Unit-1

Fundamentals of Quantum Physics

Introduction:
Failures of Classical Mechanics:
When the classical concepts were applied to the particles of atomic dimensions like electrons, they failed to explain the
actual behavior. Thus classical mechanical concepts cannot be applied to atomic phenomenon. Example, motion of
electrons in an atom.

Important points regarding drawbacks of classical mechanics:

a. The non-relativistic motion of atoms, electrons, protons etc.
b. The stability of atoms.
c. Origin of discrete spectra of atom.
d. The spectrum of blackbody radiation.
e. Variation of specific heat of metals and gases.
f. Failure to explain photo electric effect, Compton effect, Zeeman effect, Raman effect etc.
Wave – Particle duality of radiation:
The particle is specified by mass, velocity, momentum, and energy etc. a wave is spread out over a relatively
large region of space, it cannot be said to be located just here and there. Actually a wave is nothing but rather a spread
out disturbance. The wave is specified by its amplitude, wavelength, frequency, phase of wave velocity, intensity etc.
Radiation includes visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, x-rays etc., behaves as waves in experiments based on
interference, diffraction etc. this is due to fact that these phenomenon require the presence of two waves at the same
position. Obviously, it is difficult for the two particles to occupy the same position at the same time. Thus we conclude
that radiation behaves like wave.
Planck’s quantum theory was successfully explained the blackbody radiation, photo electric effect, Compton
effect etc., and where the radiation interacts with matter in the form of photons or quanta. Thus we conclude that
radiation behaves like particle.
Thus sometimes radiation behaves as a wave and some time as a particle i.e., it has a wave-particle dualism. It
should be remembered that radiation cannot exhibits particle and wave properties simultaneously.

de-Broglie’s concept of matter waves:

According to de-Broglie’s hypothesis, a moving particle is associated with a wave which is known as de-Broglie
wave and the wavelength of matter wave is given by

h ℎ
λ = =
mv 𝑝

Where ‘m’ is the mass of material particle, v is its velocity and p is its momentum.
Consider the Planck’s theory of radiation of energy of a photon is given by
ℎ𝑐
E=h𝜈 = -------------------------- (1)
λ
Where ‘c’ is velocity of light.
According to Einstein mass-energy relation E = mC2 ------------------------ (2)
Using equation (1) and (2) we get,

ℎ𝑐 ℎ
mC2 = ⟹ λ= ------------------------------ (3)
λ mC
where mC = P( momentum associated with photon.)
For a material particle of mass m and moving with velocity v, the wavelength associated with this particle is
given by
 h ℎ
λ = = ----------- (4)
mv 𝑝

i) If ‘E’ is the kinetic energy of the material particle, then E = ½ mv2 ⟹ 2E = mv2
⟹ 2mE = m2v2
⟹ 2mE = p2
P = √2𝑚𝐸
∴ deBroglie wavelength
ℎ
λ = -------- (5)
√2𝑚𝐸

ii) When a charged particle of charge e is accelerated by a potential difference V, then wavelength is
ℎ
λ = -------- (6)
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉
3
iii) When a material particle of is in thermal equilibrium at a temperature T, then E = kT
2
-23
Where K = 1.38x10 J/K is Boltzmann’s constant
ℎ
λ = ----- (7)
√3𝑚𝑘𝑇
iv) deBroglie wavelength associated with electron:
let us consider the case of an electron of mass m and charge ‘e’ which is accelerated by a potential V,
1
then mv2 = eV where e = 1.6x10-19 C mass of electron, m = 1.9x10-31 kg
2
2𝑒𝑉
⟹ v=√
𝑚
ℎ ℎ
⟹ λ = =
𝑚v √2𝑒𝑉𝑚
12.26
λ = A0 --------- (8)
√𝑉

If V = 100 volts then λ = 1.226 A0

Properties of matter waves:

i) Lighter is the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

ii) Smaller is the velocity of the particle, greater the wavelength associated with it.
iii) When v = 0 then λ = ∞, i.e., the wave becomes indeterminate and v = ∞ then λ = 0. This shows that matter
waves are generated by the motion of particles. These facts that matter waves are not electromagnetic
waves.
iv) The velocity of matter wave is greater than the velocity of light.
A particle in motion with associated matter wave has two different velocities: one referring to mechanical
motion of the particle represented by v and second related to the propagation of the wave represented by
w.
We know that E = h 𝜈 and E = mC2
⟹ 𝜈 = mC2/h
 ℎ
the wave velocity, w = 𝜈 x λ since λ =
𝑚v
ℎ
2
w = (mC /h)( )
𝑚v
w = C2/ v
⟹ w>C
As a particle velocity v cannot exceed the velocity of light.
v) The wave and particle aspects of moving bodies can never appear together in the same experiment.
vi) The wave nature of matter introduces an uncertainty in the location of the position of the
particle because a wave cannot be said exactly at this point or exactly at that point.

Davisson and Germer’s electron diffraction experiment:

The first experimental evidence of matter wave was given by Davisson and Germer in 1927. They also succeeded
in measuring the de-Broglie wavelength associated with slow electron.
The experimental arrangement is shown in figure. The apparatus consists of an electron gun G where the
electrons are produced and obtained in a fine pencil of electron beam of known velocity.
The electron gun consists of a tungsten filament F heated to dull red so that the electrons are accelerated in the
electric field of known potential difference (V).
After the electrons are collimated by suitable slits to
obtain a fine beam. The beam of electrons is directed
to fall on a large single crystal of nickel. The electrons
acting as wave, are diffracted in different directions. The
Faraday cylinder consists of two walls which are insulated
from each other. A retarding potential is maintained
between them so that only fast-moving electrons coming
from electron gun may enter inside it. The secondary
electron (slow electrons) produced by collisions with
atoms from nickel target are reflected and measured by
galvanometer deflection is only due to electrons coming
from electron gun.

It should be remembered that galvanometer current is measure of intensity of diffracted beam. A graph is
plotted between galvanometer current against θ between incident beam and beam entering the cylinder. The
observations are repeated for different
accelerating potential. The corresponding curves
as shown in figure. It is observed that a ‘bump’
begins to appear in the curve for 44 V electrons
with increasing potential, the bump moves
upwards. The bump becomes most prominent in
the curve for 54V at θ = 500.
 According to deBroglie, the wavelength associated with electrons accelerated through a potential V is given by
12.26
λ = A0
√𝑉
12.26
For V = 54V ⟹ λ = A0 = 1.67 A0
√54
From X-ray analysis, it is observed that a nickel crystal acts as a
plane diffraction grating with grating space d = 0.91 A0. According
to experiment, the diffracted electron beam at θ = 500.
180−50
The corresponding angle of diffraction θ1 = = 650
2

Using Bragg’s equation (taking n=1)

2d Sin θ1= λ
λ = 1.65 A0
This is good agreement with the wavelength computed from
deBroglie hypothesis.
Hence confirms the de-Broglie concept of matter wave.

Schrodinger Time – Independent wave equation:

According to de-Broglie theory, a particle of mass ‘m’ is always associated with a wave whose wavelength
ℎ
λ = . Consider a system of stationary waves associated with a particle. Let (x, y, z) be the coordinates of the
𝑚𝑣
particle, and ψ, the displacement for the de-Broglie at any time t. ψ is called as wave function.
The classical differential equation of a wave motion is given by
2
𝜕 𝜓
2
𝜕 𝜓
2
𝜕 𝜓
2
𝜕 𝜓

𝜕𝑡 2
= v2 (𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦2 + 𝜕𝑧 2 )
= v2 𝛁2 ψ ------------------------------------ (1)
𝜕2 𝜕2 𝜕2
Where 𝛁2 =
𝜕𝑥 2 + 𝜕𝑦 2 + 𝜕𝑧 2
is called Laplace operator, and v is called wave velocity.
Ψ = ψ0 Sin ωt = ψ0 Sin 2π𝜈t ------------------ (2)
𝜕ψ
= ψ0 (2π𝜈) Cos 2π𝜈t
𝜕𝑡
2
𝜕 𝜓 v
= - ψ0 (2π𝜈)2 Sin 2π𝜈t = -4 π2ν2 Ψ Since v = 𝜈 λ ⟹ 𝜈 =
𝜕𝑡 2 λ

2
𝜕 𝜓 4 2 2
= - 2π v Ψ ---------------------- (3)
𝜕𝑡 2 λ
Substituting (3) in (1)

4 h
v2 ∇2 ψ = - 2
π2v2 Ψ Since λ =
λ mv

4
∇2 ψ + π2 Ψ =0
λ2

4
∇2 ψ + π2 m2v2 Ψ = 0 ---------------- (4)
h2
If E be the total energy and V is potential energy, then its kinetic energy ½ mv2 = E – V
⟹ mv2 = 2(E – V)
 ⟹ m2v2 = 2m (E – V) ---- (5)

Using (5) in (4)

4
⟹ ∇2 ψ + 2 π22m (E – V) ψ = 0
h
𝟐𝒎
⟹ 𝛁2 ψ + 𝟐 (E – V) ψ = 0
ħ

This equation is called Schrodinger Time-Independent wave equation.

For a free particle, V = 0, the Schrodinger wave equation for a free particle is given by
𝟐𝒎 𝑬
⟹ 𝛁2 ψ + ψ =0
ħ𝟐

Physical significance of a wave function:

1. The wave function ψ as no direct physical meaning. It is a complex quantity representing the variation of matter
wave. It connects the particle nature and its associated wave nature statistically.
2. Ψ.ψ* or | ψ|2 is the probability density function. Ψ.ψ* dx dy dz gives the probability of finding the electron in
the region of space.
∞
If the particle is present ∫−∞ ψ ψ* dx dy dz = 1 is called Normalization which was given by Max Born.
3. The wave function ψ can be considered as probability amplitude since it is used to find the location of the
particle.

Particle in one – Dimensional potential box of infinite height:

Let us consider the case of a particle of mass ‘m’ moving along x-direction between two rigid walls at x = 0 and
x = a. The particle is free to move between the walls. The potential energy of the particle between the walls is
constant because no force is acting on the particle. The constant
potential energy is taken as zero. When the particle strikes any
one of the walls, it is reflected back immediately. Now the force
acting on the particle abruptly changes from zero to infinity.

The potential function V(x) is defined as

V(x) = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ a and ---------- (1)

V(x) = ∞ for x < 0 and x > a
m

The Schrodinger wave equation for a particle is given by

2
𝜕 𝜓 8𝜋2 𝑚
2 + (E – V) ψ = 0
𝜕𝑥 ℎ2

2
𝜕 𝜓 2𝑚
+ (E – V) ψ = 0
𝜕𝑥 2 ħ2
As V = 0 between the walls, hence equation turns to
2
𝜕 𝜓 2𝑚 2𝑚
2 + 2 Eψ=0 Let E = K2 -------------(2)
𝜕𝑥 ħ ħ2
 𝜕 𝜓
2
+ K2 ψ = 0 ------------------- (3)
𝜕𝑥2
The solution of equation (2) is of the form Sin Kx and Cos Kx

∴ ψ (x) = A Sin kx + B Cos kx ----------------- (4)

Where A and B are constants. These constants can be obtained by applying boundary conditions.
i.e., ψ=0 at x = 0 and x = a
applying First boundary condition in (4), for x =0 ⟹ψ=0
⟹ 0 = A (0) +B (1)
⟹B=0
Applying Second boundary condition, for x = a ⟹ψ=0

⟹ 0 = A Sin ka + 0
⟹ Sin ka = 0 ⟹ ka = nπ for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ……

𝑛𝜋
K= --------- (5)
𝑎

The wave function becomes, ψ (x) = A Sin kx

𝑛𝜋𝑥
ψ (x) = A Sin --------------- (6)
𝑎
from (5) k2 = 𝑛2𝜋2
𝑎2

𝑛 2 𝜋2 2𝑚
from (5) and (2) = E
𝑎2 ħ2
𝑛 2 𝜋2 8𝑚𝐸𝜋2
=
𝑎2 ℎ2
𝑛 2 ℎ2
En =
8𝑚𝑎2

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ….

ℎ2
E1 = ,
8𝑚𝑎2

4ℎ2
E2 = ,
8𝑚𝑎2

9ℎ2 ℎ2
E3 = ,.... E1 =
8𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2

The constant A of equation (6) can be obtained by applying the normalization condition.
𝑎 𝑎 𝑛𝜋𝑥
∫0 | Ψ(x)|2 dx = 1 ⟹ ∫0 𝐴2 Sin2
𝑎
dx = 1

1 𝑎 2𝑛𝜋𝑥
⟹ 𝐴2 ∫0 ( 1 – Cos ) dx = 1
2 𝑎
 ⟹ 𝐴2
1
2
[∫ 0
𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑎
- ∫0 𝐶 os
2𝑛𝜋𝑥
𝑎
]
dx = 1

𝐴2
⟹ 2
[a – 0] = 1

2
⟹ A = √𝑎
The wave function
2 𝑛𝜋𝑥
Ψn(x) = √𝑎 Sin
𝑎

The wave function Ψn(x) and probability density | Ψ|2 are shown below:

The probability of finding the particle in its ground state (n = 1) is maximum at x = a/2

• The Classical Free electron Theory

• Drude and Lorentz in 1927

• Based on Classical mechanics

• The Quantum Free Electron Theory

• Sommerfeld in 1928

• Obey Quantum Laws

• The Zone Theory or Band theory of solids

• Bloch in 1928

• Bloch Theorem- free electrons move in a periodic field

Classical Free electron Theory (Lorentz – Drude)
1. In atom electrons revolve around the nucleus and metals is composed of such atoms.

2. The valence electrons are considered ‘free’ like the molecules of a gas. The ion cores and electronic gas are held
together due to the electrostatic interaction between positively charged ion cores and the negatively charged
electron cloud

3. These free electrons move in random directions and collide with either positive ions fixed to the lattice or other
free electrons. All collisions are elastic

4. The movement of free electrons obey the laws of classical kinetic theory of gases

5. The electrons velocities in a metal obey the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of velocities

6. The free electrons move in a completely uniform potential field due to ions fixed in the lattice

7. When an electric field is applied to the metal, the free electrons are accelerated in the direction opposite to the
directions of applied electric field.

Success of Classical Free Electron theory

• It verifies Ohm’s law

• It explains the electrical and thermal conductivities of metals

• It derives Wiedemann- Franz law (Electrical and Thermal conductivity)

• It explains optical properties of metals

Drawbacks of Classical free electron theory

• The phenomena such as photoelectric effect, Compton effect and black body radiation couldn’t be explained

• Electrical conductivity of semiconductors or insulators couldn’t be explained

𝐾
• Wiedemann-Franz law 𝜎𝑇
= constant, it was not constant at low temperatures

• Ferromagnetism couldn’t be explained by this theory

• Theoretical values of paramagnetic susceptibility is greater than the experimental values

• Specific heat of metals is given by 4.5 𝑅𝑢 , but experimentally it is 3𝑅𝑢

• Electronic specific heat is 32𝑅𝑢 , while the actual value is 0.01 𝑅𝑢 , 𝑅𝑢 where is universal gas constant
Bloch theorem for particle in a periodic potential

The Free electron theory explained the phenomena such as electrical conductivity, thermionic emission, etc. but it fails to
explain why some materials are good electrical conductors, while some are good electrical insulators and some others
are semiconductors?

According to Free electron theory – a conduction electron in metal experiences constant potential

But in real crystal - there exists a periodic arrangement of positively charged ions through which the electrons move

As a consequence, the potential experienced by electrons is not constant it experiences varying potential Fig. a. The
potential experienced by an electron varies with the periodicity of the lattice.

The potential of electron at the positive ion site is zero and it is maximum in between two ions.

This periodic potential V(x) may be defined by means of the lattice constant a as,

The energies of electron can be determined by solving Schrodinger wave equation in such a lattice
Bloch has shown that the one-dimensional solution of the Schrodinger eqn. takes the form

Ψk(r) = uk(r) exp(ik.r) --------------(3)

Eqn.(2) or (3) is known as Bloch function in one and three dimensions, respectively

They represent the free electron wave modulated by the periodic function uk(x) or uk(r), where uk(x) or uk(r) is periodic
with the periodicity of the lattice in one and three dimensions, respectively

Ψk(x + Na) = Ψk(x) exp (ikNa) --------(5)

Ψk*(x + Na) = Ψk*(x) exp (-ikNa) ----- (6)

The eqn. (5) and (6) give us

Ψk(x + Na) Ψk*(x + Na) = Ψk(x) Ψk*(x) exp (ikNa- ikNa )

Ψk(x + Na) Ψk*(x + Na) = Ψk(x) Ψk*(x)

This indicates that the probability of finding the electron is same every where in the whole chain of atoms, i.e. it is not
localized around any particular atom but is shared by all atoms in the chain.

Kronig-Penney Model
Sinusoidal potential shown in figure (a) it is not easy to solve Schrodinger equation with these potentials. So Kronig and
Penney approximated these potentials inside the crystal to the shape of rectangular steps i.e. square wells as shown in
figure (b)

In this model the periodic potential is taken in the form of one-dimensional array of square well potentials and it is the
best suited to solve Schrodinger wave equation.
 II
b re

Boundary Conditions:

V(x) = 0 , where x lies between 0 < x < 𝑎 – region I

V(x) = V0 , where x lies between − b < x < 0 – region 𝐼𝐼

The wave function related to this model may be obtained by solving Schrodinger equations for the two regions

We know the Schrodinger time independent wave equation for one dimension which is given by

The Schrodinger time independent wave equation for the two regions can be written as

region I

region II

The solution for the above eqns. (3) and (4) can be written as (from Bloch’s theorem)

--------(5)

The above solution consists of a plane wave eikx modulated by the periodic function uk(x), where this uk(x) has the
periodicity of the ion such that

uk(x) = uk(x+a) ----(6)

and where k is propagating vector along x-direction and is given by k = 2 Π / λ . This k is also known as wave vector
Differentiate eqn.(5) twice w.r.to x, then substitute the values in eqns. (3) and (4), will get two second order differential
equations, solutions of those equations are as shown below

by applying boundary conditions

after solving the determinant, we get the below equation

(β2 - α2 / 2 α β) sin hβb sin αa + cos hβb cos αa = cos k ( a + b )

Differentiating equation (5) twice with respect to x, and substituting in equation (3) and (4), two independent second
order linear differential equations can be obtained for the regions 0 < x < a and -b < x < 0

Applying the boundary conditions to the solution of above equations, for linear equations in terms of A, B, C and D it can
be obtained (where A,B,C,D are constants ) that the solution for these equations can be determined only if the
determinant of the coefficients of A, B, C, and D vanishes, on solving the determinant we get

(β2 - α2 / 2 α β) sin hβb sin αa + cos hβb cos αa = cos k ( a + b )

The above equation is complicated and Kronig and Penney tried to modify this equation as follows

Let Vo is tending to infinite and b is approaching to zero in such way that Vob remains finite. Therefore, here sin hβb → βb
and cos hβb→1 as b→0
( P sin α a ) / α a + cos α a = cos k a-------(8)

Conclusions

Un shaded area,
Shaded area, allowed

The left hand side of the equation (8) is plotted as a function of αa for the value of P = 3 Π / 2 which is shown in above
fig, the right hand side one takes values between -1 to +1 as indicated by the horizontal lines in the fig.

The following important conclusions can be drawn from the above plot

➢ The R.H.S is a cosine term which varies between the limits -1 and +1, and hence the L.H.S also varies between
these limits. It means energy is restricted within -1 to +1 only.

➢ If the energy of e− lies between -1 to +1, are called allowed energy bands and it is shown by shaded portion in
the energy spectrum. This means that ‘αa’ can take only certain range of values belonging to allowed energy
band

➢ If energy of e−s not lies between -1 to +1 are known as forbidden energy bands
 ➢ As the value of αa increases, the width of the allowed energy bands increases and width of the forbidden bands
decreases this is because the first term on LHS side of eqn.(8) decreases with αa (since maximum value of Sin αa
=1, hence as αa increases 1 / αa decreases)

➢ Thus, motion of e−s. in a periodic lattice is characterized by the bands of allowed & forbidden energy levels

➢ Now, we will discuss the influence of P on energy spectrum

With increasing P, i.e. increasing potential barrier strength, the function described by the left hand side of the equation
crosses +1 and -1 region at a steeper angle (fig. a). Thus the allowed bands become narrower and forbidden bands
become wider.

Case (i):

As P→∞, the allowed energy band reduces to a single (line) energy level, gives us steeper lines as shown in below figure
(b)

We have ( P sin α a ) / α a + cos α a = cos k a

cos k a (α a /P) = sin α a + cos α a (α a /P) ( multiplying both sides by (α a /P)

as P→∞, then 1 / ∞ = 0, then the above equation becomes Sin α a = 0

It means, it (zone theory) supports quantum free electron theory

E = n2h2 / 8 m a2
The energy levels in this case are discrete and the result is similar to the energy levels of a particle in a constant potential
box of atomic dimensions. This is expected because of large P, tunnelling through the barrier becomes almost
improbable.

Case (ii): As P→0

✓ at this situation electron completely, free electron not bounded with allowed and forbidden gaps (i.e. no energy
level exists, all energies are allowed to the electrons)

✓ It gives us kinetic energy of an electron. It means zone theory supports classical free electron theory.

✓ Thus by varying P from 0 to ∞, we find that the completely free electron(s) becomes completely bound to
Brillouin Zone

Brillouin Zone or E-k diagram

The concept of Brillouin zone provides a way to understand the origin of allowed and forbidden bands in
solids.

The Brillouin zone is a representation of permissive values of k of the electrons in one, two or three
dimensions.

The Brillouin zones are the boundaries that are marked by the values of wave vector k, in which electrons can
have allowed energy values.

Parabola representing the energy E of a free electron is compared with periodic field.
The discontinuities in E occur whenever the RHS side of eqn. (8) reaches its maximum value

i.e. when cos ka = ± 1 or k = ± n π/a, where n = 1, 2, 3,--------

( P sin α a ) / α a + cos α a = cos k a

It is the energy spectrum of an electron moving in presence of a periodic potential field and is divided into
allowed energy regions (allowed zones) or forbidden energy gaps (forbidden zones)

Allowed energy values lie in the region k= -π/a to =+π/a, this zone is called the first Brillouin zone.

After a break in the energy values, called forbidden energy band, we have another allowed zone spread from
k=-π/a to -2π/a and +π/a to +2π/a. This zone is called the Second Brillouin zone. Similarly, other higher order
Brillouin zones can be defined.

Fill in the blanks:

1. Dual nature (both wave and particle ) is exhibited by

a) Light only b) electron only c) all electron electric waves d) all electromagnetic waves and sub
atomic particles.
2. The de-Broglie wavelength will be same for
a) Electron and position with the same kinetic energy. B) neutron and proton with the same energy
c) all mesons. D) Macroscopic bodies

3. The wave function is the

a) quantity associated with all waves b) probability amplitude of finding the particle in space
c) mathematical function with four variables d) real function.

4 If E1 is the energy of the lowest state in a one dimensional box of length ‘a’ and E2 is the energy of the lowest
state when the length of the box is halved.
a) E2=2E1 b) E1= 2E2 c) E2= 4E1 d)E1= 4E1
5. The wave function associated with an electron in a rectangular box of dimensions a, b, c is given by
𝑛𝑥 𝜋𝑥 𝑛𝑦 𝜋𝑦 𝑛𝑧 𝜋𝑧
Ψ(x)=A Sin Sin Sin . the normalization constant A is equal to
𝑎 𝑦 𝑐
2 𝑎𝑏𝑐 4 2
a) 𝑎𝑏𝑐 b) √ 2
c) √𝑎𝑏𝑐 d) √𝑎𝑏𝑐
6. de-Broglie wavelength of the electron in the first Bohr orbit of the hydrogen atom is
a) equal to the diameter of the first orbit b) equal to the circumstances of the first orbit
c) equal to half the circumstances of the first orbit d)independent of the size of the first orbit
7. de-Broglie wavelength associated with a material particle is
a) inversely proportional to momentum b) inversely proportional to its energy
c) directly proportional to momentum d) directly proportional to its energy
8. The wavelength of the matter waves λ is associated with an electron moving under a potential V is proportional
To
1 1
a) √𝑉 b) V c) √𝑉 d) 𝑉
9. If 100 volts is the potential with which an electron is accelerated then the wavelength associated with electron
is
 a) 1.226 A0 b) 1.226 nm c) 12.26 nm d) 0.1226 A0
10. The velocity of matter waves always
a) lesser than velocity of light b) equal to velocity of light
c) greater than velocity of light d) none of these
11. Existence of matter wave was experimentally demonstrated by
a) Newton b) Planck c) Davisson and Germer d) deBroglie
12. If E is the kinetic energy of the material particle of mass m, then the deBroglie wavelength is given by
ℎ √2𝑚𝐸 ℎ
a) b) c) h√2𝑚𝐸 d)
√2𝑚𝐸 ℎ 2𝑚𝐸
13. The wave equation is given by
𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦 1 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑥 𝜕2 𝑦 𝜕2 𝑦
a) 𝜕𝑥 2 = v 2 b) = c) 𝜕𝑥 2 = v 2 d) 𝜕𝑥 2 = −v 2
𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑥 2 v2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2 𝜕𝑡 2

14. The characteristics of a wave function ψ are

a) real function, finite and discontinuous b) complex, single valued, finite and continuous function
c) complex, infinite and discontinuous function d) complex, single valued and infinite
15. The momentum P is represented by the operator
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
a) −𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑥 b) ℏ 𝜕𝑡 c) 𝑖ℏ 𝜕𝑥 d) ℏ 𝜕𝑥

16. If the momentum of the particle is doubled then the de-Broglie wavelength
a) halves b)doubled c) quadruples d) remains the same

17. If the electron moves under a potential field of 1.6kV, the wavelength of the electron wave is

a) 0.76 A0 b)0.31 A0 c)19.6 A0 d)12.26 A0

18. When the wave function is normalized, then

+∞ +1
a) 𝜓𝜓* =1 b) 𝜓𝜓* dx=1 c)∫−∞ 𝜓 𝜓* dx=1 d) ∫−1 𝜓 𝜓* dx=1

19. For a free particle of mass m confined to one dimensional box of side ‘a’, the allosed valued of energy E is given

By

𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑛2 ℎ 2 𝑎2ℎ2 𝑛2 ℎ 2
a) b) c) d)
2𝑚𝑎2 8𝑚𝑎2 2𝑚𝑛2 2𝑚𝑎

20. The wave function of a free particle in its lowest energy state in a potential well of width ‘a’ is
2 𝜋𝑥 2 2 𝜋𝑥 2 𝜋𝑥
a) √𝑎 Sin 4
b) √𝑎 Sin 2𝜋𝑥 c) √𝑎 Cos 4
d) √𝑎 Sin 𝑎

21. The general solution of a wave function for a free particle

2𝑚
a)ψn(x) = eikx b) ψn(x) = A1 eikx +A2e-ikx c) ψn(x) =k2 En d) ψn(x) =
ħ2
En ψn(x)

22. The Hamiltonian of a free particle is ________________

23. The diffraction of electron was demonstrated for the first time by ______________

24. If an electron is confined to a one dimensional potential box of width 1A0, then the minimum energy is ____

25. According to Uncertainty principle, it is not possible to measure both energy and ______ of a process very

accurately simultaneously.

26. Lighter is the particle, ________ is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it.
27. Several combinations of the three quantum numbers may given different wave functions, but of the same energy

value. Such states and energy levels are said to be _____________

28. Concept of matter waves was suggested by ___________

Answers:
1. D 2. A 3. B 4. C 5. D 6. B 7. A 8. C 9. A 10. C 11. C 12.A 13. A 14. B
15. A 16.A 17. 18. C 19.B 20.D 21.B 22. 23. 24. 25. Time 26.greater
27. Degenerate states 28. De-Broglie