reproduced with permission from (a) Kim et al. [92], (b) previous studies [93–98], (c) and (d) Chan et al. [99].
Besides this, some other materials are also used as a 2.3 Energy distribution
cathode for the LIBs. For example, LiCoO2 is widely used as
a cathode material. Although LiCoO2 is an effective cathode The significant losses that occur during power distribution
material, however, cobalt is costly, as it is not available can be lessened with the aid of nanotechnology. Electricity
compared to other metals like iron, nickel, and manganese. cables and power lines can be made using nanoparticles’
In addition, LiCoO2 can also fail or perform poorly when exceptional electric conductivity, such as CNTs. Microwaves
overcharged since it is not as stable as other potential and lasers are two examples of wireless energy delivery that
electrode materials [106]. Moreover, LiCoO2 activities at use nanotechnology [124]. Moreover, superconductive mate-
high voltage are impeded by increased structural dete- rials can be improved using nanotechnological methods for
rioration and electrode/electrolyte interface breakdown. lossless current conduction. Electricity systems with dynamic
In order to address these difficulties, researchers have load and failure management, demand-driven energy supply
successfully created co-modified LiCoO2 materials that com- with adjustable price mechanisms, and the ability to feed
bine Mg pillar structures and amorphous CoxBy with inter- through a variety of decentralized renewable energy sources
face shielding (CB-Mg-LiCoO2). This synthesis method allows are all necessary for the distribution of electricity in the
for the production of cathode materials that have both high future. Nanotechnologies, including nano-sensory sensors
energy density and structural stability [107]. Conversely, and power electronic components capable of handling the
nanostructured LiFePO4 was accountable for one of the first extraordinarily complicated control and monitoring of such
successful alternative cathodes. This olivine demonstrates a grids, could make a significant contribution to the realiza-
much higher power density, longer longevity, and improved tion of this goal [57]. Si NPs could be a useful and attractive
safety despite having a lower energy density than LiCoO2 material in energy distribution because researchers have
[108]. Consequently, LiFePO4 is a highly popular cathode shown that Si anodes have a ten times higher charge density
compound that has been commercially successful due to and a low discharge potential than carbon and other oxides
its excellent safety characteristics and its high TC of 170 and nitrite anodes. However, Si bulk films and micron-sized
mA h g−1, even at moderate current densities [109]. For particles employed as electrodes in Li batteries have shown
example, the fluorine-doped carbon-coated LiFePO4 cathode capacity fading and short battery lifetime due to pulveriza-
material was innovated using polyvinylidene fluoride, tion and loss of electrical contact between the active mate-
resulting in the formation of a 3D conductive network rial and the current collector (Figure 4c). To overcome the
structure. The structure offers benefits such as efficient limitation, Chan et al. (2008) synthesized Si NWs on stainless
electrical contact between grains, reducing the distance steel substrates using gold catalysts. The synthesized NWs
for Li+ diffusion across grain interfaces, and enabling fast featured short Li insertion lengths, good electronic contact,
electron transfer during charge–discharge cycles [110]. and conduction and stood up to high strain instead of pul-
LiMn2O4, which forms a spinel structure with manganese verization (Figure 4d). In contrast to anodes made of bulk
occupying the octahedral sites and Li primarily occupying silicon, these researchers discovered that silicon NWs do not
the tetrahedral sites, is another potential cathode mate- crack even if they swell as Li ions are absorbed upon a
rial. Instead of planes, like in the α-NaFeO2 structure, the battery’s discharge and contract as they leave during a bat-
pathways for lithiation and delithiation in this instance tery’s recharge [99].
are a 3D network of channels. Although LiMn2O4 is cheaper
and more affordable than LiCoO2, its capacity is lower than
other cathodes that can be formed of α-NaFeO2 structure
[106]. In addition, LiMnPO4 [111], Fe-doped LiCoPO4 [112], 2.4 Energy usage
LiFePO4-graphene composites [113], AlF3-coated MOF-
derived LiCoO2 wrapped by CNTs (LiCoO2/CNTs@AlF3) In addition to the efficient use of existing energy sources,
[94], carbon-coated LiFePO 4 (C-LFP) [95], ultrahigh-capa- increasing energy efficiency and reducing needless energy
city, fire-resistant LiFePO4 [96], carbon-encapsulated lithium usage are required to establish a sustainable energy supply.
cobalt oxide [97], LiFePO4 microparticles encapsulated in This holds true for both individual families and all sectors of
O,F-codoped carbon matrix (LFP@OFC) [98], reduced gra- industry. Numerous strategies for energy conservation are
phene oxide encapsulated Se NP (Se@RGO) [114], etc. NMs offered by nanotechnologies. For example, NMs could play a
are also applied for cathodes to enhance the ESSs (Figure 4b). significant role in reducing the fuel consumption of auto-
Table 2 gives a summary of energy storage NMs as well as mobiles by (i) developing nanocomposites-based under-
their morphologies, synthesis strategies, and electroche- weight construction materials for vehicles, (ii) optimizing
mical performances. fuel combustion through wear-resistant, lightweight
Table 2: Summarization of energy storage NMs as well as their morphologies, synthesis strategies, and electrochemical performances
Materials Morphology Synthesis method Applications Capacity (mA Current density Rate-C CE (%) Cycle Ref.
h g−1) (A g−1) numbers
SiO2 Nanotubes Magnesiothermic reduction Anode 712.7 5 — 81.78 400 [71]

NiCo-MOF NS One-pot hydrothermal synthesis Anode 100.18 5 — 81.0 3,000 [58]
SiOC/Sb Nanocomposite Pyrolysis Anode 74.4–2,232 2.23 — 76 200 [59]
Cr/MoS2 Nanohybrids Electrostatically driven self-assembly Anode >900 0.2 — — 50 [60]
C-TiO2 Nanohybrids Hydrothermal treatment Anode 718 — 2 81.3 300 [61]
Si–C Composite Liquid milling process and pyrolysis Anode 1,600 — — 80 100 [66]
Si Interconnected hollow Template-based Anode 2,725 2.2 — 99.5 700 [115]
nanosphere
Si Nest-like Si nanospheres Solvothermal method Anode 3,628 0.4 — 72.7 48 [116]
Si Micropillar structures Photolithographically Anode 2,600 — 0.33 99 100 [72]
SiO2@a-TiO2@Ag Composite Sol–gel method Anode 1,320 0.1 — 58 300 [78]
Si-C Porous structured Magnesiothermic reduction Anode ∼1,467 2.6 — — 370 [117]
composite
LiCoO2 Nanocomposite In-situ construct Cathodes 180 — 0.5 91 200 [118]
Al@LiMn2O4 Composite Simple combustion Cathodes 100.7 — 0.5 93.9 400 [119]
S@CNT Hybrid film — Cathodes 1,145 — 0.2 99 100 [88]
SPAN-CNT composite Electrospinning Cathodes 1,314 — 1 100 250 [89]
S-GO-CTA-CNT Nanocomposite Freeze drying Cathodes 1,128 0.8 — 99.3 80 [90]
S@C Composite Fabrication process Cathodes 1,100 — 0.2 98 260 [91]
S-GO 3D Composite Chemical synthesis Cathodes 1,386 — 5 ∼100 400 [92]
LiMn2O4/GO Nanocomposite Hydrothermal route and solid-state reaction Cathodes 130 — 0.05 98% 100 [120]
C@SnO2-rGO-SnO2 sandwich-like Fabrication process Cathodes 1,211 0.2 — 99 300 [121]
mesoporous NSs
Fe3O4-NC Composites Polymerization-assisted synthesis Cathodes 1,316 — 0.2 100 1,000 [122]
CB-Mg- LiCoO2 Composites In situ co-precipitation and electroless plating Cathodes 185.5 — 1 94.93 100 [107]
LiFePO4@FC Nanocomposite Ball-milling assisted rheological phase method Cathodes 100.2 — 20 — 1,000 [110]
combined with a solid-state reaction
LiMn2O4-GO Nanocomposite — Cathodes 110 — 0.5 97 150 [123]
LiMnPO4/C Nanocomposite Solution combustion Cathodes 126.9 — 0.05 93.8 50 [111]
Fe@LiCoPO4 Nano-plates Doping and high-temperature annealing Cathodes 138 — 0.1 93 300 [112]
LiFePO4/graphene Composites — Cathodes 160 — 0.2 80 [113]
LiCoO2/CNTs@AlF3 Composites Annealing and wrapping Cathodes 120 — 2 98 500 [94]
C@LiFePO4 Composites Liquid carbon dioxide-based coating Cathodes 168 — 0.1 100 1,000 [95]
Nanocomposite Bottom-up self-assembly strategy Cathodes 108 2 315 [96]
Nanomaterials of battery energy storage
LiFePO4 — —
LiCoO2@C Composites Fabrication and coating Cathodes 171.1 — 1 92.5 200 [97]
LiFePO4@OFC Composites Solid-state sintering Cathodes 160.9 — 1 100 500 [98]

Se@RGO Self-assembly process Cathodes 265 — 0.2 100 200 [114]

13
engine components, nano-fuel additives, and low rolling 3.1 Research design structure
resistance tires [57]. Nanotechnology may also be able to
increase energy efficiency and decrease wasteful use, To explore the relevant patents from the Lens database,
which will help ensure a sustainable energy supply. specific keywords were used including “energy storage
Materials that are wear-resistant, lightweight, anti-cor- system,” “battery,” and “nanomaterial.” The Boolean
rosive, etc., can be manufactured using nanotechnology operator “AND” was applied to connect the above keywords
to ensure that they are best suited for the job at hand. to search for appropriate patent documents on the Lens
This has an impact on everything from building and website. The patent searches were conducted on the last
construction technology, insulation, and lighting to better week of May 2023 without filtering the year of publication.
fuel combustion [125]. The patents are then screened, and only those belonging to
There is every reason to expect that advances in tech- the NM-based BESS simple family are chosen. A simple
nology like fuel cells and solar cells that could help us patent family is a group of patent applications that collec-
become less dependent on fossil fuels, such as nano-based tively are thought to cover a single invention. The applica-
technologies, offer substantial prospects for assisting in the tions’ technical content is regarded as being similar. Every
achievement of desirable environmental objectives. Our member of a simple patent family will have the same
energy systems can benefit from finding a mechanism to priority. In most cases, the family mode is more suitable,
store energy-dense gases. Highly porous organic matrices as PLAs typically based on distinct inventions represented
known as MOFs are capable of storing natural gas or by a collection of documents compiled into a patent family
hydrogen. The cube-shaped nanostructures are made of [128]. Finally, multiple selection and exclusion criteria are
an organometallic framework, and their interiors are lined employed to obtain the final patent database of NM-based
with many pores with a diameter of a few nanometers. The BESS for study.
surface area of nanopores is large. These structures may
also serve as power sources for many gadgets, including
laptops. Small fuel cells might be used as a form of
rechargeable storage. Furthermore, the functioning of 3.2 Selection procedure
lighting in our homes and places of employment today
consumes enormous quantities of energy. Nanotechnology- Published patents related to NM-based BESS were retrieved
based lighting technologies would significantly improve the from the United States, World Intellectual Property
environment [126]. Organization (WIPO), and European Patent databases by
applying keyword searches using Lens software. Only the
patent documents pertaining to the NM, nanocomposites,
NM colloids, and nanocomposite colloids are considered
throughout the analysis. Searches are conducted using key-
3 Methods of NM-based ESS patent words on the Lens website, and the most relevant patent
search documents are retrieved through step-by-step searching.
First, the keyword “energy storage system” was used, and
The Lens website (https://www.lens.org/) was used to a total of 2,032,461 (n = 2,032,461) patents were retrieved.
retrieve the patents on NM-based BESS as well as these Next, “battery” was applied in the titles and abstracts, and
patents were used for analysis and landscape review. The a total of 193,601 (n = 193,601) patents were found. Finally,
Lens is an open worldwide cyberinfrastructure to improve we searched “nanomaterial” in the titles and abstracts to
the effectiveness, fairness, transparency, and inclusivity of further refine the patent numbers and came up with a total
the innovation system. The LENS provides access to virtually of 255 (n = 255) patents. Following that, only the simple
all the global patent documents as freely accessible, anno- family of patents was chosen, and a total of 132 (n = 132)
tated digital universal materials that combine technical and patents were taken into account.
scholarly literature as well as regulatory and commercial The selected patents of the simple family were verified
information. To create an open map of global knowledge- based on relevant International Patent Classification (IPC)
driven innovation, the Lens enables the sharing, aggrega- and Cooperative Patent Classification (CPC) codes. B82Y
tion, and embedding of document collections, aggregates, and (specific uses or applications of nanostructures; measure-
analysis [127]. The LENS includes 146.1 million patent document or analysis of nanostructures; manufacture or treat-
ments from over 106 jurisdictions. The extraction methods of ment of nanostructures), Y02E 60/10 (Energy storage using
NM-based BESS patents are described below. batteries), and H01M (processes or means, e.g., batteries,
for the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical 3.3 Generating graphic representations and
energy) codes were used to screen the retrieved documents analyzing patent data
and a total of 24 patents were excluded due to mismatches
with the relevant codes. Therefore, a total of 108 (n = 108) After screening, a total of 89 patents were found to analyze
patents were found for further analysis. After extensive data from related innovations at strategic, competitive, and
reviews, 12 patents were disregarded because they were technological levels using statistical and analytical charts.
duplicates (same patent with different patent numbers), The data were subsequently extracted and analyzed using
while another 7 were excluded due to not being relevant. Microsoft Office Excel. The data that were obtained was
Finally, a total of 89 patent documents were obtained for subsequently organized into a spreadsheet and dashboard
the PLA on NM-based BESS. The complete patent selection created in Microsoft Excel. This compilation included many
procedures are illustrated in Figure 5. pieces of information, such as the Title, Abstract, Application
Figure 5: Graphical illustration of the search strategy and review findings in the present study.
Number, Inventors, Publication Date, Application ID, and 4.1 The growth of NM-based BESS patents
Applicants. Subsequently, a comprehensive examination was
conducted on all facets of the listed patents, followed by a The number of patent applications filed throughout time
meticulous categorization process to assign them to their that have an eternal impact on the related field for poten-
respective categories [129]. The obtained patent information tial future study and research advancement is referred to
was analyzed in various parameters including patent growth, as the growth of patents. Academic and business research
key players in the markets, legal status, patent co-classifica- increasingly use patents to protect their inventions.
tion, top cited patents, and co-inventorship network. Table 3 Consequently, patenting has grown substantially over the
presents a summary of key features in highly cited 60 patents past few decades. For instance, patent documents under
among the selected documents. NM-based BESS also increased gradually over time. All gener-
ated patents fall into three categories such as published, filed,
and granted. To determine overall growth, patents from these
three groups have been combined and presented in Figure 6a.
3.4 Limitation Conversely, these three groups (published, filed, and granted)
have also been depicted separately (Figure 6c). In addition,
A popular technique for analyzing a specific field of research, patent applications and granted categories are shown in
assessing the consequences on other fields, and appraising Figure 6b. The growth rate was stable up to 2008, and it started
current advancements is PLA. Identifying and tracking to rise from 2010 (Figure 6a). The number of patents increased
patents is challenging work. Therefore, it is important to be from 2 in 2010 to 7 in 2012. After that, the number of patents
aware of some potential limitations in our analysis. The first gradually decreased to 2 in 2015; however, it increased again
limitation has to do with the method of searching for perti- to a maximum (11) in 2020. Conversely, the aggregate diagram
nent patents. When researching mostly specific areas of (Figure 6c) compares the numbers of NM-based BESS patent
study, using keywords can be complicated because an ade- documents by published, filed, and granted date in each year
quate number of unrelated patents end up in the sample until 2023. The numbers for all kinds of patents gradually
[130]. Consequently, a comprehensive review of retrieved increased over time. The upward trend began in 2009 and
documents should be conducted to avoid irrelevant patents. reached a peak in 2018. The highest number was under filed
An in-depth manual screening of the documents might reveal with 13 patents in 2018, the next rank was for published
that there are just a few instances of patent documents being patents with 11, and patents under granted categories were
included that are unrelated to the designated technical field. 6 in 2020. Overall, an upward trend of the NM-based BESS
Second, patent documents that are not included on the Lens patents was observed. In contrast, Figure 6b clearly shows
website are likely to be missed. Future recommendations that the number of patents granted was 15 (17%), which was
could include more publicly accessible patent databases, much less than that of the applications (74; 83%). This is
including the Derwent World Patent Database and the Scopus because it takes approximately 3 years to get a patent from
database. Third, the analysis did not include patents that the patent office. Because the USPTO organizes patent applica-
might have been relevant to NM-based BESS but did not tions depending on the technology of the invention and
have any of the keywords in their titles, abstracts, or claims. assigns patents to technology groups of examiners at the
Fourth, the study of the database only takes into account USPTO for examination, some technical areas have a longer
simple patent families. Overall, an understanding of global or shorter wait period.
research, commercialization structures, and market trends
under a specific field of research using PLA is highly critical.
4.2 Patent families
4 PLA A patent family is a set or compilation of patent applica-

tions that cover the same or related technical material,
This article attempts to briefly introduce and discuss the while there is no one definition for what a patent family
crucial role of patents in current advanced societies related is, and patent families frequently differ from database to
to the production of batteries. Considering the significance database. One of the primary objectives of patent families
of the role played by patents in the commercialization, was to make it simpler for people who like analyzing
promotion, and protection of information in all technical patent data to quickly identify patents connected to or
sectors, including the provision of ESDs, like batteries. related to a certain innovation from anywhere in the
Table 3: A summary of key features of the selected highly cited patents among the retrieved documents in the field of BESS
Ref. Publication year Inventors Contribution Document type Jurisdiction Cited by Legal status
patent count
[131] 2002 Yadav Tapesh; Hu Hongxing Nano-ionic products and devices Patent US 7 Expired
application
[132] 2003 Yadav Tapesh; Au Ming Nanotechnology for electrochemical and energy devices Granted patent US 48 Expired
[133] 2005 Yadav Tapesh; Pfaffenbach Karl Slurry processing of nanoscale materials into Patent US 10 Discontinued
nanotechnology products application
[134] 2008 Defries Anthony; Brongersma Mark A method or means to use or combine plasmonic, thermal, Patent WO 13 Pending
photovoltaic, or optical engineering application
[135] 2010 Lam Lan Trieu; Furukawa Jun Energy storage device Patent US 111 Active
application
[136] 2010 Stroemme Maria; Nyholm Leif; Mihranyan Composite materials including an intrinsically conducting Patent US 16 Inactive
Albert polymer, and methods and devices application
[137] 2011 Ban Chunmei; Wu Zhuangchun; Dillon Anne C Method of fabricating electrodes including high-capacity, Patent WO 4 Pending
binder-free anodes for LIBs application
[138] 2011 Farmer Joseph C High-performance rechargeable batteries with fast solid- Patent WO 1 Pending
state ion conductors application
[139] 2011 Hu Liangbing; Choi Jang Wook; Yang Yuan; Conductive fibrous materials Patent US 26 Active
Cui Yi application
[140] 2011 Irvin Randall T; Barkeloo Jason E; Hassett Improved microbial fuel cell Patent WO 2 Pending
Daniel J application
[141] 2011 Cui Li-Feng; Cui Yi; Hu Liangbing Methods for production of nanotube-based NM membrane Patent US 65 Inactive
exfoliated CNTs application
[142] 2011 Bosnyak Clive P; Swogger Kurt W Methods for the production of exfoliated CNTs Patent US 33 Active
application
[143] 2012 Walters Ian; Williams Martin Methods of processing particulate carbon material, such as Patent WO 33 Pending
graphitic particles or agglomerates of carbon nanoparticles application
such as CNTs
[144] 2012 Lu Wen High-performance batteries with carbon NMs and ionic Granted patent US 35 Inactive
liquids
[145] 2012 Nazri Gholam-Abbas Method of depositing silicon on carbon NMs and forming an Patent US 97 Discontinued
anode for use in LIBs application
[146] 2012 Han Wei-Qiang Method of synthesis of carbon-coated Magneli-phase tino 2n Patent US 25 Discontinued
−1 NMs application
[147] 2012 Burton David J; Lake Max L; Nazri Maryam; Method of depositing silicon on carbon NMs Patent US 115 Discontinued
Palmer Andrew C application
[148] 2012 Liu Jun; Cao Yuliang; Xiao Lifen; Yang Zhenguo; NMs for sodium-ion batteries Patent US 11 Inactive
Wang Wei; Choi Daiwon; Nie Zimin application

[149] 2012 Wang Xiao-Liang; Han Weiqiang Method of synthesis of intermetallic m-sn5 (m = Fe, Cu, Co, Patent WO 15 Pending

Ni) compound application

17
(Continued)
Table 3: Continued
18 
patent count
[150] 2014 Chen Zhongwei; Fowler Michael; Zarrin Hadis Highly ion-conductive nano-engineered porous electrolytic Patent WO 7 Pending
composite membrane for alkaline electrochemical energy application
systems
[151] 2014 Yazami Rachid; Darolles Isabelle M; Weiss Lithium-ion fluoride electrochemical cell Patent US 24 Discontinued
Cedric M application
[152] 2014 Suib Steven L; Huang Hui; Xu Linping Power storage devices using mixed-valent manganese oxide Patent WO 6 Pending
application
M. A. Motalib Hossain et al.
[153] 2014 Tyler Matthew R; Obasih Kem M Polymerized LIB cells and modules with permeability Patent WO 1 Pending
management features application
[154] 2014 Worsley Marcus A; Baumann Theodore F; Porous substrates filled with NMs Granted patent US 24 Active
Satcher Jr Joe H; Stadermann Michael
[155] 2014 Ruediger-Bernd Schweiss; Schumann Lea; Method for producing coated active materials, core, and Patent US 5 Active
Hammer Christian battery application
[156] 2015 Singh Neelam; Galande Charudatta; Mathkar Methods of making multilayer energy storage devices Patent US 35 Discontinued
Akshay; Reedy Arava Leela M; Ajayan Pulickel application
M; Vlad Alexandru
[157] 2015 Suib Steven L; Huang Hui Methods for preparing substrate cored-metal layer shelled Patent US 5 Discontinued
metal alloys application
[158] 2016 John Vijay; Mcpherson Gary Hollow nanoparticles with hybrid double layers Patent US 28 Discontinued
application
[159] 2016 Roberts Aled Deakin; Wang Suxi; Zhang Haifei; Method of preparing a porous carbon material Patent WO 15 Pending
Li Xu application
[160] 2016 Tanimola Olanrewaju W Methods for synthesis of graphene derivatives and Patent US 14 Active
functional materials from asphaltenes application
[161] 2016 Fong Wenmei Eileen; Yan Qingyu Alex; Zhou Biochemistry-derived carbonaceous metallics frameworks Patent WO 9 Pending
Yanping; Rui Xianhong; Lu Yan for use in batteries application
[162] 2016 Chen Yu-Chen; Zhong Guoming Efficient NMs manufacturing process and equipment Patent US 7 Discontinued
application
[163] 2017 Lu Yi-Chun; Wang Zengyue; Tam Long Yin High-energy density and low-cost flow electrochemical Patent WO 1 Pending
Simon; Zou Qingli; Cong Guangtao devices application
[164] 2017 Kotov Nicholas A; Zhu Jian; Tung Siu On Gels and nanocomposites containing aramid nanofibers Patent WO 5 Pending
application
[165] 2017 Babenko Vitaliy; Grobert Nicole Porous materials comprising two-dimensional NMs Patent US 35 Active
application
[166] 2017 Zhou Chongwu; Fang Xin; Ge Mingyuan; Rong Free-standing active material/carbon NM network film as Granted patent US 2 Active
Jiepeng light-weight and high-power electrodes for LIBs
[167] 2017 Jin Jifan Air metal fuel cell Patent US 15 Active
application
(Continued)
Table 3: Continued
patent count
[168] 2018 Johnson Paige L; Neff Jonathan G Synthesized, surface-functionalized, acidified metal oxide Patent US 1 Active
(AMO) materials for energy storage applications application
[169] 2018 Hass Jamie Lynn Integrated electrode-electrolyte unit Patent US 1 Active
application
[170] 2018 Yoon Yeo-Heung; Lee Hyo-Young; Kwon Soon- Electrode structure having rolled graphene film Granted patent US 1 Active
Geun; Choi Jae-Young
[171] 2018 Matsumura Taku; Mikami Jun Fibrous carbon NM-based conductive paste composition for Patent US 11 Active
the secondary battery electrode application
[172] 2018 Hu Liangbing; Wachsman Eric; Liu Boyang; Methods for the synthesis of solid-state hybrid electrolytes Patent WO 35 Pending
Gong Yunhui; Fu Kun application
[173] 2018 Hong Sanghyun; Jung Yung Joon; Lavall Solid-state integrated electrode/electrolyte system Patent US 7 Discontinued
Rodrigo Lasserote; Kim Hyehee; Busnaina application
Ahmed
[174] 2018 Coleman Jonathan; Kelly Adam; Hallam Toby; Method for the synthesis of a multi-layer device structure Patent WO 4 Pending
Duesberg Georg comprising an active layer of material and an insulating layer application
of material
[175] 2019 Yushin Gleb; Turcheniuk Kostiantyn; Benson Method of synthesizing a material exhibiting desired Patent US 12 Active
James microstructure characteristics based on chemical dealloying application
one or more group I or group II elements from an alloy and
method of synthesizing nanocomposites
[176] 2019 Boies Adam Meyer; De Volder Michael Manufacture of composite nanostructures Patent WO 6 Pending
Franciscus; De La Verpilliere Jean Leclerc; application
Graves Brian
[177] 2019 Rohani Parham; Swihart Mark Method of synthesizing silicon-carbon NMs Patent WO 8 Pending
application
[178] 2019 Liu Yunyang; Odeh Ihab N Method of synthesizing carbon encapsulated sulfur-metal Patent US 8 Discontinued
oxide composite application
[179] 2019 Huayu Sun; Yuli Li Negative electrode structure for secondary battery and Patent US 2 Discontinued
secondary battery incorporating same application
[180] 2019 Janowska Izabela; Truong-Phuoc Lai; Ba Method of synthesizing colloidal NM/polymolecular system Patent US 6 Discontinued
Housseinou; Pham-Huu Cuong nanocomposites application
[181] 2020 Johnson Paige L; Neff Jonathan G Synthesis of AMO and their application in battery electrode Granted patent US 2 Active
[182] 2020 Aria Adrianus I; Gharib Morteza CNTs – graphene hybrid structures for separator free silicon Granted patent US 1 Active
– sulfur batteries
[183] 2020 Ying Jackie Y; Yang Jinhua; Zaghib Karim; Core-shell NPs and their use in electrochemical cells Patent US 3 Pending
Trudeau Michel L application

[184] 2020 Gleason Karen; Wardle Brian; Cohen Estelle; Method of synthesizing supercapacitors and other Patent WO 1 Pending
Zhou Yue; Wang Xiaoxue; Stein Yosef electrodes application
19
(Continued)
world. The use of patent families is also advantageous
Legal status
Discontinued
when doing patent searches and extracting patent data
Pending
Pending
Pending
Pending
from numerous patent offices. In order to connect the
Active
patent applications in a patent family, priority claims are
frequently used [191].
patent count
Document type Jurisdiction Cited by
4
4.3 Key players in markets
1
1
Market actors’ ways are evolving as a result of the chan-
WO
US
US
US
US
US
ging nature of innovation, the globalization of markets, the
fragmentation of industrial value chains, and the develop-
ment of new players. In order to maximize the balance
application
application
application
application
application
application
between private and social advantages and support eco-
Patent
Patent
Patent
Patent
Patent
Patent
nomic progress and societal welfare, patent systems are

constantly evolving [192]. In Figure 7, the top ten innovators,
owners, and applicants are shown to identify the leading
High-energy rechargeable Al-CO2 battery for CO2 capture/
organizations in the NM-based BESS market. Among the

Surface area and porosity for catenated carbon nano-
Nanocarbon material and applications of nanocarbon
ten innovators, Johnson Paige L was in the first position by

conversion and electric power generation/storage
contributing nine patents (Figure 7a). Between the remaining

Conductive composition for secondary battery
inventors, two inventors have three patent documents each,

Alkaline and AMO blended active materials
Blended active materials for battery cells
and the rest seven inventors have two patent documents

each. In contrast, Hheli LLC was in first position in both
owners and applicants contributing nine and ten patents,
respectively (Figure 7b and c). The second top owner was
Nanoproducts Corporation patenting three documents. Cali-
fornia Institute of Technology, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, Ppg Industries Ohio INC, and The Board of Trus-
Contribution
onions (cnos)
tees of the Leland Stanford Junior University each possesses

material
two patents. The rest of the owners have one patent each. In
contrast, Massachusetts Inst Technology came in second
applicant having three patents. Other applicants have two
patents each.
Skoptsov George L; Zeller Kurt W; Mantri
Cross Danny; Kirby Larry Herbert; Bailey
Ho Kam Piu; Jiang Yingkai; Sun Xinying

Belcher Angela; Qi Jifa; Wei Shuya
Aayush; Viswanathan Vignesh
4.4 Patent documents by legal status
The legal status of patents has not been taken into consid-
Johnson Paige L
Johnson Paige L
eration in most PL studies. The inclusion of patents that are

Thomas Frank
no longer valid legally makes it seem evident that conclu-

Publication year Inventors
sions from such studies could result in incorrect interpre-

tations [193]. Patents are divided into six groups based on
their legal status, including active, inactive, pending, discon-
tinued, expired, and unknown patents. The active patent is
Table 3: Continued
the patent that has been approved or granted; the owner

can implement or monetize from it in accordance with its
[185] 2020
[186] 2020
[189] 2022
[190] 2022
[187] 2021
[188] 2021
strategy. Conversely, inactive patents are, to put it simply,

patents that are no longer in effect. These patents have
Ref.
expired, been abandoned, or been withdrawn. The inactive

patents are no longer enforceable or commercially viable. application for a nearly identical idea. Companies generally
This indicates that the patent holder no longer has the right use a closed patent strategy intended to protect and extend
to use the patent exclusively. Anyone may utilize the patent the utilization of existing inventions from commercial com-
after it is released into the public domain [194]. A patent petitors. The length of a patent’s term determines how long
pending is an obvious sign of an inventor’s desire to protect it can remain in effect. It might differ depending on the
their concept and indicates the beginning of the process of jurisdiction and the type of patent, but it is typically given
applying for the sole right to use, sell, or license their crea- in years beginning either with the filing date for the patent
tion. There is no inherent legal significance to a patent or with the date the patent was granted. The majority of
pending notice. At that moment, neither the product nor jurisdictions require ongoing payment of maintenance or
the technique is legally protected. In addition, it proves renewal fees to keep a patent in effect. When a patent’s
that a patent application has been submitted, in which maximum term expires or the grant holder fails to pay
case it would take precedence over any later-filed patent the renewal fee on time, the patent is considered to be
Figure 6: The overall growth of patent documents under NM-based BESS. (a) The growth of generated patents from three groups (filed, granted, and
published) by year, (b) the number of patent applications and granted patents, and (c) the number of patents in each group (filed, granted, and
published).
Figure 7: Key players in the market for patent documents registered under the NM-based BESS. (a) Top ten inventors, (b) top ten owners, and (c) top
ten applicants.
expired. The term discontinued patent refers to a patent that invention, this stage of the patent process may take 1–3 years
is no longer continued (rejection, withdrawal, refusal, etc.) or longer. For example, patent applications under software or
and can be revived. Unknown patents are those that the electronics commonly have patents pending for 5 years or
requester is unaware of or does not recognize. The 89 longer. In addition, the length of time the patent is pending
patents that were registered in the NM-based BESS application can also be influenced by the USPTO’s backlog of applications
are shown in Figure 8a in terms of their level of legal protec- and the complexity of the invention [195]. In contrast, discon-
tion status. The pending group had the highest number of tinued patents took up the following position, with 19 numbers.
patents, 38 in total (43%), while the number of active patents Conversely, the number of inactive and expired patents was
was 27 (30%). This is because, based on the complexity of the very low, consisting of 3 and 2, respectively.
Figure 8: Number of NM-based BESS patent documents under different legal status groups (a), various Jurisdictions (b), each CPC code (c), and the
top-cited patent by year (d).
Both granted and pending patents are covered by legal and CPC is used to categorize patents into various techno-
protection. The term “granted patents” refers to patents logical fields, providing individuality and making it sim-
that at least one patent authority has approved for registra- pler for others to browse through the current patent docu-
tion. Patents that have been granted have undergone exam- ments. CPC is a global patent classification scheme that was
ination and approval by the Patent Office, placing them in a established in 2012 by the European Patent Office (EPO) and
high position in terms of technical expertise and potentially the United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO). IPC
qualifying them as technically sound patents. is a different international categorizing system that was
launched in 1971 and is still in use today in 62 nations,
although it contains 70,000 codes, which makes it difficult
to find information. The CPC offers over 250,000 codes that
4.5 Patent documents by jurisdiction were constructed with 90% European and 10% US patent
classifications, as well as additional classifications based
Patent jurisdiction refers to the convention nation and/or on technological advancements, such as a B section code
area in which the expected patent has already been filed or for Performing Operations and Transporting, whereas B82
approved or will be filed or approved and for which the subsection for Nanotechnology. [197]. Currently, more than
licensee will pay for the prosecution, application, defense 30 offices throughout the world – including the IP Australia
against illegal attempts, and maintenance. According to the of Australia, the KIPO of Korea, the INPI Brazil of Brazil, the
data shown in Figure 8b, all of the registered patents in this CNIPA (often referred to as SIPO) of China, and others – use
field have been registered in three different jurisdictions. the CPC code. These offices include the USPTO of the USA
The United States holds the top position in patent jurisdic- and the EPO of the EU (Figure 8c) [198].
tion for this topic with 57 patents (64%) that have been To retrieve the specific patents under NM-based BESS,
registered there. The WIPO was listed next in rank; 31 B82Y, Y02E 60/10, and H01M codes were used. According to
patents (35%) were registered under this jurisdiction. Con- the IPC codes assigned to the analyzed patents, Figure 8c
versely, only 1% of patents was registered under European depicts the technical subsections of patents registered in
patents jurisdiction in NM-based BESS. It is noted that the this area and the distribution of patent documents across
place of registration can be a sign of both the country various CPC sub-groups on NM-based BESS. It needs to be
consuming the technology and the country producing it, pointed out that any patent may have more than one IPC
depending on whether the knowledge holders want to file code because each one might be associated with several
their patent in their own country or in a country other fields or subfields. According to Figure 8c, the most common
than the one where the technology was created [4]. Y02E60/10 codes, which account for 69 patents, are related to
energy storage using batteries. The following ranks also
include the codes H01M10/0525 and B82Y30/00, which are
associated with LIBs and nanotechnology for materials or
4.6 Patent co-classification analysis based surface science (e.g., nanocomposites), respectively. It is
on the IPC code important to point out that due to the potential for multiple
areas or sub-fields to be associated with one invention, it is
A fresh understanding of the relationships and underlying possible for a patent to possess more than one IPC code.
interaction dynamics of knowledge domains within a par-
ticular technology domain can be gained through an ana-
lysis of co-occurring patent classification codes. Patent
categorization codes can be used to establish the intercon- 4.7 Top cited patents
nection of knowledge sectors, analogous to how technolo-
gical knowledge flow is measured. In general, the degree of References or citations of other patent publications in the
knowledge interaction dynamics between two patent cate- same or different technological disciplines are known as
gorization codes is reflected by how frequently those codes patent citations. They are presented as both backward and
co-occur in patent documents. As a result, it can make it forward citations. Backward citations are references to
easier to understand intuitively how technological knowl- patent documents that were published and made publicly
edge bases are interconnected and how they affect PL [196]. accessible before the filing date of the cited patent applica-
The main and most crucial purpose of the patent application. These are additionally known as “prior art.” Ideally,
tion is to prevent competitors from copying newly devel- all of the patent information that is publicly accessible
oped innovations. A system using distinctive codes like IPC prior to the date a patent is filed is referred to as prior
art or backward citations. Backward citations also have an citation range. Therefore, most of the patents cited were
impact on the range of a given application’s claims. Conversely, under US jurisdiction and subsequently under WIPO.
forward citations are references to a patent application that
has recently been published in a patent document. Therefore,
after a patent application is submitted, it can be referenced in
publications such as new patent applications, journals, aca- 4.8 Co-inventorship network analysis
demic papers, etc. These would fall under the category of a
forward citation. These are considered the class of forward Scientific collaborative networks are considered concur-
citations [199]. Patent citations are crucial because inventors rent academic research. Scientific collaboration is the con-
use them to describe the state of earlier technologies that the nection between two or more scientists that occurs in the
current invention builds upon and patent examiners use them context of society and allows the exchange of meaning and
to find earlier innovations that may have been overlooked or task completion in relation to a common objective. Due to
concealed in the application or to reject it entirely [200]. the access to various fields that scientific collaboration
The technical and commercial strength of a patent can provides, it may assist in increasing the scope of research
be reasonably extrapolated from the number of forward and fostering innovation. Scientists today operate as part
citations to that patent. The number of patent citations of scientific networks collaborating rather than as indivi-
(forward citations) is used to assess the importance of dual players to find solutions to the technological, social,
the related technological knowledge domains as a founda- economic, and political issues that are typically referred to
tion for ensuing technological breakthroughs. Citation data as a multi-disciplinary approach. When researchers work
offer the chance to evaluate a patent’s technical significance together, they can construct communication networks,
for future advances, with widely cited patents appearing to share resources, ideas, and information, produce and dis-
have higher economic value. Thus, taking into account the seminate novel findings, and eventually produce innova-
number of citations can help determine how directly inno- tions, which lowers the cost and boosts the output of
vative effort has affected the direction of future knowledge research. Due to the possibility of discovering novel con-
accumulation. The amount of citations that a patent docu- cepts, the growing specialization within science, the level
ment or patent family achieves is a measure of its social and of complexity of the infrastructure needed, and the require-
economic significance; hence, study on citations of patent ment of incorporating various types of knowledge, scientists
papers is a major area of interest. Analysis of patent cita- are motivated to collaborate [202,203].
tions can also reveal related patent documents, technology Networks of patent co-inventorship are crucial for
spillovers, and technology trajectories in a specific field of information acquisition and have an impact on innovation
technology [201]. Top-cited patents could be used as an indi- [204]. The concept of representing co-inventorship net-
cator for patents covering basic aspects of technologies as works has been an area of significant interest since the
they are able to demonstrate their importance to subse- inception of the patent/bibliometric study. Representation
quent advances and, therefore, signify knowledge flows. of co-inventorship networks has proven to be an effective
Figure 8d depicts the number of patent citations under method for analyzing diverse patent networks, such as
NM-based BESS. It is shown that only 2 out of the 89 patents networks that show co-inventorship among researchers
registered in this technological area have more than 100 or inventors. Consequently, there has been a growing
citations. The patent titled “Energy storage device” had the interest among researchers, inventors, research institu-
highest citation number (105) and was registered under tions, and funding agencies in visualizing co-inventorship
US jurisdiction in 2010. The patent with the next citation networks. The analysis of co-inventorship networks is cru-
number (103) was entitled “Method of depositing silicon cial to make visualizations of these networks accessible to
on carbon,” which was registered in the same jurisdiction a broader audience, including individuals both within and
in 2012. There were only 3 patents under the group of 40–100 outside the patent research community. Within co-inventor-
citation numbers. They are titled “Method of depositing ship networks, researchers are connected to one another
silicon on carbon nanomaterials and forming an anode for depending on the number of inventions they have collabora-
use in lithium-ion batteries,” “Nanotube-based nanomaterial tively developed [205]. Analysis of the co-inventorship net-
membranes,” and “Nanotechnology for electrochemical and work is performed to visualize the research networks
energy devices,” with citation numbers 91, 64, and 48, between the different inventors and to determine which
respectively. Conversely, 10 patents were found in the cita- inventors have co-inventoried with the highest number of
tion number range of 20–40. However, 25 patents have not other inventors in the data set [206]. An understanding of
yet been cited. The rest of the patents were in the 1–40 the patterns of cooperation among organizations and
individuals is provided by co-inventorship analysis in scien- Tobias” and “Engheta, Behrouz,” under the same cluster
tific and technology partnerships. An official declaration have co-inventored with 11 authors. Conversely, all authors
of the collaboration of two or more individuals or orga- under cluster 2 have co-inventored with 10 innovators. The
nizations is the co-inventorship of a technical document. generated network map demonstrates a strong commitment
Co-inventorship analysis is still commonly applied to to collaboration among innovators in NM-based BESS.
understanding and evaluating patterns of scientific colla-
boration in spite of disagreements over its definition and
interpretation [202,207].
Several software tools, including R, Bibexcel, VOSviewer, 5 Key issues and challenges
Publish or Perish, Ucinet, CiteSpace, Pajek, Scholarometer,
HistCite, etc., are available for data analysis and visualization Although the advantages of employing NMs in ESSs seem to
in relation to co-authorship and co-inventorship. Among outweigh their drawbacks, it is crucial to understand the
these tools, VOSviewer receives special consideration for inherent challenges involved in their synthesis and imple-
the visual depiction of bibliometric maps. VOSviewer is a mentation. Here, we briefly outline the challenges and
user-friendly computer application that integrates both the issues that should be addressed during the design, synth-
VOS mapping approach and an updated viewer that is freely esis, and application of NMs for ESVs. Here, we discuss
available to the bibliometric research group (see www.vos- various key issues regarding NM applications in batteries
viewer.com). Consequently, it is particularly effective for including the large volume changes of NMs during the
easily interpreting larger bibliometric maps. For instance, charge/discharge process, formation of SEI layer, electron
VOSviewer can be used to create maps of authors or journals or ion transport, atom/molecule diffusion over the charge
based on data from co-citations or create maps of keywords and discharge event, etc. and illustrated in Figure 10.
based on data from co-occurrences. A map can be displayed
using VOSviewer in a variety of ways, each emphasizing a
distinct component of the map [208].
The VOSviewer software generates a co-inventorship 5.1 Large volume changes of NMs during the
network with nodes and edges (links). The nodes can repre- charge/discharge process
sent various entities, such as inventors, authors, or key-
words. The edges represent the connections between pairs Due to the huge amounts of Li that are ingested throughout
of nodes. By default, VOSviewer also automatically assigns the Li insertion and extraction performance, the nanosized
the nodes in a network to clusters. A cluster refers to a electrode materials typically experience significant volume
collection of interconnected nodes that are strongly asso- changes, while conventional electrode materials have a
ciated with each other. Every node in a network is allo- much lower amount of volume changes (<10%). One of
cated to precisely one cluster. An object can only be the main challenges impeding the use of high-capacity
assigned to a single cluster. VOSviewer utilizes colors to nanostructured electrode materials has been recognized
represent the cluster assignment of a node in the viewing as the significant volume change during the process of
of a co-inventorship network [205]. charging and discharging. When electrochemical cycling
In the present study, a total of 251 inventors contrib- occurs, these large changes in volume cause mechanical
uted to generating the patent documents in NM-based degradation in both the active components and electrodes,
BESS. The software included inventors in the network greatly reducing the cycle life [209]. For example, the Si
map who had co-inventored with at least one additional anode displays very significant volume changes as well as
inventor in the data file. In Figure 9a, it is shown that the transformations of its structure during the charge and dis-
inventors are organized into different clusters (74 clusters) charge processes. When active particles cycle under such
by the software. The inventors who are grouped together obviously significant volumetric expansion and contrac-
suggest that they are closely tied to one another in terms of tion, they crack, fracture, and pulverize, which results in
their co-inventorship. Among these groups, cluster 1 (Figure a disruption of electrical contact (Figure 10a) [211,212]. In
9b) has the most inventors (13), followed by Clusters 2 addition, major mechanical degradation of the electrode
(Figures 9c) and 3 (Figure 9d) with (11) and (10), respectively. occurs due to the displacement of the particle layers
The inventors “Christensen, Gary” and “Luo, Shuji” have co- (Figure 10b). The majority of bulk films and big particles
inventored with the highest number of authors (12) with the eventually experience severe capacity degradation due to
greater total link strength in the data file, as seen in Figure this mechanism of particle and electrode fracture, cracking,
9a, and they are under cluster 1. Both inventors, “Klande, and pulverization (Figure 10c) [213,214].
Figure 9: The co-inventorship network map of various inventors conducting research on NM-based BESS based on total link strength. (a) The
inventors’ co-occurrence network map of all clusters (74 clusters). (b) Co-occurrence map of cluster 1, this group consists of the highest number of
inventors (13 inventors). (c) Co-occurrence map of cluster 2, this group consists of 11 inventors. (d) Co-occurrence map of cluster 3, this group consists
of 10 inventors. The size of nodes indicates the frequency of occurrence. Their co-occurrence in the same patent is represented by the curves
connecting the nodes.
5.2 Stable SEI formation electronic insulator, resulting in the termination of SEI’s growth
at a certain thickness [215]. Higher CE and a long lifespan of
During the initial charging cycles of LIBs, an electroche- anodes resulting from surface passivation are made possible by
mical reduction of the electrolyte results in the formation of an a stable SEI layer. A significant movement and change occur on
SEI. A passivation layer is provided on the anode surface by the the electrode and electrolyte interface due to the repeated mas-
SEI, preventing further electrolyte breakdown and enabling the sive volume changes during lithiation and delithiation, which
long battery life needed for many applications (Figure 10d) makes it extremely difficult to keep a stable SEI for high-capa-
[210,215]. Although SEI is a Li-ion conductor, it is also an city electrode materials [73,209].
Figure 10: (a)–(c) Diagram of cracking and fracture of high-capacity active particles and electrodes during lithiation and delithiation cycling. The
mechanical degradation of high-capacity material at the particle level (a) and electrode level (b) during discharge and charge cycling. (c) SEM images
of an Si nanoparticle electrode before (left) and after (right) 20 discharge/charge cycles between 0.9 and 0.01 V at C/10. The Si film electrode cracked
like mud in a dry lake bed bottom. The morphology of the Si nanoparticle electrode did not change much due to limited particle and electrode
fracture. (d) A schematic showing how the SEI initially formed on the graphite anode, how acid-mediated thermal decomposition reactions affected
the SEI’s structure, and how further electrolyte reduction caused the SEI to thicken are shown. (e)–(g) Schematic diagram for understanding electrode
atom or molecule transportation. (e) Solid–liquid phase transformation: dissolution and diffusion of polysulfide in sulfur cathodes. (f) Formation of
lithium dendrite in the anodes of lithium metal. (g) Volume expansion for high-capacity alloy-type electrodes. Reproduced with permission from (a),
(b), (c), (e), (f), and (g) Sun et al. [209]; (d) Heiskanan et al. [210].
5.3 Rapid electron and ion transport 6 Prospects and conclusion

An extensive knowledge of the electrochemical principles A significant technological challenge for portable devices,
underlying batteries will make it easier to develop revolu- electric automobiles, and grid-scale energy storage is the
tionary battery technologies that can solve the challenges creation of next-generation NM-based rechargeable bat-
of powering intensive grid storage and transportation teries with lower cost, high energy density, and better
applications. Herein, the understanding of the ion and elec- safety. Recent advances in nanotechnology over the past
tron movement is the main issue [216]. Battery performance decade have provided battery researchers with useful solu-
depends primarily on rapid charge carrier transpiration tions to some of the most significant challenges for subse-
both throughout the entire electrode and inside individual quent-generation battery chemistries. A summary of the
particles. To attain high rates and activate insulating elec- main uses of nanotechnology in batteries includes
trode materials, short distances for ion transport and highly • In addition to allowing electron/ion flow within the elec-
conductive electron pathways can be useful. NMs have trode, decreasing the electrode material sizes can lower
considerably smaller dimensions than materials having a the material’s cracking threshold upon lithiation.
micrometer scale. Due to the shorter transport distances • With a range of surface coatings and functionalization
compared to those of microparticles, electron transport layers, electrode materials could be effectively created
and Li-ion insertion and extraction within the NPs are utilizing nanotechnology, protecting them from harmful
greatly enhanced for every single particle [3]. For an elec- interactions in the battery system.
trode to work properly, ions must move through a variety of • The ability to engineer all of the components of a battery
length scales; this is applicable to both anodes and cathodes. using nanotechnology allows for the development of
Effective ionic conductivity for porous electrodes is inver- novel functionality for batteries that are not possible
sely proportional to electrode tortuosity [216]. using conventional approaches.
BESS has advanced significantly over the past decade

and is now viewed as a feasible technology with optimiza-
5.4 Movement of molecules and atoms in tion potential for the next smart grids and portable elec-
long-distance electrodes tronic devices. For this reason, academics, researchers,
professionals, and decision-makers must have a thorough
During Li insertion and extraction, conventional insertion- understanding of the technological knowledge landscape.
type electrode materials do not experience bond breakage This study explored and analyzed the NM-based BESS-
and only show slight structure alterations and a small related PL. This analysis is anticipated to be useful infor-
expansion of volume (10%). Therefore, they are stable host mation in the field of energy storage technologies. ESSs
materials. Conversely, the structure of high-capacity elec- will inevitably become increasingly popular as the world
trode materials degrades due to extensive bond breakage moves toward renewable energy sources, which will neces-
and entire crystallographic structure alterations. Thus, it has sitate a thorough knowledge of every facet of this tech-
always been thought that their usage in Li-based recharge- nology. The principal objective of this PLA was to enhance
able batteries is unfeasible. Due to the significant structural awareness of the technical competitive advantages of NM-
changes, these high-capacity electrode materials have signif- based BESS. A collection of 89 patent files that are relevant
icant difficulties with active atom or molecule diffusion to the area of interest after thorough assessment using
throughout repeatedly occurring charge and discharge the Lens database to determine the present condition of
cycles, leading to major challenges with battery efficiency. grid-connected LIB ESS. Initially, a total of 89 patent files
The three types of electrode atom or molecule mobility are relevant to NM-based BESS were collected through an
as follows: First, phase conversion as well as atom or mole- extensive evaluation using the LENS database to determine
cule diffusion, for example, phase conversion of the gas– the current status. The patent documents based on the area
solid–liquid state in the oxygen cathode of Li–O2 batteries of interest are statistically and technologically analyzed in
and the solid–liquid state in the sulfur cathode of Li–S bat- this study.
teries (Figure 10e). Second, Li dendrite formation within PLA was carried out under various parameters based
second-generation Li metal batteries throughout electroche- on the scope of the patent documents such as growth of
mical Li plating (Figure 10f). Third, the massive amounts of patents, patent families, key players in markets, legal
Li consumed result in a significant volume expansion for status, classification based on IPC code, top cited patents,
high-capacity alloy-type electrodes (Figure 10g) [209]. etc. According to trends in patent publication, the number
of patents published overall is rising each year, particu- content in terms of durability and reliable performance.
larly over the last 10 years (2010–2020), when a significant This is because the percentage increase and accumulation
increase was seen. Patent families are addressed to rapidly of Si induce significant volume expansion, cycle degrada-
identify patents related to a specific innovation as well as tion, and pulverization. This opens up a wide range of pos-
simplify the analysis. Hheli LLC (USA-based Company) was sibilities for academia, researchers, and industrialists, with
the first key player in markets for both owners and applicants, the potential for ground-breaking innovation.
contributing a maximum number of patents. Thus, the United Overall, nanotechnology has a promising future, but
States presently leads the world in patent publication, indi- more research and studies are needed to expedite the
cating that it also leads in NM-based BESS. This statement is widespread use of NMs in ESS through inexpensive and
also supported by the analysis of patent jurisdiction. A total of ecologically acceptable technology. To achieve future progress
56 patents (63%) have been registered under US jurisdiction. in NM-based BESS, it is crucial to focus on cost reduction stra-
Moreover, the majority of the cited patents fell within US jur- tegies, improve durability through material improvements,
isdiction. Under the legal status, it was observed that number scale up manufacturing processes, enhance energy efficiency,
of pending patents is higher (43.82%) than active patents and undertake research on novel materials. By resolving these
(29.21%). This is because the patent approval process takes issues, the NM-based BESS can enhance its economic feasibility,
longer to complete due to the complexity of the invention as reliability, scalability, energy efficiency, and advancements in
well as the application backlog at the USPTO. However, there technology. This would facilitate the wider acceptance and
were remarkably few inactive and expired patents, indicating utilization of sustainable energy sources. The notable expan-
that the research trend in NM-based BESS is increasing. sion of NM-based BESS is expected to continue and encourage
Important findings from the analysis of patent documents additional advancements. Therefore, the analysis of the PL in
and scholarly publications are listed below. the field of NM-based BESS is comprehensive and critical, as
The PLA demonstrates the increasing trend of patents this research field is being expanded by the potential for wide-
related to NM-based BESS, which is partially reflected in spread market deployment. Researchers have been closely
patenting activity. This PLA review focuses on the current monitoring this trend, and they have quickly identified a few
nanotechnology-based design concepts to address the chal- primary development options, with Si and carbonaceous NMs
lenges confronting future battery chemistries. Strategies taking the highest priority. Researchers paid less attention to
like nanostructuring, nanoconfinement, and surface pro- other materials, like Al, Ti, Sn, Sb, etc., and are also less aware
tection have proven to be successful in developing highly of their commercial application. This demonstrates that the
efficient energy storage materials. Furthermore, the design inherent problems of these NMs have not yet been resolved
of NMs can also have a significant impact on enhancing or that there are still challenges to be addressed before
battery safety, as well as boosting the stability and capacity applying them commercially as electrode materials to enhance
of large-scale ESSs. For instance, carbonaceous materials ESS. This might be an opportunity for innovative scientific
continue to be the most prominent electrode materials research to overcome existing issues and challenges as well
used in LIBs. In addition, the use of CNT and graphene as open the door to commercialization.
NMs has increased significantly. Nevertheless, due to the Therefore, the PL of NM-based BESS might offer useful
high cost, lack of availability, and technical difficulties of information on potential future development directions.
nanocarbonaceous materials, hard and soft carbon are still Finally, this article provides some novel viewpoints for
dominating the market of commercial ESS. The NMs of potential future study opportunities. Future studies might
silicon, tin, aluminum, titanium, and silicon oxide are take into account including more information sources to com-
interesting candidates for electrode materials to develop plement the PLA approach. A more fundamental science-
high-energy-density ESS. Among these NMs, Si and Sn have focused knowledge landscape can be mapped out using data
attracted more attention from researchers compared to Al, from patents and scientific publications. The mentioned
Ti, and SiO2. Si is the only substance whose patenting finding could be useful for determining potential research
activity has not decreased recently, even surpassing Sn- gaps between scientists and industrialists.
based NPs to take second place after carbonaceous NMs.
Therefore, NMs of Si are a highly promising element to Funding information: This work was supported under the
enhance ESS for researchers and industrialists, and Si has research grant J510050002-IC-6 BOLDREFRESH2025 – Centre
emerged as the leading candidate for large-volume applica- of Excellent, Universiti Tenaga Nasional.
tions. However, only a small percentage of Si is applied in Si/
graphitic composite anodes in commercial ESS, indicating Author contributions: Conceptualization by MAH; data
that there are still significant challenges to raising the Si curation by MAMH and MAH; formal analysis by MAMH,
MAH, and KPJ; funding acquisition by SKT, MAH, and PJK; 20not%20only%20helps,having%20patents%20on%20their%
investigation by KPJ and TMIM; methodology by MAMH, 20names. 2020.
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Nanotechnology Reviews 2024; 13: 20230215

Recent progress in nanomaterials of battery

Table 1: An overview of the performance of the various ESDs

Reproduced with permission from Conte [5].

SiO2 Nanotubes Magnesiothermic reduction Anode 712.7 5 — 81.78 400 [71]

Se@RGO Self-assembly process Cathodes 265 — 0.2 100 200 [114]

4.2 Patent families

4 PLA A patent family is a set or compilation of patent applica-

Wang Wei; Choi Daiwon; Nie Zimin application

Ni) compound application

world. The use of patent families is also advantageous

nomic progress and societal welfare, patent systems are

organizations in the NM-based BESS market. Among the

Nanocarbon material and applications of nanocarbon

ten innovators, Johnson Paige L was in the ﬁrst position by

contributing nine patents (Figure 7a). Between the remaining

inventors, two inventors have three patent documents each,

and the rest seven inventors have two patent documents

tees of the Leland Stanford Junior University each possesses

Ho Kam Piu; Jiang Yingkai; Sun Xinying

Aayush; Viswanathan Vignesh

4.4 Patent documents by legal status

eration in most PL studies. The inclusion of patents that are

no longer valid legally makes it seem evident that conclu-

sions from such studies could result in incorrect interpre-

the patent that has been approved or granted; the owner

strategy. Conversely, inactive patents are, to put it simply,

expired, been abandoned, or been withdrawn. The inactive

5.3 Rapid electron and ion transport 6 Prospects and conclusion

BESS has advanced signiﬁcantly over the past decade

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