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A Manual of Egyptian Pottery Second Intermediate
Period Late Kingdom 1st Edition Anna Wodzinska Digital
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Author(s): Anna Wodzinska
ISBN(s): 9780982554418, 0982554419
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 23.75 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
www.aeraweb.org
A Manual of Egyptian Pottery

Volume 3: Second Intermediate Period–Late Period
AERA Field Manual Series 1
by Anna Wodzińska
Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Inc.
Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw, Poland
Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Inc.

www.aeraweb.org
Published by Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Inc.

26 Lincoln Street, Suite 5, Boston, MA 02135 USA
Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) is a 501(c) (3), tax-exempt,

non-profit organization dedicated to research on Ancient Egypt at the
Giza Plateau.
© 2010 by Ancient Egypt Research Associates
Printed in Hollis, New Hampshire, at Puritan Press.

Layout and design by Alexandra Witsell.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise
without the prior consent of the publisher.
ISBN: 978-0-9825544-0-1 (softcover binding)

ISBN: 978-0-9825544-1-8 (spiral binding)
SERIES EDITORS
Wilma Wetterstrom
and
Alexandra Witsell
www.aeraweb.org
Contents
List of Abbreviations Used in this Volume v
Preface and Acknowledgments vii
Map of Egyptian Find Sites for Pottery Illustrated in this Volume x
1. Pottery Production and Processing in the Field 1
2. Post-Excavation Studies 11
3. Ceramic Glossary 13
4. Further Reading: a General Selection on Ceramics 18
5. Clay and Fabric Descriptions Used in Volume 3 24
6. Egyptian Pottery
Second Intermediate Period 33
New Kingdom 55
Third Intermediate Period 193
Late Period 223
7. Further Reading: a Selection for Volume 3 277
8. Color Plates
iii
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iv
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List of Abbreviations Used in this Volume

ÄA Ägyptologische Abhandlungen
AHL Archaeology & History in Lebanon
ARCE American Research Center in Egypt
ASAE Annales du Service des Antiquités de l’Égypte
AV Archäologische Veröffentlichungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abt. Kairo
BAR British Archaeological Reports, International Series
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BCE Bulletin de liaison du groupe international d’étude de la céramique égyptienne
Bd’E Bibliotèque d’Étude, Institut français d’archéologie orientale
BES Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar
BIFAO Bulletin de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale
BSAE British School of Archaeology in Egypt (and Egyptian Research Account)
BSAK Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur, Beihefte
CCE Cahiers de la céramique égyptienne
CNRS Centre national de la recherche scientifique
EVO Egitto e Vicino Oriente
FIFAO Fouilles de l’Institut français d’archéologie orientale
GM Göttinger Miszellen
IFAO Institut français d’archéologie orientale
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JAS Journal of Archaeological Science
JEA Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies, University of Chicago
JSSEA Journal of the Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities
LÄ Lexikon der Ägyptologie, Vols. I–VI (Wiesbaden)
MÄS Münchner Ägyptologische Studien
MDAIK Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, Abt. Kairo
OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Analecta
PAM Polish Archaeology in the Mediterranean
SAGA Studien zur Archäologie und Geschichte Altägyptens
SAK Studien zur Altägyptischen Kultur
SDAIK Sonderschriften des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts
SIMA Studies in Mediterranean Archaeology
v
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SSEA Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities

WES Warsaw Egyptological Studies
ZÄS Zeitschrift für ägyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde
vi
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Preface
C eramics are usually the most abundant artifacts present at Egyptian archaeological sites. They are
often found in large quantities and their analysis requires great patience and due attention. Such
analysis is generally time-consuming and sometimes simply boring. The final result of ceramic study,
however, can be very rewarding. Ceramics can offer a great deal of useful information. For example,
they can date a site or its phases, and provide evidence for different activities and purposes of a site or its
smaller units. Ceramics sometimes indicate different routes of product exchange between various sites
or regions. For these reasons, all excavated pottery should be kept and stored for documentation and
further analysis before the final publication of a site.
Given the importance of ceramics, the subject was chosen to be part of the basic curriculum of the
first Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) Field School in spring 2005, organized in conjunction
with the American Research Center in Egypt (ARCE). The main aim of the Field School, supervised
by Mohsen Kamel and Ana Tavares, was to train the official inspectors of the Supreme Council of
Antiquities (SCA) in the excavation techniques of field archaeology, as well as in specialist studies of ma-
terial culture and environmental analysis, such as ceramics, objects, fauna, flora, and human osteology.
In response to the success of the first Field School, Mark Lehner, director of AERA, along with the Field
School teachers and the AERA team, decided to organize an Advanced Field School in 2006 specializing
in particular areas, such as excavation, illustration, and ceramics. As AERA ceramicist, I taught pottery
analysis to these returning students. While I was preparing the course, Dr. Lehner suggested that I write
an AERA Field School Pottery Manual. At first the manual was to be a concise catalogue of ceramics
from different periods of Egyptian archaeology. Over time, however, the manual expanded to include
additional information related to material, manufacturing techniques, surface treatment, and context.
Eventually, I compiled a large corpus of Egyptian ceramics from all periods of Egyptian history, from
Neolithic to Modern times. I also added brief discussions of certain imported vessels to remind archae-
ologists that pottery from Egyptian sites often includes pieces brought in from other regions, and is,
therefore, not always homogenous.
The final product, this Manual of Egyptian Pottery, is divided into four volumes:
Volume 1 Egyptian Neolithic Fayum A, Merimde, Omari, Badari, Naqada I, Naqada II, and the
Lower Egyptian Culture
Volume 2 Naqada III, Archaic Period, Old Kingdom, First Intermediate Period, and Middle
Kingdom
Volume 3 Second Intermediate Period, New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Late
Period
Volume 4 Ptolemaic Period, Early and Late Roman Periods, Medieval, and Modern times
Each of the volumes consists of eight sections (the first five of which repeat in each volume):
Section 1 General information on pottery production in Egypt and methods of pottery
recording in the field
Section 2 Post-excavation procedures leading to the publication of the material
NOTE: After the 2009 publication of Volumes 1 and 2, the introductory texts in Volumes 3 and 4 of the Manual
were modified following the very kind suggestions of Hans-Åke Nordström, Pamela Rose, and Alison Gascoigne.
Future editions of Volume 1 will include these same modifications.
vii
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Section 3 A list of terms and abbreviations related to ceramics

Section 4 A selected bibliography concerning technological aspects of Egyptian pottery
Section 5 Descriptions of the clays mentioned in the text
Section 6 The pottery from all Egyptian periods, organized chronologically:
Each subsection, treating each of the periods, consists of two parts: 1) an introduction to the
pottery, describing its general trends, and 2) a catalogue of the main ceramic types, organized
not according to a detailed chronological order, but, rather, by shape (restricted followed by
unrestricted vessels).
Each ceramic type is illustrated with a drawing, accompanied by a short description with
the general name of the find site (e.g., Giza, Abydos). More specific information about the
provenience is provided by the reference cited for each drawing. The shape, material
(according to the original publication and in relation to the Vienna System if possible),
surface treatment, publication, and other information pertinent to dating are provided.
Additional remarks and bibliography are sometimes included. The vessel description is based
only on the text from the original publications. If information was not presented in the
original text, it is labeled as “not stated.”
Section 7 A selection of references related to the particular ceramics described in the volume.
Section 8 Color plates, including a selection of photographs of ceramics from different
periods. For Volume 4, in addition to the color photos of the Medieval pottery, there are also
color drawings. The Medieval glazed ceramics are usually very colorful. As it is very difficult to
illustrate their precise hues, the colors are approximate.
This AERA manual was originally meant to be a quick field guide for the Egyptian SCA inspectors as
they recovered pottery in the course of their own excavations, especially because many may not have
regular access to libraries. It is essentially an illustrated list of ceramic types from different periods,
meant to show only the most general trends in Egyptian ceramics. Drawings and photographs of pot-
tery for the manual were selected to show those general types most characteristic of the different peri-
ods. For this purpose a kind of typology of Egyptian ceramics was created based on the ceramic forms
themselves, rather than the typologies presented in the publications on specific sites. However, the de-
scriptions here come from the original publications from which I drew my types. Most of the language is
that of the reference cited. As the task of describing a ceramic vessel is highly subjective, each researcher
may describe pots in somewhat different ways. Hence the terminology, such as for vessel shape (plate,
bowl, ewer, dish, bottle, etc.), is not entirely uniform or consistent throughout this volume. Nor are all
vessels described in the same detail. In addition, the user may not find in the manual every single vessel
from each period. Further editions of the book may expand to include more comprehensive typologies.
It was not my intention to document shape changes of any given type over time, nor to indicate regional
variations within periods, although such spatial differences are observed in the archaeological material.
Indeed, the division of ceramic material into historical periods is rather artificial, since many types
were in use longer than a single period. I am fully aware that my pottery manual does not address every
question related to Egyptian pottery but I hope it will be a useful resource for archaeologists working in
Egypt. As a specialist in Old Kingdom pottery myself, I am grateful for any comments and suggestions
concerning ceramics from other periods.
viii
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Acknowledgments
O ur excavations at Giza are part of the work of Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA), directed
by Dr. Mark Lehner. I would like to thank a number of foundations and individuals for their
financial support of the AERA excavations and analysis. Some of these are the Ann and Robert H. Lurie
Foundation, the David H. Koch Foundation, the Charles Simonyi Fund for Arts and Sciences, Ted Waitt
Family Foundation, Peter Norton Family Foundation, Glen Dash Foundation, Marjorie Fisher, Ed and
Kathy Fries, J. Michael and Marybeth Johnston, Jason G. Jones and Emily E. Trenkner-Jones, Bruce and
Carolyn Ludwig, David Marguiles, and Ann Thompson. I would also like to thank Dr. Zahi Hawass and
Egypt’s Supreme Council of Antiquities, along with all of my Egyptian colleagues. This work would not
have been possible without the tireless efforts of Dr. Lehner to create and finance an exemplary research
and education program at Giza, Egypt.
The present manual is a result of cooperation between numerous individuals and institutions. First
I would like to again thank Dr. Lehner for his idea of creating the manual and publishing it as an AERA
publication.
My deepest appreciation goes to Wilma Wetterstrom and Cindy Sebrell who are responsible for the
present shape of the book. I would like to express my special gratitude to Alexandra Witsell who pre-
pared the book layout. It required a lot of skill, perseverance, and patience, especially in the case of my
multiple changes and rewritings during the course of the work. Thank you, Ali.
Mary Anne Murray, Richard Redding, Janine Bourriau, and Teodozja I. Rzeuska were also always
ready to give me very useful advice.
I would like to express my particular indebtedness to Hans-Åke Nordström, Pamela Rose, and Alison
Gascoigne for their kind and insightful reviews of Volumes 3 and 4 of the manual.
Drawings used in the manual were prepared by Edyta Klimaszewska-Drabot, Mariola Orzechowska,
and myself. The collection of color photos was compiled from photographs provided by the following
individuals and projects:
Krzysztof Ciałowicz, Mariusz Jucha: photographs of the pottery from Tell el Farkha;
Harco Willems, Marleen De Meyer, and Stefanie Vereecken in particular: photographs from the
Dayr al-Barsha Project;
Tonny de Wit, Willeke Wendrich: photographs from the Fayum;
Włodzimierz Godlewski: Late Roman and Medieval pottery photographs from Naqlun monastery
in Fayum;
Yukinori Kawae: photographs of the ceramics from Giza and el Nazla village;
Mariola Orzechowska: New Kingdom pottery photos from Giza;
Teodozja I. Rzeuska, Dietrich Raue: photographs from Elephantine.
I also would like to thank Sławomir Rzepka for the permission to use the ceramic photos taken by
myself at Tell el Retaba. The majority of photographs came from the Petrie Museum thanks to Stephen
Quirke and Richard Langley. I am deeply grateful for their help.
And last but not least I would like to express my gratitude to employees of the Institute of Egyptology
in Prague, especially Jaromír Krejčí, for the opportunity to use their Egyptological library. My research
in Prague was financed by the Department of Egyptian and Nubian Archaeology of the Institute of
Archaeology (the University of Warsaw, Poland), thanks to its head, Prof. Włodzimierz Godlewski. I
am very grateful for his trust in my work.
ix
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Map illustrating location of Egyptian sites mentioned in Volume 3.
x
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Pottery Production and Processing in the Field

Please see Ceramic Glossary, pages 13–16, for definitions of terms.
P ottery retrieved from archaeological excavations can be processed in many ways (e.g., Orton, Tyers,
and Vince 1993, Rice 1987). Over several years, I have developed a system that works well for the
specific case of the ceramics from the AERA excavations at the Heit el-Ghurab site at Giza (also known
as the Lost City of the Pyramids). The same system, slightly modified, can be used at other sites.
The bags of pottery collected from the excavation are sent to the lab for processing. All pottery frag-
ments from the site are first sorted into two groups: 1) diagnostic: those from which the original form of
the whole vessel can be deduced (i.e., complete pots, complete profiles, parts of rims, parts of bases), as
well as sherds with decoration and fragments with potmarks; and 2) non-diagnostic fragments.
Diagnostic fragments are classified according to the AERA Typology and then recorded on AERA
Pottery Forms. For an example of an AERA Pottery Form, which consists of several descriptive cat-
egories, see Table 1 (page 8). The non-diagnostics are sorted according to two types: pieces that belong
to bread-molds, and other non-diagnostic types that are not parts of bread-molds. These are weighed
separately, their weights are recorded on the AERA Pottery Form, and the sherds are discarded.
Pots slated for drawing (rendered at a scale of 1:1) are segregated and stored separately (for pottery
drawing techniques, see Becker 1987, Joyce and Dillon 1987). In addition to drawings, pots are docu-
mented with two sets of photos. One captures complete vessels, significant shapes, pots with decoration,
and potmarks. The second shows the clay in the breaks of the pottery wall. The tools used for pottery
processing, drawing, and photography are listed in Table 2 (page 9).
All information about pottery from the site is stored in a digital database. This greatly facilitates the
data analyses, especially in the case of a very large assemblage. The more data we collect, the more rela-
tions between data we create in the database, and the more relations we have, the better the material is
described. All the ceramics data from AERA excavations are stored in the AERA Pottery Database in the
format presented in Table 3 (page 10).
Clay and Fabric (Aston 1998: 35–39, Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
All ceramics are made of clay. Natural Egyptian clays that formed under different conditions are
characterized by different compositions. Clays originating from limestone characterized by calcium
carbonate are called marls. Nile clays, also called Nile alluvium or Nile silt, are composed of particles
carried by Nile waters and usually consist of large amounts of silica. Kaolin clays are formed of kaolinite,
a mineral associated with granite rocks located in the Aswan area. Pliocene clays formed during the
Pliocene period and can be found in the oases, especially in Kharga Oasis. Naturally occurring clays can
be mixed by the potter seeking a particular combination of clay properties.
The most common Egyptian clays are Nile alluvium and marl. Nile alluvium contains greater amounts
of silica and can be fired at lower temperatures, around 700 to 800°C. The surface after firing is usually
dark red or brown. The break of a pottery wall shows different color layers: red/brown with a black core.
Nile clay used in pottery production often contains organic inclusions (small fragments of grass, chaff,
dung, ash, etc.), or material introduced to the raw clay by the potter as temper. Marls are fired at higher
temperatures, between 800 and 1000°C. The clay shown in the break is very homogenous and dense. The
color of surfaces is generally beige, pink, or very light yellow. Marl clay is very hard after firing. Marl pots
usually do not contain any organic material.
Nile and marl clay can be further divided into subgroups according to inclusions, hardness, and
density. The Vienna System (Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 168–186) classifies the fabrics of Ancient
AERA Field Manual Series 1 1

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Egyptian pottery. The term “fabric” refers to the physical composition and properties of the clay and its
inclusions, both naturally occurring and/or added by a potter.
Clay for manufacturing pots has to be properly prepared. The raw material contains inclusions that
can damage the pot wall during shaping or later firing, and thus must be removed prior to working. The
clay is prepared by levigating it. The raw clay is mixed with water and allowed to rest in special pools,
where the coarser particles sink to the bottom. The clay is then kneaded until the mass is smooth. This
process can take days or sometimes months before the clay is ready for shaping into a vessel.
Clay – Fabric Designation and Classification (Aston 1998: 35–39, Bourriau and Nordström 1993,
Rice 1987)
Pots are made of materials that can be characterized by various properties: the origin of the clay, the
presence or absence of inclusions, porosity, hardness, color, and firing temperature.
Inclusions are particles present in the clay. They may be present in the natural material when taken
from the source or may be added by the potter. In the latter case, these inclusions are called temper.
Inclusions can also vary in shape, size, and frequency, and are classified as organic or non-organic.
Examples of organic particles are straw, chaff, dung, and ash. These often burn away during the firing
process, but leave voids in the clay that show characteristic impressions. Examples of non-organic inclu-
sions are sand and fragments of rock, such as limestone, basalt, and granite.
Color is another important component of the clay and fabric description. It can help to identify the
clay and to determine the conditions under which the clay was fired. Color is often described using the
terminology of established color charts. One of most popular is the Munsell soil color chart.
Clay can also be described in terms of its porosity. Porosity is determined by measuring the density
of pores. These are the empty spaces in the fabric that are formed during the firing process.
The hardness of clays is very often measured using the Mohs scale. The scale, with values ranging
from 1 (the softest) to 10 (the hardest), is based on the relative hardness of standard minerals: 1 – talc,
2 – gypsum, 3 – calcite, 4 – fluorite 5 – apatite, 6 – orthoclase, 7 – quartz, 8 – topaz, 9 – sapphire, and
10 – diamond. Hardness is determined with successive scratch tests. If a mineral leaves a mark on a
ceramic, the ceramic is softer. If both can scratch each other, they are of equal hardness. The Mohs scale
can also be supplemented with other materials of known hardness: 2.5 – if the ceramic can be scratched
by a fingernail, 3 – copper wire, 4.5 – window glass, 5.5 – the blade of a pocket knife.
Taking into consideration different criteria for clay description, we prepare a clay fabric classifica-
tion. The Vienna System, mentioned above, is one of the best known fabric classification systems. It
does not encompass all fabrics used in producing Egyptian pottery, but it can be a good reference and
standard for ceramics from any one particular site. For example, although the AERA settlement (the Heit
el-Ghurab site) has its own clay classification system, it includes clay equivalencies in the wider Vienna
System in order to make it more familiar to the larger ceramic audience (Wodzińska 2007: 287–289,
Table 11.3).
Shaping Methods (Arnold and Bourriau 1993, Hope 1987)

There are a number of methods for shaping pots: hand-shaping, hand-shaping and finishing with a
turning device, or shaping on a wheel. Hand-shaping methods include: 1) forming a single piece of clay
by the use of freehand shaping, 2) shaping with a paddle and anvil, or a paddle and the ground, 3) shap-
ing on a core or over a hump, 4) shaping with a mold, and 5) building with a slab/coil.
The simplest shaping method is to form a vessel freehand from a single piece of clay without using
any tools. Pots made this way are usually open with walls of irregular thickness. The paddle-and-anvil
method employs a paddle, usually a flat piece of wood, to shape clay against an anvil, usually a hemi-
spherical hole in the ground. Vessels made with the paddle-and-anvil have spherical or hemispherical
2 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

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bodies. Another simple method is to shape the vessel on a core or over a hump. A core can be a ceramic
pot, the shape of which can be duplicated. A hump can be made of wood or stone. In both cases, the
internal surface of the new pot will resemble the external surface of the core or hump. Similarly, a pot
can be made in a mold. Its external surface will resemble the internal surface of the mold, which can
be another pot, usually an open form. Another simple hand-shaping technique is slab/coil shaping. The
potter forms a coil of clay and lays it down in a spiral fashion in order to build a vessel. The use of a
turning device can help make pots with more regular shapes. However, the most advanced method is
with a wheel. A potter’s wheel with a stable central axis makes it possible to create regular forms with
relatively thin walls.
Surface Treatment
The surfaces of ancient Egyptian pots were treated in various ways. The most common method consisted
of simple smoothing prior to firing. The potter smoothed pots using hands or special tools, such as a
modified pottery sherd, a fragment of wood, or a pebble. The smoothed surface could also be coated and
subsequently burnished or polished. Burnishing is a process of refining the surface with the use of a hard
tool, commonly a pebble. A burnished surface is characterized by the presence of shiny stripes. Polishing
requires soft materials such as fabric or fur. The resulting surface shines without visible borders.
When a coat is applied to the surface before firing it is called a slip, while a wash designates a coat
applied after firing (Rice 1987: 151). In addition, vessels may be glazed, especially in the case of Medieval
pottery.
Decoration
We can distinguish several kinds of decoration: painted (before or after firing), incised (before or after
firing), impressed (before firing), stamped (before firing), applied (before firing), molded (before firing),
and “cut-out” (before firing).
The Ancient Egyptian potter, or in many cases an artist, decorated pots with several colors of paint.
The most common colors were generally white, red, black, and, in some cases, yellow and blue. Colors
can help in dating a pot. For example, blue was characteristic of certain ceramic vessels from the New
Kingdom.
The surface of a pot could be incised or impressed. The thickness of incised lines or dots depends on
the tool used. Thick irregular marks could be made with fingers. More detailed motifs could be executed
with tools made of wood, bone, or reed.
Impressed decorations are made with a variety of different materials. The surface of a pot may bear
traces of fabric or string. Stamped decoration is made using stamps in the shape of a palmette, rosette,
cross, etc.
Small decorative pieces of clay, the same consistency as that used for the walls, can be applied to the
surface before firing. This is simplest form of application or applique. However, clay can also be thinned
with water to achieve the consistencies necessary for different types of decorative techniques. A pottery
vessel can be covered with a type of watered-down clay applied by cutting a small hole in a bag and
squeezing a small, delicate rope of watery clay in decorative patterns. Again, this is done before firing.
This type of decoration is called barbotine.
The walls of pots made in molds bear relief decoration executed in the mold. The most characteristic
pots with molded decoration belong to the Roman terra sigillata tradition.
Some Egyptian pots, especially large stands, have holes in the walls made before firing while the clay
contains enough water to be carved. This is referred to as the “cut-out” method.

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Shape Designation (Rice 1987: 212–220)

All pots can be divided into two groups: Restricted and Unrestricted vessels. The rim diameter of a
restricted vessel is smaller than the maximum diameter of its body, whereas that of an unrestricted
vessel is greater than, or equal to, the maximum diameter of its body. These groups can be further
divided into formal groups:
Restricted vessels:
Jars (restricted vessel with neck, the height is greater that its maximum diameter)
Unrestricted vessels:
Bowls (unrestricted vessel with base)
Stands (unrestricted vessel without base and with two rims)
A restricted pot shape can also be described as hole-mouthed, meaning that the jar has a rim that
curves inward.
A vessel consists of three components: rim, body, and base (figure 1).
Figure 1. Basic vessel parts (partly based on Shepard 1995: 244, Figure 31).

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The shape of the body can be described using terms for geometric shapes: sphere, ellipsoid, ovaloid,
cylinder, hyperboloid, and cone (figure 2).
Figure 2. Vessel shape descriptions derived from geometric figure names (based on Rice 1987: 219, Figure 7.6).

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The bases of most Egyptian pots are round, but they can also be flat, slightly flat, or pointed. There
are also ring bases (figure 3). The rims can be pointed, round, flat, or recurved (figure 4).
Rounded base Slightly flat base Pointed base Flat base Ring base
Figure 3. Different base shapes.
Rims can be described in a variety of ways by different ceramicists based on rim orientation and
shape, much like the shape of bases (figure 4). Terms that are used to describe orientation are based
on the directionality of the walls and rim (such as straight, flaring, or narrowing), with direct usually
indicating a vertical stance to the rim and walls, and indirect usually referring to a flaring or narrow-
ing stance. However, these are not standard terms accepted by all ceramicists; everyone describes pots
slightly differently. When describing the actual shape of the rim itself, the terminology refers to the
geometric shape of the rim or the intention of the potter. For example, geometric shapes can be pointed,
flat, round, or recurved. Further, if the potter intended for the rim to be simple, with only a slight point
or flat on top, it might be called unmodeled. If the potter put extra work into finishing the rim by round-
ing or recurving, it might be called a modeled rim.
RIM SHAPE
pointed
rims
can also
be called
flat unmodeled rims
rims
rounded
rims
can also
be called
modeled rims
recurved
rims
straight flaring narrowing

rims rims rims
RIM
ORIENTATION can also be
can also be called
called direct
indirect rims
rims
Figure 4. Terminology for describing rim forms.

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Figure 5. Example of a typology of jars. (Since many of the vessels could not be completely reconstructed for
lack of bases, complete profiles, etc., the typology employs only rims and necks).
Typology
After examining a collection of pots, we sort them into types based on a number of shared traits. The
traits include a combination of production method, shape, clay, and surface treatment. In this way we
create a typology, or a classification, of all pottery from the site into types. Figure 5 shows a sample of a
jar typology.

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Table 1. Example of an AERA Pottery Form.
Date: 20iii2004 Bag number: 5
Context: 6-S25/21221 Processor: AW
Non diag. weight: 0.5 F2 non diag. weight: 1.5
Pot Type Fabric Part of vessel, Percent Count Weight - kg Remarks (presence of
number (clay, diameter - cm potmarks, traces of
surface vessel usage, etc.)
treatment)
23 AB1 GN3, WWh R, 10 10 1 0.1 Potmark–external

surface, after firing
24 CD7 GN4, WWh R, 20 5 1 0.1 -
25 F2 GN8 R, 20 5 1 0.4 Burned rim
Data base entry: AW Page: 2

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Table 2. Basic pottery processing tools.
POTTERY PROCESSING DRAWINGS PHOTOS

Handbook–for any additional Contour gauge, caliper Camera
remarks on the described material
Hand lens, min. 10x magnification Long ruler, triangles Photo background–for
–used during clay (fabric) example, a piece of fabric or
description and identification paper
Scales–for weighing Pencil Photo scale
Glue–used during reconstruction of Tracing paper, Grid paper
broken pots
Pen with black water-proof ink–for Pencil eraser
marking the sherds
Munsell color charts Circles for measuring diameter

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Table 3. General categories of the AERA Pottery Database.
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION
Number of pot Follows the number assigned to every diagnostic fragment
Drawing Drawing prepared, name of draftsperson
Photo Photo taken, photo number
Context Area, grid, square, feature number, feature type, building, etc.
Year Year of excavation
Type According to the site typology
Variants Variants of types
Vessel part R – rim, B – base, W – wall (body sherd), Cpr – complete profile, Cpot –
complete pot, H – handle, O – object made of ceramic
Count Quantity of sherds/pots
Percent Percentage of pot, rim, base preserved
Height PH – preserved height, CH – complete height, L – length, in centimeters
(cm)
Rim diameter Measured in centimeters (cm)
Base diameter Measured in centimeters (cm)
Max diameter Maximum diameter of body of a vessel, in centimeters (cm)
AERA clay (fabric) According to the site clay description
Hardness 1 – soft, 2 – middle (scratched with fingernail), 3 – hard (scratched with
copper wire), 4 – very hard (scratched with window glass)
Method of production HM – handmade, WT – wheel-turned, M – molded, WM – wheel-made
or HM-WT – handmade and later turned on a slow wheel
Base shaping M – molded, SC – string cut, Kf – knife cut
Base surface treatment See surface treatment
Break sections Colors of break sections
Break porosity Open, medium, dense
Surface treatment Sm – smoothed, P – polished , U – untreated, C – slipped (before firing),
(outside and inside) Wh – washed (after firing)
Slip colors R – red, O – orange, Pi – pink, Br – brown, Bl – black, W – white
Surface color Using the Munsell color charts
Decoration Painted, incised, applied, molded, etc.
(outside and inside)
Wall thickness Measured in centimeters (cm)
Weight Measured in kilograms (kg)
Remarks Usually description of the state of surface preservation, traces of ancient
usage
Potmarks Marks made on the surface: types, made before or after firing, on external
or internal surface
Storage Location where stored

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Post-Excavation Studies
T he work after excavation is the most time consuming part of pottery analysis. The field work is very
demanding and usually pottery specialists do not have enough time for a detailed analysis of the
material. During field work, however, the pottery is well documented in order to provide a basis for
further study. Time during the “off-season” is used for database entry, analysis of the data, and a study
of the results. Additionally, pencil drawings that were done during the field season are prepared for
publication; they are inked or redrawn in a computer graphics program. The final and most important
stage of the pottery study is its publication. The article or book should be a comprehensive account of
the material, including all the information that is available.
Pottery can be published in a variety of different ways. The publication of a corpus of ceramics from
a site begins with a qualitative description of the assemblage including the attributes discussed above.
The publication should include quantitative data as well, such as counts and percentages of each type.
Finally it must also move beyond description to consider the ceramics in their archaeological context in
order to shed light on the pottery itself as well as to inform us about the ancient site.
Considering the ceramics within the context of the site stratigraphy allows us to organize pottery
according to the phases of site occupation. For a site with a long occupation and well defined phases it is
possible to trace the ceramics over time. Do the relative proportions of types change? Or do some types
disappear or evolve into another type? Is the modification connected to the shapes or the technology
used to produce the pots? Is it related to the uses of the vessels?
While the site phasing can be used to place the ceramics in a chronological sequence, pottery with
already well established dates based on other sites may help to date a site or area within a site.
The ceramic analysis should also contribute to an understanding of the archaeological site. Pottery
can reflect activities and the functions of an area such as cooking, bread baking, beer brewing, etc.
Tomb and temple paintings showing pots similar to those from the site in use—for example, being used
to make wine—can be helpful in developing hypotheses about activities at the site. Pottery may also
reflect social status. The areas where the finest serving vessels occur at a site may be the homes of the
highest ranking people.
The publication of a single corpus of pottery should also contribute to broader studies of ceramics
in Ancient Egypt. Every study that is published can help identify the kinds of pottery associated with
settlements, cemeteries, or temples. They can contribute to working out how pottery was distributed
through Egypt and possibly in identifying the ancient production centers. What pottery types were
made in Upper/Lower Egypt? Why and how did they circulate throughout all of Egypt?
The imported pottery from a site contributes to a wider understanding of the Egyptian economy and
foreign relations. What kind of pottery vessels were imported to Egypt? What was their origin? What
kind of commodity did they contain? We also should keep in mind that some imported vessels were im-
itated in Egypt, which raises the question as to why Egyptian potters made imitations of foreign pots.
Ceramics may also be useful in examining socio-economic status in Ancient Egypt. What kind of
pottery was used by king and nobles? What kind of vessels were used by workmen employed in the royal
building activities? What kind of pots were used by simple farmers? What attributes characterize these
ceramics? Which ones can be considered, for instance, “royal”?
The ceramics of the Heit el-Ghurab site at Giza illustrate some of the ways in which pottery can
contribute to an understanding of an ancient community. The settlement is well dated to the late 4th
Dynasty and laid out with a number of different districts that are characterized by distinct sets of ma-
terial culture. This includes pottery, which reflects some of the functions of these different areas. For
example, bread pots dominate the assemblages from galleries and adjacent workshops, indicating bread

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production on a massive scale. Differences in the type of serving vessels found across the site reflect dif-
ferences in social status. In the workmen’s barracks (the galleries) simple carinated bowls covered with
white wash were used as serving vessels, while the large houses were equipped with many types of fine
red-slipped pots. The Heit el-Ghurab pottery came from a variety of sources. Most of the local ceram-
ics probably came from a centralized pottery workshop nearby, while another set of pots was imported
from Upper Egypt. Yet another group of ceramics came from Syro-Palestine.
The most important point of the post-excavation work is to publish the ceramics. They are of limited
use to the scholarly community until the collection is available in print.

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Ceramic Glossary
(see also Bourriau and Nordström 1993; Rice 1987: especially 471–485; Yon 1981)
Clay and Fabric

AERA Clay (fabric) Classification: the classification of clay types used for ceramics from AERA
excavations
Break: a fresh break of the vessel wall made in order to be able to describe the clay
Break porosity: the density of pores in the break, described as open, medium, or dense
Clay: the material the pottery is made of, mostly consisting of silica
Compacted: a term used by some ceramicists to describe a clay fabric in which the inclusions and
matrix are tightly packed, implying that the clay is homogenous in nature due to either its
natural quality or higher levels of processing and levigation by the potter
Fabric: the physical composition of a clay with inclusions, either naturally occurring and/or added
by the potter
Grog: small pieces of fired and crushed ceramic; often added to clay
Groundmass (or matrix, paste): the fine particles of clay and silt that make up the composition
of the clay
Hardness: the resistance of a material to mechanical deformation, measured in units of the Mohs
scale
Inclusions: organic and non-organic particles present in the clay
Levigated clay: clay that has been allowed to sit in water to remove impurities
Marl clay: a calcareous clay, also known as desert clay (or tafla in Arabic)
Mohs scale: a hardness scale consisting of a series of increasingly hard minerals from 1 (talc)
to 10 (diamond); used to specify the relative hardness of a ceramic
Nile clay: an alluvial clay associated with the Nile valley
Organic inclusions: organic particles present in the clay, such as straw, chaff, dung, and ash
Provenance: the geographical or geological origin of the clay source
Qena/Ballas: a marl clay from the Qena/Ballas region
Raw material: a material as it comes from the original source, before preparation
Tafla: marl clay
Temper: inclusions added to the clay by the potter to help enhance the function of the pot. For
example, sand can be added to clay used for cooking pots in order to prevent cracking during
temperature change, and organic materials such as chaff might be added to make the pot walls
more porous, allowing water vessels to cool more quickly. Additionally, a temper of grog can
add strength and stability to the walls of the pot.
Uncompacted: a term used by some ceramicists to describe a clay fabric in which the inclusions
and matrix are not tightly packed; implies that the clay is not homogenous in nature
Vienna System: a schema for classifying Egyptian fabrics and clays
Manufacture
Coil/slab-building: hand-building by the successive addition of slabs or coils of clay
Composite contour: most often results when a potter applies pressure to the side of the pot wall
during formation on the wheel, thus altering the profile to create a composite of two basic
geometric shapes
Core/hump: hand-building on a core or over a hump

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Handmade: building without the use of a potter’s wheel

Knife-cut: finishing the base using a knife/hard tool
Method of production: techniques of vessel shaping
Mold-shaping: hand-building with the use of a mold
Paddle- and-anvil shaping technique: shaping with the use of two tools:
the anvil, a round instrument used to press against the vessel wall from the inside, and the
paddle, a flat tool used to beat and support the wall from the outside
Paddle-and-ground technique: a shaping technique similar to paddle-and-anvil, but using the
surface of the earth/ground for shaping
Potter’s wheel: a revolving platform which moves on and around an axial pivot
Simple contour: a term that implies that the potter allowed the natural centrifugal forces of clay
formation on a wheel to shape the profile; for example, a simple outward flaring shape
or a simple cylindrical shape
String-cut: finishing the base using a string or wire
Turning device: a device without a pivot incapable of sustained rotations
Wheel-turned: building with the use of a potter’s wheel
Surface Treatment
Burnishing: producing a luster on the surface by rubbing it with a hard object (a pebble for
instance) in the leather-hard stage; characterized by the presence of individual parallel facets
Coat: a term used by some ceramicists to describe a layer of color on the surface that is not clearly
identifiable as a slip or a wash, due to degradation of the pot and/or chemical processes within
the soil
Color: surface color description, often using the defined colors in the Munsell soil color charts
Glaze: powdered glass applied to the fired surface of a ceramic that is then fired a second time in
order to fuse the powder and form a thin, glassy coat
Munsell soil color charts: charts of defined colors for the standardized identification and
description of soil colors
Polish: a glossy luster on the surface, produced by rubbing with a yielding tool in the leather-hard
stage; lacks the individual parallel facets characteristic of burnishing
Scraping: the act of dragging a tool across the surface of the clay in order to shape or remove
extra clay
Slip: a coat added to the surface before firing
Smoothing: the process of evening the surface, usually without using tools, by hand
Surface treatment (outside and inside): surface finishing methods
Trimming: a form of scraping, implies a more precise removal of extra material
Wash: a coat added to the surface after firing
Decoration
Application: adding, before firing, decorative elements to the exterior of the vessel
Barbotine: a decorative technique in which liquid clay is applied, leaving a pattern that is slightly
raised over the main surface; it usually refers to light colored applications applied over darker
ceramic surfaces before firing, while the clay is still moist; often used for Early Roman pottery
Cut-out decoration (also called fenestration): a design created by cutting away sections of the
wall, before firing, in the leather-hard stage
Decoration: additional surface treatment techniques

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Impressed decoration: patterns made with a tool that is impressed in clay, before firing
Incised decoration: designs executed, before or after firing, with the aid of a sharp tool; sometimes
filled with a pigment
Modeling: manipulation and shaping of the vessel wall before firing, while the clay is still moist
(can also be done in a mold)
Painted decoration: painting applied to the vessel before or after firing
Potmarks: marks incised on the vessel (internal or external), before or after firing
Sgraffito: a type of Medieval decorative technique in which an incision is cut through the slip
revealing the original color of the clay beneath
Type/Ware Classification
Type: a category of ceramics defined by a common set of attributes (combination of technology,
kind of clay, surface treatment, and shape of vessel) that distinguishes it from another class of
pots
Typology: a system of classification that organizes ceramics into types
Ware: a category of ceramics defined by a combination of technology, clay, and surface
treatment
Drying and Firing

Atmosphere: composition of gases in the air surrounding pottery during firing
Drying: the process of evaporating water from the formed vessel
Firing: transforming the clay into ceramic material under the influence of high temperatures
Leather-hard: the stage of the drying process during which clay contains enough water to be
carved or joined
Oxidation: a firing atmosphere characterized by an abundance of free oxygen
Pottery kilns: an oven or other installation in which pots are fired
Reduction: a firing atmosphere without the presence of oxygen, often with the presence of
colloidal carbon
Vitrification: the action or process of becoming glass
Pottery Processing
Diagnostic pieces: those from which the original form of the whole vessel can be deduced:
complete pots, complete profiles, parts of rims, and parts of bases. Sherds with decoration and
fragments with potmarks are also included.
Non-Diagnostic pieces: those from which the original form of the whole vessel cannot be
deduced: non-descript body parts and sherds without decoration or potmarks
Pottery Drawing Form: a form for a drawing of the individual vessels
Pottery Form: a form for recording information about a given ceramic
Pottery processing: the process of sorting pottery according to types and fabrics
Shape of Vessel
Base: the underside of a vessel
Body (wall): the part of the vessel between the rim and the base
Bottle: a jar with a globular or ovoid body and an elongated narrow neck
Bowl: an unrestricted vessel with base
Carination: the concave portion of the vessel between the rim and the maximum diameter of
the body

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Complete pot: a vessel preserved in its entirety

Complete profile: a profile of a vessel preserved in its entirety
Jar: a restricted vessel with a neck and a height greater than its maximum diameter
Max diameter: the maximum diameter of the body of a vessel
Neck: the part of the vessel between the shoulder and the rim
Plate: an unrestricted vessel with low, short walls and a flat base
Profile: a vertical cross section through the body of a vessel
Restricted vessel: a vessel with a rim diameter smaller than the maximum diameter of its body
Rim: the opening of the vessel
Sherd: a broken fragment of pottery
Shoulder: the upper part of the body
Stand: an unrestricted vessel without a base
Tray: an unrestricted vessel similar to a plate in shape, but often larger
Unrestricted vessel: a vessel with a rim diameter greater than or equal to the maximum
diameter of its body
Special Analyses
Elemental analysis: the identification of the chemical elements in a ceramic; may reflect
technological changes, or define clay sources or kiln products
Organic residue analysis: the identification of residue in pots; may reflect the diet of the people
using the pottery
Petrography: the microscopic study and description of rocks or other mineral material on the
basis of optical properties
Seriation: the chronological ordering of a group of artifacts in which the most similar are placed
adjacent to each other in the series; used as a relative dating technique
Thermal analysis: determining the temperature at which the pot was fired
Pottery Drawing
Contour gauge: a drawing tool that helps trace the vessel shape
Diameter measuring circle: a drawing tool used to determine the rim/base diameter of a broken
pot
Profile drawing: a drawing of the vertical cross section of a pot, showing wall thickness and details
of the rim, as well as the configuration of the base

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Bibliography for the Introduction

Arnold, D., and J. D. Bourriau. 1993. An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, SDAIK 17. Mainz am
Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.
Becker, J. 1987. Special Problems in Ceramic Illustration. In The Student’s Guide to Archaeological
Illustrating, edited by B. D. Dillon, 111–121. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of
California.
Bourriau, J. D., and H. Å. Nordström. 1993. Ceramic Technology: Clays and Fabrics. In An Introduction
to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, edited by D. Arnold and J. D. Bourriau, 143–190, SDAIK 17. Mainz am
Hope, C. 1987. Egyptian Pottery. Shire Egyptology 5. Aylesbury: Shire.
Joyce, O., and B. D. Dillon. 1987. Ceramics. In The Student’s Guide to Archaeological Illustrating, edited
by B. D. Dillon, 95–109. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of California.
Orton, C., P. Tyers, and A. G. Vince. 1993. Pottery in Archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Rice, P. M. 1987. Pottery Analysis: A Sourcebook. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shepard, A. O. 1995. Ceramics for Archaeologists. Washington, DC: Carnegie Institute of Washington.
Wodzińska, A. 2007. Preliminary Ceramic Report. In Project History, Survey, Ceramics, and the Main
Street and Gallery III.4 Operations, Giza Reports 1, edited by M. Lehner and W. Wetterstrom,
283–324. Boston: Ancient Egypt Research Associates.
Yon, M. 1981. Dictionnaire illustré multilingue de la céramique du Proche Orient Ancien, Collection de la
Maison de l’Orient Méditerranéen 10, Série Archéologique 7. Paris: Institut Français d’Archéologie
du Proche Orient.

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Further Reading: a General Selection on Ceramics

Adams, W. Y. 1986. Ceramic Industries of Medieval Nubia. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
———. 1986–1987. Times, Types, and Sites: The Interrelationship of Ceramic Chronology and Typology.
BES 8: 7–46.
Allen, S. J. 1997. Spinning Bowls: Representation and Reality. In Ancient Egypt, the Aegean and the Near
East: Studies in Honour of Martha Rhoads Bell, edited by J. Phillips, 17–38. San Antonio: Van
Siclen.
Amiran, R. 1970. Ancient Pottery of the Holy Land: from its Beginnings in the Neolithic Period to the End
of the Iron Age. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.
Arkell, A. J. 1960. The Origin of Black-Topped Red Pottery. JEA 46: 105–106.
Arnold, D. E. 1988. Ceramic Theory and Cultural Process. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
———. 2008. Social Change and the Evolution of Ceramic Production and Distribution in a Maya
Community. Denver: University Press of Colorado.
Arnold, D. E., C. Renfrew, and C. Gamble. 2003. Ecology and Ceramic Production in an Andean
Community. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Arnold, D. 1976. Wandbild und Scherbenbefund. Zur Töpfertechnik der Alten Ägypter von Beginn der
pharaonischen Zeit bis zu den Hyksos. MDAIK 32: 1–36.
———. 1977. Gefässe, Gefässformen, Gefässdekor. In LÄ II, 483–502.
———. 1980. Keramik. In LÄ III, 392–409.
———. 1981a. Ägyptischen Mergelton (“Wüstentone”) und die Herkunft einer Mergeltonware des
Mittleren Reiches aus der Gegend von Memphis. In Studien zur altägyptischen Keramik, edited
by D. Arnold, 167–191, SDAIK 9. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.
———, ed. 1981b. Studien zur altägyptischen Keramik, SDAIK 9. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.
———. 1986. Töpferei, Töpferwerkstatt, Töpferöfen, Töpferscheibe. In LÄ VI, 616–621.
Arnold, D., and J. Bourriau. 1993. An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, SDAIK 17. Mainz am
Arnold, D., C. Hope, P. T. Nicholson, and P. Rose. 1993. Techniques and Traditions of Manufacture in
the Pottery of Ancient Egypt. In An Introduction to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, edited by D. Arnold
and J. D. Bourriau, 6–141, SDAIK 17. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.
Arnold, P. J., III. 2003. Domestic Ceramic Production and Spatial Organization: A Mexican Case Study in
Ethnoarchaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Aston, B. G. 1994. Ancient Egyptian Stone Vessels. Materials and Forms. SAGA 5. Heidelberg:
Heidelberger Orientverlag.
Baba, M., and M. Saito. 2004. Experimental Studies on the Firing Methods of Black-topped Pottery in
Predynastic Egypt. In Egypt at its Origins. Studies in Memory of Barbara Adams. Proceedings of
the International Conference “Origin of the State. Predynastic and Early Dynastic Egypt,” Krakow,
28th August–1st September 2002, edited by S. Hendrickx, R. F. Friedman, K. M. Ciałowicz, and M.
Chłodnicki, 575–589, OLA 138. Leuven: Peeters.

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Bader, B. 2001. Tell el-Daba XIII: Typologie und Chronologie der Mergel C-Ton Keramik, Vienna: Verlag
der Österreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.
———. 2002. A Concise Guide to Marl C Pottery. Ägypten und Levante XII: 29–54.
Barclay, K. 2001. Scientific Analysis of Archaeological Ceramics: A Handbook of Resources. Oxford:
Oxbow Books.
Barnett, W. K., and J. W. Hoopes. 1995. The Emergence of Pottery: Technology and Innovation in Ancient
Societies. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.
Bulletin de liaison du groupe international d’étude de la céramique égyptienne. Cairo.
Becker, J. 1987. Special Problems in Ceramic Illustration. In The Student’s Guide to Archaeological
Illustrating, edited by B. D. Dillon, 111–121. Los Angeles: Institute of Archaeology, University of
California.
Bey, G. J., and C. A. Pool. 1992. Ceramic Production and Distribution: An Integrated Approach. Boulder:
Westview Press.
Bikai, P. M. 1989. The Phoenician Pottery of Cyprus. Nicosia: Leventis Foundation.
Bishay, A. 1974. Recent Advances in Science and Technology of Materials. Vol. 3. New York: Plenum Press.
Bourriau, J. D. 1981. Umm el-Ga´ab. Pottery from the Nile Valley before the Arab Conquest. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
———. 1998. The Role of Chemical Analysis in the Study of Egyptian Pottery. In Proceedings of the
Seventh International Congress of Egyptologists, edited by C. Eyre, 189–199, OLA 82. Leuven:
Peeters.
Bourriau, J. D., A. Bellido, N. Bryan, and V. Robinson. 2006. Egyptian Pottery Fabrics: a Comparison
between NAA Grouping and the “Vienna system.” In Timelines: Studies in Honour of Manfred
Bietak, edited by E. Czerny, 261–292. OLA 149. Leuven: Peeters.
Bourriau, J. D., and P. T. Nicholson. 1992. Marl Clay Pottery Fabrics of the New Kingdom from
Memphis, Saqqara and Amarna. JEA 78: 29–91.
Bourriau, J. D., and H. Å. Nordström. 1993. Ceramic Technology: Clays and Fabrics. In An Introduction
to Ancient Egyptian Pottery, edited by D. Arnold and J. D. Bourriau, 143–190, SDAIK 17. Mainz am
Bourriau, J. D., L. M. V. Smith, and P. T. Nicholson. 2000. New Kingdom Pottery Fabrics: Nile Clay and
Mixed Nile/Marl: Clay Fabrics from Memphis and Amarna. London: Egypt Exploration Society.
Bourriau, J. D., P. T. Nicholson, and P. J. Rose. 2000. Pottery. In Ancient Egyptian Materials and
Technology, edited by I. Shaw and P. T. Nicholson, 121–147. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Bronitsky, G. 1989. Pottery Technology: Ideas and Approaches. Boulder: Westview Press.
Brovarski, E. 1982. Lexicographical Studies in Egyptian Pottery. BCE VII: 36–37.
Butzer, K. 1974. Modern Egyptian Pottery Clays and Predynastic Buff Ware. JNES 33: 377–382.
Cahiers de la céramique égyptienne. Cairo.
Cyganowski, C. J. K. 1993. An Intersite Comparison of Middle Kingdom Lower Egyptian Marl C Fabric.
PhD thesis. University of Cambridge.
David, A. R. 1986. Science in Egyptology. Manchester: Manchester University Press.

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Davies, P. O. A. L. 1962. Red and Black Egyptian Pottery. JEA 48: 19–24.
Dorman, P. 2002. Faces in Clay. Technique, Imagery, and Allusion in a Corpus of Ceramic Sculpture from
Ancient Egypt. MÄS 52. Mainz am Rhein: Philipp von Zabern.
Drenkhahn, R. 1976. Die Handwerke und ihre Tätigkeiten im Alten Ägypten. ÄA 31. Wiesbaden:
Harrassowitz.
Druc, I. C. 2001. Archaeology and Clays. BAR International Series 942. Oxford.
Eggebrecht, A. 1975. Keramik. In Das alte Ägypten, edited by C. Vandersleyen, 348–358. Propyläen
Kunstgeschichte 15. Berlin: Propyläen Verlag.
Esse, D. L. 1991. Subsistence, Trade, and Social Change in Early Bronze Age Palestine. Studies in Ancient
Oriental Civilizations 50. Chicago: Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
Fauvet-Berthelot, M., S. Monzon, and H. Balfet. 1989. Lexique et typologie des poteries: pour la
normalisation de la description des poteries. Paris: CNRS Editions.
Freestone, I., and D. R. M. Gaimster. 1997. Pottery in the Making: Ceramic Traditions. Washington, DC:
Smithsonian Institution Press.
Freestone, I., C. Johns, and T. W. Potter. 1982. Current Research in Ceramics: Thin-Section Studies: the
British Museum Seminar 1980. London: British Museum.
Goddard, S., D. Knight, J. Goddard, S. Hamilton, and S. Rouillard. 1997. Aspects of Illustration:
Prehistoric Pottery, Association of Archaeological Illustrators and Surveyors. Exeter: Exeter
University.
Greenberg, R., and N. Porat. 1996. A Third Millennium Levantine Pottery Production Center. Typology,
Petrography, and Provenance of the Metallic Ware of Northern Israel and Adjacent Regions.
BASOR 301: 5–24.
Griffiths, D., and M. Ownby. 2006. Assessing the Occurrence of Egyptian Marl C Ceramics in Middle
Bronze Age Sidon. AHL 24: 63–77.
Hamroush, H. A. 1992. Pottery Analysis and Problems in the Identification of the Geological Origins of
Ancient Ceramics. CCE 3: 39–51.
Hendrickx, S., R. F. Friedman, and F. Loyens. 2000. Experimental Archaeology Concerning Black-
Topped Pottery from Ancient Egypt and the Sudan. CCE 6: 171–187.
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Clay and Fabric Descriptions Used in Volume 3

The Vienna System
NILE FABRICS
Material: NA
Groundmass: homogenous fine
Inclusions: abundant fine, often medium-sized and occasionally coarse, sand; mica is common
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 170–171, Plate I a–c
Material: NB1
Groundmass: homogenous medium-fine
Inclusions: numerous fine with some medium-sized and coarse sand; mica is common; scattered
fine (< 2 mm) straw particles
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 171, Plate I d–h
Material: NB2
Groundmass: homogenous medium
Inclusions: abundant fine sand and common medium-sized sand; scattered limestone particles;
noticeable fine to medium straw, with scattered coarse straw
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 171–173, Plate II a–d
Material: NC
Groundmass: coarse
Inclusions: numerous fine to coarse sand; some medium-sized limestone particles; predominance of
fine to coarse straw; sometimes grog
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 173–174, Plate II e–i
Material: ND
Groundmass: fine to medium
Inclusions: abundant limestone particles as in fabrics such as NA, NB1, or NB2-NC
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 174–175, Plate III a–c
Material: NE
Groundmass: medium fine
Inclusions: abundance of fine to coarse sand
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 175, Plate III d–h
MARL FABRICS
Material: MA1
Inclusions: relatively abundant fine-medium crushed limestone, some fine sand
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 176, Plate IV a–c

www.aeraweb.org
Material: MA2
Groundmass: fine
Inclusions: fine sand and limestone particles
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 176, Plate IV d–i
Material: MA3
Inclusions: few mineral inclusions; characteristic pores in the clay; a few accidental organic
inclusions
Remarks: very similar to modern Qena ware
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 177, Plate V a–c, g–h
Material: MA4
Groundmass: medium to coarse
Inclusions: large quantity of fine to coarse sand; mica particles also present; and some straw
particles
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 177–178, Plate V d–f, i–j
Material: MB
Groundmass: homogenous and very dense
Inclusions: without voids; abundant quantities (around 40% of the paste) of sand added as a temper
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 178–179, Plate VI a–c, g–h
Material: MC
Groundmass: fine and dense
Inclusions: abundant more or less decomposed limestone particles; fine and medium sand added
as a temper
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 179–180
Material: MD
Groundmass: fine and homogenous
Inclusions: predominantly fine to coarse limestone particles added as a temper (25% of the paste);
fine to coarse sand; mica; dark rock material
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 181–182, Plate VII a–c, e–f
Material: ME
Groundmass: medium to coarse
Inclusions: very similar to MB except for straw particles, here very abundant medium to coarse;
numerous medium to coarse sand; some mica
Reference: Bourriau and Nordström 1993: 182, Plate VII d
Material: MF
Groundmass: medium
Inclusions: abundant fine to medium sand, some mica and few red particles
Reference: Aston 1998: 66–67

www.aeraweb.org
Clay Designations Used in the Manual and Comparison with the Vienna System
Ceramicists often publish ancient Egyptian pottery with fabric classifications from their own sites, but
in some cases they compare their site-specific classifications to the more widely known Vienna System
to facilitate understanding and comparison with sites across Egypt. The following charts represent the
equivalencies used in this volume.
Second Intermediate Period – Thebes Vienna System

(Seiler 2005: 31–38) (Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
D1, Nile clay NB1
D2, Nile clay NB2
D3, Nile clay –
D4, Nile clay NC
D5, Nile clay ND–NB1
E1, marl clay MC2
E2, marl clay MB
E3, marl clay ~ variant of MB
E4, marl clay MA3
E5, marl clay MA4
E6, marl clay MA2
E7, marl clay MC1
E8, marl clay MC, compact
E9, marl clay –
E10, marl clay –
New Kingdom – Saqqara Vienna System

(Bourriau et al. 2005) (Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
G1, Nile clay NB2
G2, Nile clay NB1
G3, Nile clay ND
H1, marl clay MD
H2, marl clay MA4
H4, marl clay MA4, fine
Mixed clay fabric I –
P4, Mycenaean –
P7, Cypriote –
P11, P16, P40, Canaanite –

www.aeraweb.org
New Kingdom, Amarna Vienna System

(Rose 2007: 11–16) (Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
I.1, Nile clay NB2 group
I.3, Nile clay NB2 group
I.4, Nile clay ND group
I.5, Nile clay NB2
I.6, Nile clay ND variant
I.7, Nile clay ND variant (?)
III.1, marl clay M A2/A4
III.2, marl clay MD group
III.4, marl clay MA2
III.8, marl clay MB
V.2, marl clay MD group (?)
V.6, marl clay MA2
IV.2, oasis fabric –
IV.3, oasis fabric –
V.10, oasis fabric –
III.10, Canaanite –
IV.1a, Canaanite –
IV.6, Canaanite –
V.5, Canaanite –

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New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, Qantir Vienna System

(Aston 1998: 60–74) (Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
I.A, Nile clay NA
I.B, Nile clay NB
I.B.01, Nile clay –
I.C, Nile clay NC
I.D, Nile clay ND
I.D.01, Nile clay ND
I.D.02, Nile clay ND
I.E, Nile clay NE
I.E.01, Nile clay NE
II.A.01, marl clay MA1
II.B, marl clay MB
II.C, marl clay MC
II.C.01, marl clay MC
II.C.02, marl clay MC
II.D, marl clay MD
II.D.01, marl clay MD
II.D.02, marl clay MD
II.E, marl clay ME
II.F, marl clay “MF”
II.F01, marl clay “MF”
II.F.02, marl clay “MF”
III.A, mixed clay –
III.B, mixed clay –
IV.07.01–20, Levantine –
V.01–02, Dakhla –
VI, Cypriote –
VII, Aegean –
VIII, Miscellaneous –

www.aeraweb.org
Third Intermediate Period, Memphis Vienna System

(Aston 2007: 18–29) (Bourriau and Nordström 1993)
G1 NB2
G1a, similar to G1, but better fired NB2
G4 NC
G5 ND
G6, dense Nile fabric resembling marl, the –
surface is usually pale yellow, the section has
a narrow outer zone of reddish brown with wide black
core. It contains inclusions of fine and medium-sized
sand and mica, with some
limestone particles, fine straw, and translucent red-brown
and dark rock particles (Aston 2007: 23–24).
J2, fine Nile fabric, sandy variant NB1
J7, fine Nile fabric, with fine sand, a little NB1 (?)
limestone, and some black grit
H1 MD
H4 MA4
H14 MD group
K5, Late Period dense marl, firing from green –
through yellow buff to pink to white. The usual color
is light brown with reddish yellow core. The inclusions
(grog-ochre, sand, limestone, little coarse straw) are not
frequent (Aston 2007: 26).
L6, hard, dense fabric with distinctive section, –
with zones of reddish yellow at the surface,
yellow, pink, and pale yellow, a wide gray core. It con-
tains inclusions of fine straw, sand, mica, dark grit, and
large pieces of grog (up to 2 mm). Perhaps pots made of
this fabric are of Dakhla origin (Aston 2007: 26–27).
P45, dense, medium-textured fabric with light –
brown, orange/pink, orange, brown, yellow and gray
surface. The inclusions are numerous limestone particles
from southern oasis (Aston 2007: 27).
P11, P12, P16, P30, P31, P33, P40 Levantine wares

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us. When a child is compelled to do a piece of school work without
realizing the significance of that which he does, there is substituted
for this realization of need or problem an artificial need; namely, to
avoid an unpleasant consequence.
There is another important argument which must not be
overlooked. When a child works under compulsion, he usually gives
just as little attention to his work as may be necessary to escape
painful results. It is not uncommon for children to divide their
attention most skillfully between distasteful school tasks and the out-
of-school activities in which they are vitally interested. This lack of
undivided attention to the work in hand results in a habit of work
which cannot fail to be disastrous to the highest intellectual
attainment. It is true also that children who have been subjected to
such treatment come to look upon books and lessons as something
of a nightmare, and are only too glad when the opportunity presents
itself to leave school and go to work. The child’s attitude, growing out
of his school experience, is quite as important as any result which
we may achieve in knowledge.
Professor Dewey’s summary of the relation of interest and effort
defines most adequately interest in its true significance, and
indicates the place of effort in educative process. He says:—
“Genuine interest in education is the accompaniment of the
identification, through action, of the self with some object or idea,
because of the necessity of that object or idea for the maintenance
of self-expression. Effort, in the sense in which it may be opposed to
interest, implies a separation between the self and the fact to be
mastered or the task to be performed, and sets up an habitual
division of activities. Externally, we have mechanical habits with no
psychical end or value. Internally, we have random energy or mind-
wandering, a sequence of ideas with no end at all because not
brought to a focus in action. Interest, in the sense in which it is
opposed to effort, means simply an excitation of the sense organ to
give pleasure, resulting in strain on one side and listlessness on the
other.
“But when we recognize there are certain powers within the child
urgent for development, needing to be acted upon, in order to secure
their own due efficiency and discipline, we have a firm basis upon
which to build. Effort arises normally in the attempt to give full
operation, and thus growth and completion, to these powers.
Adequately to act upon these impulses involves seriousness,
absorption, definiteness of purpose, and results in formation of
steadiness and persistent habit in the service of worthy ends. But
this effort never degenerates into drudgery, nor mere strain of dead
lift, because interest abides—the self is concerned throughout.”[3]
Interest, as Professor Dewey defines it, is intrinsic. The pupil does
his work not because he hopes to escape some punishment or get a
high mark, but because the work of itself commands his attention.
The teacher must constantly choose whether she will work for
interest of this type, which depends upon the recognition of the worth
of the task to be performed, or resort to an interest which has no
relation to the work to be done. Shall she appeal to the child through
his instinctive delight in finding out, in constructive work, or other
form of expression, or shall she appeal to his instinct of fear of a
whipping or dislike of ridicule or nagging?
It is true that, after the teacher has done her best to appeal on the
basis of the child’s needs for growth and development, not all
children will respond equally, and so, as in the larger society outside
of school, the child will need to be kept from interfering with others,
and required to do that which those who are wiser have decided that
it is advantageous for him to do. But this resort to authority, an
acknowledgment of lack of ability on our part or the result of
unfavorable conditions, must come last; it should never be the point
of departure.
There is one other distinction which it is well to keep in mind when
we think of interest. Our discussion thus far has considered interest
as a means for securing certain desirable ends. We may not forget
that to secure interest which will persist in many of the types of
activity found in the school should be considered as an end worthy in
itself.[4] We may hope to have a boy interested in his history lesson
in order that he may gain the knowledge contained in this subject.
Interest is the means we employ to secure the desired result. On the
other hand, we may hope that the boy we teach will continue to be
interested in history throughout his life. In this latter case the interest
which we hope to secure in history becomes an end for which we
work. As a result of any system of education, we are justified in
expecting, not only an increase in the command of facts and in a
knowledge of the best method of procedure in working in subjects
taught, but also in hoping for the development of lasting interests
which will make for a continuance of the period of education and for
greater joy in life.
Heredity in Education: An inquiry into opposing theories of heredity
is not relevant to our main purpose; but we are concerned with
certain facts, commonly accepted, which condition our work. No one
will dispute the fact that the children assembled in any schoolroom
differ in native capacity, as well as in experience. Whether genius or
its lack are apt to be reproduced in the children of gifted or dull
parents is not the question the teacher has to solve. For her the
demand is too often that she turn out a uniform product from a group
of individuals who range from the genius to the dullard or mental
defective. It is well for teachers to realize that in any non-selected
group the majority of individuals may be expected to be of ordinary
ability, and that a few will range above this standard, and a few will
fall below. The important thing to remember is that a group of normal
children cannot be ranged in ability in two or three distinct groups
with clearly defined boundaries, but that if any adequate test be
given, we will find that they distribute themselves over a wide range,
with small rather than large differences between individuals. For
example: if a searching test in fundamental operations of arithmetic
is given, we know that some child will probably get nearly all of the
work done correctly, and, even with our care in grading, some child
in the group will probably fail in more than half of the work; and that
between these two extremes we will have almost every grade of
ability represented, with a tendency for a considerable number to
group themselves at about that point which we consider ordinary or
average ability.[5] Not only is it true that individuals differ in ability of
any particular sort, but it is also true that the child who has little
ability in one direction may be up to the average or have more than
usual ability in some other direction. In our teaching we should have
a minimum standard of efficiency for all who are not mentally
defective, and we should strive earnestly to have all reach this goal.
If wisely selected, this minimum will include that which is absolutely
necessary for further advancement along the line of work pursued.
The majority of the class should achieve results beyond this
minimum, and for the exceptionally bright child the maximum should
be fixed only by the child’s ability and the requirements of good
health. It is useless to attempt to make all alike; it is wrong to limit
the accomplishment of the gifted by the capacity of the majority;
these are the lessons which the consideration of the capacities of
any group of children should teach. We cannot furnish ability, but we
may create an attitude of listlessness and mental laziness, if we do
not give the bright child enough to do. Education demands a
recognition of peculiar abilities and their nurture. We can never
create genius from mediocre ability, and we may not assume that
genius is irrepressible.
For Collateral Reading

E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, Chapters V and VI.
E. L. Thorndike, Individuality.
E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, Chapter IV.
Exercises.
1. What institutions contribute to the education of children?
2. Why has the responsibility of the school increased during the past century?
3. How would you justify compulsory education? Medical examination?
Compulsory dental treatment?
4. Why do changed social conditions demand changed methods of instruction as
well as a different curriculum?
5. Why does the teacher need to know the home life of the children in her class?
6. What is the significance of parents’ and mothers’ clubs, or any other
organization of the teachers and the patrons of the school?
7. Why should teachers participate in the campaign against tuberculosis?
8. Give instances from your own experience of the educative value of play.
9. Why can a boy write a better composition about making a kite than on
“Honesty is the best policy”?
10. What is the objection to providing children with model compositions and
asking them to write on closely related themes?
11. Give examples of a proper appeal to the instinct of emulation.
12. How do you account for the fact that in some classes children seldom ask
questions?
13. What value is there in a collection of birds’ nests, flowers, minerals, woods,
and the like, which one finds in some schoolrooms?
14. How would you hope to develop the social instinct in the pupils you teach?
15. Give the children in your class ten problems in addition, score one for each
column added correctly, and compare the results. Can a teacher create ability?
16. In a city school system forty per cent of the children have been retarded one
or more years during their school life. Do you think that differences in ability justify
the repeating of work one or more years by so large a percentage of the children?
17. Should we try to have children develop equal ability in all of their studies, or
rather encourage them to do especially well in one or two subjects?
18. Should a pupil who receives only forty per cent in his arithmetic examination
be compelled to repeat the grade?
19. State the argument of those who believe that disagreeable, uninteresting
work is most valuable in educating children.
20. What reasons can you give for the demand that teachers secure the interest
of their pupils in school work?
21. Why is it bad intellectually for a child to divide his interest between his school
work and some other activity while doing school work?
22. There is always some motive present when work is accomplished in the
school. If the pupil is not interested in his work, what motives will you be apt to find
in operation?
23. Does the demand that children take an interest in their work mean that we
will require them to do only the sort of work which is easy for them?
24. Name three situations in school work in which you would seek to use interest
as a means. Three cases in which you would consider interests as ends.
25. In which situation will a boy write the better letter: when asked to write a
letter as a class exercise, or when he writes to his uncle about their plans for his
summer vacation?
26. The ends which we desire to attain may be relatively near or remote.
Classify the following aims presented to children according to (1) the remoteness
of the end to be achieved, (2) the interest which you would expect children to take
in the work for which these aims are supposed to furnish some motive. Suppose
the class to be a seventh-grade group of boys.
1. Learn how to build a boat.
2. Become a writer of good English.
3. Gain in skill in the process of dovetailing.
4. Write for a catalog of sets of tools for boys.
5. Find out why England maintains the largest navy in the world.
6. Prepare a description of the building of the Panama Canal.
7. Decide why so many Russians come to the United States.
8. Make the drawings for a sled to be built for his own use.
9. Make a rabbit trap from plans furnished by the teacher.
10. Study algebra to get ready to go to college.
11. Write a story of an interclass basket-ball game for the school paper.
12. Enjoy one of Kipling’s stories.
CHAPTER III
THE TEACHING PROCESS
Education means change, growth, development. The process is

one of adjustment in which the individual is not only affected by his
environment, but is also capable, in turn, of changing or even in a
measure creating the situation in which he lives. The experience of
any individual grows in meaning and significance through successive
demands for new adjustments. Among the lower animal forms there
are those who have very little power of adjustment; regardless of the
situation presented, they can react only in one way, or, as the animal
structure increases in complexity, in a very few ways. The power of
adjustment being small, the possibilities of learning and of education
are small. As has already been indicated in our discussion of
instincts, human beings are equipped with many tendencies to react,
and with power to react in a very great variety of ways. Man has
power beyond all other animals to profit by experience, and is
distinguished from them by his power to learn by means of ideas, not
simply by the process of trial and error. Our problem is, then, to
inquire concerning the conditions under which a situation demands
adjustment, under which experience is reconstructed, and, further, to
discuss the manner in which socially desirable reactions may be
made the permanent possession of the learner, while those inimical
to social welfare are eliminated.
In general adjustments are made in response to one of the
following situations: (1) when satisfaction of some instinctive need
results; (2) when satisfaction of an idea of an end to be reached, the
attainment of which will satisfy some instinctive or acquired need,
results; (3) when satisfaction of an acquired need, functioning at the
time the adjustment is made, is the immediate result. In these cases
a type of adjustment not instinctively demanded and not originally in
itself pleasing reaches a point where it is in itself satisfying. The
value of the experience is intrinsic.
Little need be said concerning the first class of adjustments in
addition to our discussion of instincts in the previous chapter. When
one finds himself in a situation which threatens bodily harm, he
instinctively tries to get out of the way. In the presence of materials,
children instinctively handle them, or make a noise with them, or
attempt to construct something. The schoolboy, with his questions,
his collection of stamps, his adherence to his gang, is making
adjustments which satisfy instinctive needs.
Under the second class are included reactions in which the
satisfaction of the instinctive need is not the immediate result, and
those cases where satisfaction may be explained only by reference
to an acquired need. The essential characteristic of this class of
adjustments is the fact that the idea intervenes. It is for the
satisfaction of our idea of an end which may be remote for which the
adjustment is made. A pupil may try to read well because he has the
idea that reading well pleases the teacher. The end desired may be
simply to get along with the teacher without the discomfort of a
scolding, or because of his instinctive desire for praise. A boy may
labor diligently in building a sled because of his idea of the pleasure
which will result to himself or possibly to others. A group of children
may save their pennies to buy books, instead of satisfying their
desire for candy, because of their idea of satisfaction to be derived
from the books to be bought. A man may endure many hardships
because of his idea of future wealth, political preferment, fame, or
other good which he hopes will result.
After a time activities which were stimulated by the idea of a
satisfactory end to be achieved may be repeated for their own sake.
This gives us our third class of adjustments. The boy may find it very
difficult to spend five hours a day with books, while the man finds his
chief delight in this form of activity, altogether aside from a result
beyond his present satisfaction. A child may begin to read because
of the authority of the teacher and his fear of unpleasant
consequences, and yet may later come to find great delight in
reading. In teaching we should strive to bring as many as possible of
the adjustments to be made under this last category. The boy or girl
who finds his greatest satisfaction in making the adjustments, in
gaining the experience, in doing the work that the school provides, is
getting the best possible preparation for the life of the man or woman
who finds his own greatest joy in his everyday activity. We need not
be discouraged because of the seeming impossibility of the task,
since its achievement would indicate perfection, toward which we
strive, and which, because it is perfection, we never achieve.
Adjustments are to be made, experiences must be had; and our
appeal, whether based upon the satisfaction of instinctive
tendencies, the idea of ends near or remote, or the satisfaction of
acquired needs which are socially advantageous, must be the
highest appeal which can now be made with the assurance that the
resulting reaction will be secured.
There is one point which all of these situations which call for
adjustment have in common; that is, satisfaction. This fact is
fundamental in teaching. Not only are we limited in our work by
native tendencies and capacities, but the results must give
satisfaction, else the reaction induced will tend not to be repeated.
Of course satisfaction or pleasure is a relative term; possibly it would
be fairer to say that the individual reacts in the way which will result
in the least dissatisfaction or pain. A boy may dislike to write in a
copybook, but he may prefer that to a whipping or to being kept after
school. There is one other possible misconception which must be
guarded against. That which the individual considers most
satisfactory may not be best for his well-being, nor for the welfare of
others with whom he associates. It is the work of the teacher to
encourage adjustments which are socially desirable, and to make
unpleasant the results which are socially disadvantageous, even
though they originally gave satisfaction to the individual.
Corresponding to the types of adjustment mentioned above are
the types of attention. When the adjustment is made in response to
an instinctive tendency to react, we have what is called passive or
involuntary attention. The boy who looks at the door when it opens,
who makes a paper boat instead of doing his work in arithmetic, or
who talks to his neighbor about the ball game they are to play after
school, is passive so far as any attempt to control his mental
activities is concerned. He is following the line of least resistance. He
does not will to make these adjustments, or to attend to these things;
hence we say that he attends involuntarily, that he is passive in the
situation.
A second type of attention is that in which the individual makes an
adjustment, follows a given line of activity, voluntarily. He is active in
his determination to accomplish certain ends, and in order to secure
these results he resists the tendency to wander, to give his attention
to other elements in the situation which may be natively more
attractive. This type of attention we call active. We have this type of
attention wherever the individual works for the satisfaction of his idea
of an end worthy to be accomplished. It corresponds to the second
class of adjustments mentioned above.
Through the exercise of active attention over a considerable
period, the necessity for effort, for the exercise of the will in order
that we may not wander from the main purpose, becomes less and
less, until finally a passive attitude is again reached. This type of
attention is designated as secondary passive attention.[6] It
corresponds to the third type of adjustments named above.
In teaching, we begin most frequently with passive attention; we
work most earnestly to secure and to hold active attention; and if our
work is successful, children will reach the stage of secondary
passive attention, at least with reference to some of the activities
found in the school.
In the first grade, in the beginning reading class, the teacher
appeals to the children on the basis of their instinctive delight in
movement, their desire to be like or to excel others, their pleasure in
drawing with pencil or crayon, their love of a good story, and other
like instinctive tendencies to react. The adjustments made are in
response to instinctive needs, and the attention is largely passive.
Gradually, as the work progresses, the ends to be achieved will
become more remote, and instead of immediate satisfaction of
instinctive needs, the children will work for the satisfaction of their
ideas of ends which are desirable, whether based on instinctive or
acquired needs. They may work diligently in the phonic or word drill
because they have the idea that this must be done in order to read
the story, and the end ultimately to be satisfied may be to give
pleasure to others. The adjustment is made here in response to the
idea of an end to be secured, which represents the satisfaction of a
need which probably has been acquired in the school or at home.
Later in the history of these same children they may read,
overcoming whatever difficulties may present themselves, simply
because this process is for them in itself worth while. Here we have
the adjustment which gives immediate satisfaction of an acquired
need, and the type of attention which has been designated as
secondary passive.
The problem for the teacher is to secure continued attention to one
thing. Almost any exercise which the school offers will be interesting
for a brief time because it is something new. The difficult task is not
to get attention, but to hold it. Children attend to the situation at hand
just as long as it proves more attractive than some other. The boy
who is called inattentive may be most attentive to the plan he is
making to earn money to go to the circus. The teacher must
endeavor to discover ends sufficiently attractive to command the
active attention of children for a considerable period. The child must
be willing to exert himself, and the motive for his effort must be
strong enough to bring him back to the task in hand every time that
he tends to wander. Often the success of the work will depend upon
a recognition of the fact that it is very difficult to attend for any
considerable period to a situation in which the elements do not vary.
We may secure continued concentrated attention by recognizing the
fact that variety in procedure, or in appeal, will make it possible for
the child to keep his attention fixed. Take, for example, a topic in
geography. The teacher will question to bring out different aspects of
a topic, show the children pictures or use illustrative materials, have
children read the map, tell a story or incident relating to the situation
under consideration, and in this manner keep children actively
thinking on one topic for half an hour. We shall discuss at some
length the problem of aim, in connection with the inductive
development lesson. Suffice to say here that often we fail to secure
the continued attention of children because we ask them to attend to
that which for them lacks interest or significance.
Children work hardest when the problem to be solved is one that
they recognize as their own. They make adjustments which mean
immediate satisfaction, or which they believe will ultimately give
satisfaction. Our difficulty is often that the end we set up is too
remote. The idea of becoming a well educated man will not ordinarily
be powerful enough to keep a boy at work on a composition, but the
desire to be the author of a paragraph in the school paper, to write to
a boy in another city or country, or to compose part of a drama which
the class will act for their friends, may mean the hardest sort of work,
the most concentrated attention of which he is capable.
The children with whom we work come to us with tendencies to
react, and are capable of reacting in a great variety of ways. They
learn by making adjustments to a great variety of situations. The
teaching process consists in providing the situations and the stimuli
to action, in guiding the individual in such a way that the undesirable
reactions will be eliminated by disuse or because the results are
unpleasant, in making permanent desirable native reactions or those
which have been grafted upon or derived from them by making the
results pleasant.
The teaching process is, in general, as described above; but the
actual work of the teacher varies greatly as she strives now for one
end and again for another. There is a methodology of habit formation
which the teacher must command if she is to do successful work in
equipping her pupils with desirable habits. If our problem is one that
lends itself to the inductive method, we have one sort of procedure;
while if the thinking involved is deductive, certain other elements
enter. There is a kind of work in which we aim primarily for
appreciation, and at another time we are chiefly concerned in
teaching children how to study. The proper conduct of a review or
examination, and the type of exercise commonly known as a
recitation lesson, need to be discussed in some detail. In the
chapters which immediately follow, each of these types of
schoolroom exercises will be considered. Success in teaching
consists quite as much in working definitely for well defined ends
which may be accomplished in this fifteen minutes, this half hour, or
during this week, as in keeping in mind the more general aims of
education. Indeed, the only way in which we can secure the larger
ends is by successfully achieving the lesser tasks. The teacher who
knows that she has fixed this desirable habit of thought, feeling, or
action, that this bit of knowledge has taken its place in a usable
system, that this ideal or purpose has been awakened, that certain
methods of work are available for the group of children whom she is
teaching,—that teacher can be sure that she is fulfilling her mission.
For Collateral Reading

E. J. Swift, Mind in the Making, Chapter VI.
E. A. Kirkpatrick, Genetic Psychology, Chapter X.
Exercises.
1. When a teacher raps her pencil against a desk and the children look toward
her, what is the type of adjustment made? When will they cease to pay attention to
the rap of the pencil? What suggestion would you offer concerning the danger
which may be found in rapping the pencil against the desk, ringing a bell, clapping
the hands, shouting “be quiet”?
2. Name some exercises in arithmetic in which you may depend somewhat upon
instinctive adjustments to insure progress.
3. Where do you think you will find the most instinctive adjustments,—in
geography, arithmetic, drawing, English composition, or physical training?
4. A boy who had done poor work in algebra improved greatly when changed
from a class taught by a man to one taught by a woman. How would you account
for the change, taking it for granted that the teachers were equally competent?
What type of adjustment did the boy make?
5. Why is it that any new subject will prove attractive for a short time, and
children will later show a lack of interest in the work?
6. Is there any difference between making a class period interesting and finding
a motive which appeals to children which will lead them to desire to cover the
material which you have assigned?
7. Which is the better, to have a girl study her geography lesson to please the
teacher or to have her at work trying to solve a problem in which she is interested?
8. What sort of results do teachers secure who compel children to learn their
lessons through fear of being ridiculed or otherwise punished? If these children
know as much as other children whose teacher has them at work satisfying their
idea of pleasure,—which will result in being able to read well to the class, prepare
their part of the class drama, or investigate in fields in which they are much
interested,—would you, then, consider the first sort of teaching as satisfactory as
the second?
9. To what degree can you depend upon the awakening of intellectual interests
to provide a motive for good work on the part of pupils?
10. Do you think the following list of questions would prove intellectually
stimulating to a group of sixth-grade pupils:—
“Where is Philadelphia? What is the capital of New York? What are the principal
rivers of the Middle Atlantic states? Where is Pittsburgh? For what is Pittsburgh
noted? What river forms the eastern boundary of Pennsylvania? Bound Virginia.
Locate the capitals of the states in this group. Name two valuable products raised
near the coast. Describe the surface of this group of states.”
11. How many children in your class find satisfaction in their school work
sufficient to keep them at it if no marks were given and no one compelled them to
attend school? Are there some subjects or parts of subjects where you secure this
sort of enthusiasm for school work? Why do you succeed better in these phases of
school work than in others?
12. What is wrong with the boy who is quiet during the recitation, apparently
absorbed in the work, but who gets nothing out of it?
13. Why does the teacher who speaks in a loud tone of voice in order to compel
attention have to speak louder and louder as the day advances?
14. What is wrong with a class which does good work in long division at the
beginning of the arithmetic period, and very poor work at the end of thirty minutes?
15. Give examples of passive attention, active attention, and secondary passive
attention, from your own classroom work.
16. Describe the situations in which you believe your children did the best
intellectual work. How do you account for the excellence of this work?
CHAPTER IV
THE DRILL LESSON
Many responses of thought and action must be reduced to an

automatic basis. It is the function of the drill lesson to accomplish this
result. In some schools this type of work has been overemphasized,
while in others it has been neglected. It is a mistake to spend the
whole of a child’s time and energy drilling him upon that which some
one else has thought. He must think for himself while a child, if he is
to show intellectual strength as a man. And it is just as much a
mistake to believe that the greatest progress in thought or action can
be achieved without careful attention to the formation of desirable
habits. Probably there is little need to-day to argue against this
conception of teaching, which makes the teacher simply and solely a
drill master. Our respect for the native tendencies and for the
experiences of children, our emphasis upon doing, our belief that the
best preparation for future efficiency is to be found in present childish
efficiency, all refute any such narrow view of the educative process.
There is, however, in some quarters a danger that this insistence
upon thinking and doing may be construed to mean that drill work is
no longer necessary. There are children who are terribly
handicapped in their later work because they have not learned to
spell common words, to write a legible hand, to give without
hesitation the addition combinations, to reproduce the multiplication
tables, to use without much thought the processes commonly
employed in arithmetic work. They find difficulty in reading, because
they lack that knowledge of phonetics which would make easy the
recognition of unfamiliar words in their reading; they stumble in
geography, fail in music, lack ability to comprehend their work in
nature study or history, all because facts essential to further
progress, once presented and understood, were not reduced to an
automatic basis by carefully conducted drill exercises. If it is clear
that much of the knowledge which children acquire must be reduced
to the basis of habit, we may next inquire just how this drill work is to
be related to the other part of the school work.
Question of motive: In the formation of habits not provided for by
native tendencies to react, the occasion for making the adjustment
is, as in the case of our thinking, the recognition of a need. Our first
attempts to talk or to use our limbs were due solely to the compelling
force of instinct, but later we learned a foreign language or achieved
success in the high jump because we had a definite aim in mind. So
far as the teacher is concerned with habit formation, she can hope to
utilize instinctive tendencies, but may not depend upon them alone
to secure the result. A motive must be provided for the work. The
stronger this incentive, the greater will be the attention given to the
work in hand and the sooner will the desired result be secured. Very
much of the drill work which is done is well-nigh futile because it is
imposed upon children. They do not see its significance, and feel
little interest in the accomplishment of the results demanded.
Ideally, drill lessons should come when the children see that their
future progress is conditioned by successful formation of the habits
involved. And this is not so impossible of accomplishment as might
appear at first sight. If the material given to children to read in the
first grade is of such a nature that they really care to read it, they are
very quick to see that word drill, and later phonetic drill, will help
them to secure the end desired. Of course the reply may be made:
“What is the use of bothering one’s self with this attempt to make a
rational appeal to children? They will be completely satisfied if you
simply keep them at it. It is a game for them. They enjoy it simply
because they delight in accomplishment.” One might reply to such a
statement by calling to mind the fact that the school exists to develop
rationality. You may be perfectly sure that frequently enough the
children, and later the men and women, will be driven or led without
any appeal to reason. It will undoubtedly be true that we shall have
to appeal to motives other than rational; but surely this appeal to
reason should be made, and, if our education is successful, should
be increasingly potent as we advance from grade to grade. Even
when a rational motive has been made the point of departure, we
shall have to use many devices to keep alive the child’s original
intention. But let us frankly admit, both to ourselves and to the
children, that these subsidiary aims are merely aids in helping us to
achieve the more worthy aim. If such a standard of motive were
applied throughout our work, we should probably find it necessary to
postpone certain activities which we insist upon for no reason which
a child can understand, until there was some real use for the habit to
be formed. We might even find ourselves compelled to eliminate
much which finds no application in real life. The occasion for drill is
found in the demand for automatic control of thought or action, and
much of the later success of the children in thinking and doing will be
conditioned by the quality of the work done in these drill exercises.
Knowing what to do: A clear idea of the result to be accomplished
is, of course, involved in the notion or aim as it has been discussed
above. The importance of this element in habit formation cannot be
overemphasized. It may seem superfluous to call attention to the fact
that every child should have a clear idea of what is to be done before
the drill work begins; but it sometimes happens that the teacher
takes too much for granted. Children stumble and fail, or do nothing
at all, simply because they do not know what it is all about. It would
seem impossible that any group of pupils should be asked to commit
to memory anything which they did not understand, and yet we are
constantly reminded by their later interpretations that they have not
understood. Such logical organization is not always possible, nor,
indeed, even desirable, as, for example, in learning addition
combinations. In such a case the value of the habit is largely due to
the fact that we no longer attempt to rationalize the process nor
attempt to fix it in a logical series. But whether the task be the
memorizing of a poem, the learning of addition combinations, the
formation of the habit of neatness, or the gaining of skill in handling a
saw, it is essential that the child know just what is to be done and
that he be provided with an adequate motive for doing it.
Repetition with attention: After a child knows what to do, has the
right idea, and the greatest possible motive for doing has been
provided, the teacher’s problem consists in keeping alive the desire
to achieve the result while the process of repetition is going on. A
child learns to spell a word not simply because he repeats the letters
or writes them in the correct order a hundred times. We all have
knowledge of cases in which this sort of repetition has seemingly
resulted in no advancement. The most economical method of
learning to spell requires that the maximum of attention be given
while the letters are repeated. The story of the boy who, after he had
written after school the phrase “I have gone” a hundred times, wrote
at the bottom of his paper for the information of the teacher, who had
left the room, “I have went home,” is a case in point. The trouble with
this boy was not that he had not repeated the correct form often
enough, but that he had not attended to it. He had failed to realize
the significance of what he was doing. Doubtless his attention,
instead of being fixed on the work in hand, was more largely given to
the game of baseball his companions were playing, or to the
prospect of the delights of the swimming pool. Much of the concert
work that one hears shows a lack of attention on the part of the
larger part of the class except in so far as is necessary to follow the
leaders. Such work is undoubtedly helpful to those who lead, but it is
of little use to the others who take part. It is a very good plan to test
concert work by listening closely to distinguish those who are
carrying the burden, have them stop, and measure the success of
the work by the result which can then be had.
Means of holding attention: No matter how strong the motive with
which we start, any one of us will grow weary when the task imposed
requires many repetitions. It is even more difficult for children to keep
their attention fixed for any considerable length of time. We must,
therefore, plan carefully to conduct the drill in such a way that the
maximum of attention may be secured. Among the devices which
are employed, one of the most important is variation in procedure.
Suppose, for example, we wish to spend ten minutes in drilling
children on addition combinations. The best results will not be
secured by spending the whole time in either oral or written work.
Probably the maximum of attention and consequently of result could
be secured by dividing the period into three parts: one devoted to
oral work, holding every one responsible for every answer; one to
written work on a series of problems provided on number cards or
mimeographed sheets; and one to work of the same sort placed on
the blackboard. Of course there is nothing peculiarly good in the
order of exercises suggested above, beyond the fact that they give
variety. The next day the teacher would want to change the order or
to introduce a new type of exercise.
Another means of securing the maximum of attention is to place a
time limit. Have the children see how many problems they can solve,
how many stanzas they can commit to memory, or how many words
they can learn to spell in a period of ten minutes. It makes a very
great difference whether the teacher says “work on this task for ten
minutes,” or “see how much you can get done in ten minutes.”
This leads us to consider a third means commonly employed to
secure earnest work, the appeal to emulation. The desire of a pupil
to do as well as other members of his class, or the desire of a class
to equal the record of another class of the same grade, will do much
to keep attention fixed on the work. Neither the devices mentioned
nor any others will avail unless the teacher is wide-awake and alert
herself. The greatest single reason for lack of interest and attention
on the part of the class is found in the indifference and lack of energy
on the part of the teacher. It is useless to expect vigorous action on
the part of pupils, when the teacher is half asleep or otherwise either
physically or mentally incapacitated for good work. It is possible at
times for a teacher to arouse her own flagging interest by just such
appeals as have been suggested above as applying to children.
Necessity for accuracy in practice: Our nervous system is so
constructed that to do anything once leaves a tendency to do the
same thing the same way when next we are placed in a similar
situation. It is bad to allow careless work or random guessing, not
simply because the result in this one case may be wrong, but more
especially because the tendency to the wrong reaction is there and
must be overcome before the correct action can be fixed as a habit.
If a child, the day after he has studied the word foreign, has occasion
to write the word and does not know how to spell it, it is a mistake to
permit the word to be written incorrectly. It would be better to have
the child discover for himself or find out from the teacher the correct
form before attempting to write the word. It is well to insist on the
necessity for absolute accuracy. Better by far discontinue the drill
while every one is still fresh enough to give close attention to the
work in hand and while the responses are accurate, than to make
the serious mistake of allowing the work to be done carelessly or to
flatter one’s self that approximately accurate results are good
enough. Better be sure that in the drill work on the multiplication
table to-day the children have invariably given the correct response
when we have asked them how many are six times three and six
times four, than to have attempted to teach the whole table with the
knowledge that one fourth of the answers have been wrong. We
should not be misled; the child who gave us a wrong answer is not
simply wrong this time, but, what for us is more important, will tend to
be wrong ever after. We have more than doubled the task we set out
to accomplish. We must now get rid of the tendency to give the
wrong answer, and then teach the correct one. In our later
consideration of the moral life of the child, we shall have occasion
again to point out the significance of this principle.
The periods elapsing between repetitions or series of repetitions
should be gradually lengthened: The fixing of a habit so that it shall
always thereafter be available to determine our thought or action
requires that we do more than arrive at a point where the response
can be readily secured in a given situation. The word which your
pupils spell so readily, the table which they recite so glibly, the poem
which they have so completely mastered, will apparently have
completely disappeared next week or next month. Of course the
work you have done is not without effect. It will be easier to learn the
word, table, or poem again. But the child should command these
results for which we labored now. There is a body of knowledge, a
group of actions, which ought to be available automatically at any
time. If we are to succeed in fixing this body of habits, if they are to
be made permanently available, we must recognize the fact that
when we have first secured the result desired we have only begun
the process. The boy who recites Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address
without any mistakes to-day has made a good beginning; but if that
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A Manual of Egyptian Pottery

AERA Field Manual Series 1

Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Inc.

Published by Ancient Egypt Research Associates, Inc.

Ancient Egypt Research Associates (AERA) is a 501(c) (3), tax-exempt,

© 2010 by Ancient Egypt Research Associates

Printed in Hollis, New Hampshire, at Puritan Press.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,

ISBN: 978-0-9825544-0-1 (softcover binding)

List of Abbreviations Used in this Volume v

Preface and Acknowledgments vii

Map of Egyptian Find Sites for Pottery Illustrated in this Volume x

1. Pottery Production and Processing in the Field 1

4. Further Reading: a General Selection on Ceramics 18

5. Clay and Fabric Descriptions Used in Volume 3 24

Third Intermediate Period 193

Late Period 223

7. Further Reading: a Selection for Volume 3 277

List of Abbreviations Used in this Volume

SSEA Society for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities

Section 3 A list of terms and abbreviations related to ceramics

Map illustrating location of Egyptian sites mentioned in Volume 3.

Pottery Production and Processing in the Field

AERA Field Manual Series 1 1

Shaping Methods (Arnold and Bourriau 1993, Hope 1987)

2 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

AERA Field Manual Series 1 3

Shape Designation (Rice 1987: 212–220)

4 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

AERA Field Manual Series 1 5

straight flaring narrowing

Figure 4. Terminology for describing rim forms.

6 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

AERA Field Manual Series 1 7

Table 1. Example of an AERA Pottery Form.

Date: 20iii2004 Bag number: 5

Context: 6-S25/21221 Processor: AW

Non diag. weight: 0.5 F2 non diag. weight: 1.5

23 AB1 GN3, WWh R, 10 10 1 0.1 Potmark–external

Data base entry: AW Page: 2

8 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

Table 2. Basic pottery processing tools.

POTTERY PROCESSING DRAWINGS PHOTOS

AERA Field Manual Series 1 9

Table 3. General categories of the AERA Pottery Database.

10 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

AERA Field Manual Series 1 11

12 Manual of Egyptian Pottery, Volume 3

Clay and Fabric

AERA Field Manual Series 1 13