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LRFD specifications for structural supports for highway
signs luminaires and traffic signals First Edition
American Association Of State Highway And
Transportation Officials. Digital Instant Download
Author(s): American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials.
ISBN(s): 9781680158250, 1680158252
Edition: First edition
File Details: PDF, 21.22 MB
Year: 2015
Language: english
LRFD Specifications for Structural
Supports for Highway Signs,
Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
First Edition 2015
© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

All rights reserved. Duplication is a violation of applicable law.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, NW Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001
202-624-5800 phone/202-624-5806 fax
www.transportation.org
© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a
violation of applicable law.

PREFACE
The first edition of LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals
supersedes the sixth edition of the Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and
Traffic Signals. It includes changes approved by the Highways Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures in 2014.
An abbreviated table of contents follows this preface. Detailed tables of contents precede each Section and each
Appendix.
AASHTO Publications Staff
vii

FOREWORD
The first edition of the LRFD Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic
Signals incorporates recent work performed under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP),
specifically NCHRP 10-80, and other research efforts including state-sponsored activities. These Specifications address:
• Division I on design,
• Division II on fabrication, construction, and
• Division III on inspection, and asset management.
Where possible, these specifications incorporate other AASHTO documents, specifically, the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation, and
AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing.
The design specifications are founded upon the Sixth Edition of Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for
Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals which incorporate a wealth of research, engineering practice, and long
history of satisfactory performance for the vast majority of structures. Based upon NCHRP Report 796 (2014), LRFD
calibration, and current research for both loads and resistances are incorporated. Resistances include several specifications
associated with improved detailing for fatigue performance. Additionally, new sections on Fabrication, Construction,
Inspection, and Asset Management are based upon best practices. These areas are evolving as agencies gain more
experience with inspection and management of their ancillary structure inventories.
The design specifications provided in Division I are based on the LRFD methodology and are intended to address the
usual structural supports. Requirements more stringent than those in the Specifications may be appropriate for atypical
structural supports. The commentary is intended to provide background on some of the considerations contained in the
Specifications; however, it does not provide a complete historical background or detailed discussions of the associated
research studies. The Specifications and accompanying commentary do not replace sound engineering knowledge and
judgment in design, fabrication, construction, inspection, or asset management.
AASHTO Highways Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures
vi

ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS
DIVISION I: DESIGN
SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................1-i
SECTION 2: GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN ..........................................................................................................2-i
SECTION 3: LOADS ..........................................................................................................................................................3-i
SECTION 4: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................4-i
SECTION 5: STEEL DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................5-i
SECTION 6: ALUMINUM DESIGN ..................................................................................................................................6-i
SECTION 7: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN .......................................................................................................7-i
SECTION 8: FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES DESIGN .........................................................................................8-i
SECTION 9: WOOD DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................9-i
SECTION 10: SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS....................................................................................................10-i
SECTION 11: FATIGUE DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................11-i
SECTION 12: BREAKAWAY SUPPORTS .....................................................................................................................12-i
SECTION 13: FOUNDATION DESIGN ..........................................................................................................................13-i
DIVISION II: FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION
SECTION 14: FABRICATION, MATERIALS, AND DETAILING ...............................................................................14-i
SECTION 15: CONSTRUCTION .....................................................................................................................................15-i
DIVISION III: ASSET MANAGEMENT
SECTION 16: INSPECTION AND REPORTING............................................................................................................16-i
SECTION 17: ASSET MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................................................17-i
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: ANALYSIS OF SPAN-WIRE STRUCTURES ........................................................................................ A-i
APPENDIX B: DESIGN AIDS .......................................................................................................................................... B-i
APPENDIX C: ALTERNATE METHODS FOR FATIGUE DESIGN AND EVALUATION ......................................... C-i
APPENDIX D: DETAILED ELEMENT DESCRIPTIONS ............................................................................................... D-i
ix

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 1
1.1—SCOPE........................................................................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2—DEFINITIONS .............................................................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.3—APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS ............................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.4—TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS ................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.4.1—Sign ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.4.2—Luminaire................................................................................................................................................................ 1-5
1.4.3—Traffic Signal .......................................................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.4.4—Combination Structures .......................................................................................................................................... 1-8
1.5—DESIGN PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................................................................................ 1-10
1.5.1—General.................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10
1.5.2—Limit States ........................................................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.5.2.1—General ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.5.2.2—Service Limit State .................................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.5.2.3—Fatigue Limit State .................................................................................................................................... 1-10
1.5.2.4—Strength Limit State ................................................................................................................................... 1-11
1.5.2.5—Extreme Limit State ................................................................................................................................... 1-11
1.6—REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................ 1-11
1-i

SECTION 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.1—SCOPE C1.1
The provisions of these load and resistance factor design These Specifications are the result of National
specifications for structural supports for highway signs, Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP) Project
luminaires, and traffic signals, hereinafter referred to as the 10-80 and the corresponding NCHRP Report 796. These
Specifications, are applicable to the structural design of Specifications are intended to replace the sixth edition,
supports for highway signs, luminaires, and traffic signals Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway
(LRFD Structural Supports). The types of supports addressed Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2013).
in these Specifications are discussed in Article 1.4. The
At the discretion of the Owner, proprietary solutions
Specifications are intended to serve as a standard and guide
may be considered. These solutions may address both new
for design, fabrication, construction, inspection, and asset
structures and the repair or rehabilitation of existing
management.
structures. Testing of proprietary solutions shall model actual
conditions as closely as possible, and the test methods and
results shall be published.
Where appropriate, the language and intent of the
Specifications is kept the same as in the AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications and the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Construction Specifications. The following definitions are
used:
The term “shall” denotes a requirement for compliance
with these Specifications.
The term “should” indicates a strong preference for a
given criterion.
The term “may” indicates a criterion that is usable, but
other local and suitably documented, verified, and approved
criterion may also be used in a manner consistent with the
LRFD approach to structural design.
These Specifications are not intended to supplant proper
training or the exercise of judgment by the Designer. They
include only the minimum requirements necessary to provide
for public safety. The Owner or the Designer may require the
design, quality of materials, fabrication, construction, and
asset management to be higher than the minimum
requirements.
The design provisions of these Specifications employ
the Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)
methodology. The factors have been developed from the
theory of reliability based on current statistical knowledge of
loads and structural performance, including materials
properties.
Seismic design is not included in these Specifications, In most cases, wind combined with other load effects
and such procedures should be prescribed by the Owner. controls the structural design.
The commentary references other documents that The commentary discusses some provisions of the
provide suggestions for meeting the requirements and intent Specifications with emphasis given to the explanation of new
of these Specifications. However, those documents and the or revised provisions that may be unfamiliar to the reader.
commentary are not intended to be a part of these The commentary is not intended to provide a complete
Specifications. historical background concerning the development of this or
previous Specifications, nor is it intended to provide a
detailed summary of the studies and research data reviewed
1-1

1-2 LRFD SPECIFICATIONS FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS FOR HIGHWAY SIGNS, LUMINAIRES, AND TRAFFIC SIGNALS
in developing the provisions. References to some of the

research data are provided, however, for those who wish to
study the background material in depth. Not all references
are cited.
1.2—DEFINITIONS
AA—Aluminum Association.
AASHTO—American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
ACI—American Concrete Institute.
AISC—American Institute for Steel Construction.
Arm—A cantilevered member, either horizontal or sloped, which is typically attached to a pole.
ASCE—American Society for Civil Engineers.
ASD—Allowable stress design.
AWS—American Welding Society.
Bridge Support—Also known as span-type support; a horizontal or sloped member or truss supported by at least two vertical
supports.
Cantilever—A member, either horizontal or vertical, supported at one end only.
CMS—Changeable message sign, a sign that displays a variable message.
Collapse—A major change in the geometry of the structure rendering it unfit for use.
Component—Either a discrete element of the structure or a combination of elements requiring individual design consideration.
Design—Proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a structure.
Designer—The person responsible for design of the structural support.
Ductility—Property of a component or connection that allows inelastic response.
DMS—Dynamic Message Sign, see CMS.
Engineer—Person responsible for the design of the structure or review of design-related field submittals such as erection
plans, or both.
Evaluation—Determination of load-carrying capacity or remaining life of an existing structure.
Extreme Event Limit States—Limit states relating to events such as wind, earthquakes, and vehicle collision, with return
periods in excess of the design life of the structure.
Factored Load—Nominal loads multiplied by the appropriate load factors specified for the load combination under
consideration.
Factored Resistance—Nominal resistance multiplied by a resistance factor.
FHWA—U.S. Federal Highway Administration.
Force Effect—A deformation, stress, or stress resultant (i.e., axial force, shear force, torsional, or flexural moment) caused by
applied loads or imposed deformations.

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1-3
High-Level Lighting—Also known as high-mast lighting; lighting provided at heights greater than 55 ft, typically using four to
twelve luminaires.
High-Level Luminaire Support—Truss-type or pole-type tower that provides lighting at heights greater than about 55 ft,
typically using four to twelve luminaires.
High-Mast Lighting Tower (HMLT)—Another description for a pole-type high-level luminaire support.
Load Effect—Same as force effect.
Limit State—A condition beyond which the structure or component ceases to satisfy the provisions for which it was designed.
Load Factor—A statistically-based multiplier applied to force effects accounting primarily for the variability of loads, the lack
of accuracy in analysis, and the probability of simultaneous occurrence of different loads. Related to the statistics of the
resistance through the calibration process.
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)—A reliability-based design methodology in which force effects caused by
factored loads are not permitted to exceed the factored resistance of the components.
LRFD Structural Supports—highway signs, luminaires, and traffic signals.
Luminaire—A complete lighting unit consisting of a lamp or lamps together with the parts designed to provide the light, to
position and protect the lamps, and to connect the lamps to an electric power supply.
Mast Arm—A member used to hold a sign, signal head, or luminaire in an approximately horizontal position.
Mean Recurrence Interval (MRI)—The expected time period for the return of a wind speed that exceeds the basic wind speed.
The annual probability of exceeding the basic wind in any one-year period is the reciprocal of this value.
Member—A component that is positioned between two physical joints of a structure.
Model—An idealization of a structure for the purpose of analysis.
Monotube—A support that is composed of a single tube.
Multiple-Load-Path Structure—A structure capable of supporting the specified loads following loss of a main load-carrying
component or connection.
NCHRP—National Cooperative Highway Research Program.
NDS—2012. National Design Specification for Wood Construction.
Nominal Resistance—Resistance of a component or connection to force effects, as indicated by the dimensions specified in
the contract documents and by permissible stresses, deformations, or specified strength of materials.
Overhead Sign—A sign mounted over a roadway or near, and elevated with respect to, a travel way.
Owner—The person or agency having jurisdiction for the design, construction, and maintenance of the structural support.
Pole—A vertical support that is often tall, relatively slender, and generally rounded or multisided.
Pole Top—A descriptive term indicating that an attachment is mounted at the top of a structural support, usually pertaining to
one luminaire or traffic signal mounted at the top of a pole.
Rehabilitation—A process in which the resistance of the structure is either restored or increased.
Resistance Factor—A statistically-based multiplier applied to nominal resistance primarily accounting for variability of
material properties, structural dimensions and workmanship, and uncertainty in the prediction of resistance. Related to the
statistics of the loads through the calibration process.
Roadside Sign—A sign mounted beside the roadway on a single or multiple supports.

SEI—Structural Engineering Institute (within ASCE).
Service Life—The period of time that the structure is expected to be in operation.
Service Limit States—Limit states relating to stress, deformation, and concrete cracking under regular operating conditions.
Sign—A device conveying a specific message by means of words or symbols, erected for the purpose of regulating, warning,
or guiding traffic.
Span Wire—A steel cable or strand extended between two poles, commonly used as a horizontal support for signs and traffic
signals.
Strength Limit States—Limit states relating to strength and stability during the design life.
Structural Support—A system of members(s) used to resist load effects associated with self weight, attached signs,
luminaires, traffic signals, and any other applicable loads (notably wind)
Structure—See Structural Support.
Traffic Signal—An electrically operated control device by which traffic is regulated, warned, or directed to take specific
actions.
TRB—Transportation Research Board.
Truss—A structural system composed of framework that is often arranged in triangles.
VMS—Variable Message Sign, see CMS.
1.3—APPLICABLE SPECIFICATIONS C1.3
The following specification documents may be Other specifications may be appropriate, such as Owner-
referenced for additional information on design, materials, specific specifications, which may preclude or include these
fabrication, construction, and asset management: Specifications.
• AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, The references listed in the Specifications may not be
the most current available. The more current literature might
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, be the same or different (applicable or not applicable) to
• AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, these Specifications. Caution is advised.
• AASHTO Standard Specifications for Transportation

Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing,
• ASCE/SEI 7-10 Minimum Design Loads for Building
and Other Structures,
• AASHTO Manual for Bridge Evaluation,
• AISC Steel Construction Manual,
• ACI Building Code Requirements for Structural
Concrete and Commentary,
• ADM Aluminum Design Manual,
• AWS Structural Welding Code—Steel,
• AWS Structural Welding Code—Aluminum,
• National Design Specifications (NDS) for Wood
Construction, and
• Book of ASTM Standards

1.4—TYPES OF STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS
Structural supports are categorized as follows:

• Sign support structures,
• Luminaire support structures,
• Traffic signal support structures, and
• Combinations of the above structures.
1.4.1—Sign C1.4.1
Structural supports for signs include both overhead and Typical overhead and roadside sign supports are shown
roadside structures intended to support highway traffic signs. in Figure C1.4.1-1. Overhead sign structures are generally of
the bridge or cantilever type. It is also common to support
signs on existing grade separation structures that span the
traffic lanes.
1.4.2—Luminaire C1.4.2
Structural supports for luminaires include typical poles The illumination of roadways requires the use of poles,
with luminaire arms, typical poles with luminaires mounted generally tubular pole shafts that support one to two
at pole top, and high-level luminaire supports (both truss and luminaires and range in height from about 30 ft to 55 ft.
pole type). High-level luminaire supports normally range in heights
from 55 ft to 150 ft or higher and usually support four to
twelve luminaires illuminating large areas. Typical luminaire
supports and high-level supports are shown in Figure
C1.4.2-1.

Figure C1.4.1-1—Sign Supports

Figure C1.4.2-1—Luminaire Structural Supports

1.4.3—Traffic Signal C1.4.3

Structural supports for mounting traffic signals include Typical traffic signal supports are shown in Figure
pole top, cantilevered arms, bridge, and span wires. C1.4.3-1.
1.4.4—Combination Structures C1.4.4

Combination structures include structural supports that Generally, combination structures are composed of a
combine any of the functions described in Articles 1.4.1, luminaire support and a traffic signal support. Other
1.4.2, and 1.4.3. structures may combine traffic signal or luminaire supports
with those for utility lines.

Figure C1.4.3-1—Traffic Signal Structural Supports

1.5—DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
1.5.1—General C1.5.1
Structures shall be designed for specified limit states to The limit states specified herein are intended to provide
achieve the objectives of constructability, safety, and for a buildable, serviceable structure capable of safely
serviceability, with due regard to issues of inspectability, carrying design loads for a specified time.
economy, and aesthetics.
The resistance of components and connections is
Regardless of the type of analysis used, Eq. 1.5.2.1-1 determined in many cases on the basis of inelastic behavior,
shall be satisfied for all specified force effects and although the force effects are determined by using elastic
combinations thereof. analysis. This inconsistency is common to most current
structural engineering specifications and is permitted because
the lower bound theorem insures safety. The lower bound
theorem has two fundamental requirements: equilibrium is
satisfied in the analysis and ductility is provided. (e.g., see
Barker and Puckett, 2012)
1.5.2—Limit States
1.5.2.1—General C1.5.2.1
Each component and connection shall satisfy Eq. Eq. 1.5.2.1-1 is the basis of LRFD methodology.
1.5.2.1-1 for each limit state unless otherwise specified. All Assigning resistance factor ϕ = 1.0 to all service and fatigue
limit states shall be considered of equal importance. limit states is a default, and may be overridden by provisions
in other Sections.
Resistance factors for strength and extreme limit states
γ Q ≤ϕ R
i i n = Rr (1.5.2.1-1)
are defined in the materials sections. The load factors are
defined in Section 3 Loads. The resistances are prescribed in
where: separate sections as specified in Sections 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 13.
γi = load factor: a statistically based multiplier applied to

force effects,
ϕ = resistance factor: a statistically based multiplier applied
to nominal resistance,
Qi = force effect,
Rn = nominal resistance, and
Rr = factored resistance: ϕRn.
1.5.2.2—Service Limit State C1.5.2.2

The service limit state shall be taken as restrictions on The service limit states are based upon experience and
stress, deformation, and concrete cracking under service judgment and are not a formal calibration.
conditions.
1.5.2.3—Fatigue Limit State C1.5.2.3

Fatigue limit state shall be used to ensure that the Recent research has primarily focused on the load
expected fatigue load effects remain below the constant effects and resistance associated with steel structures. These
amplitude fatigue limit resistance. Section 11 is focused upon results are scaled to aluminum with a general factor. Only
the fatigue limit state for steel and aluminum structures. high-cycle fatigue is considered.

1.5.2.4—Strength Limit State C1.5.2.4

Strength limit state shall be used to ensure that strength The strength limit state considers stability or yielding of
and stability, both local and global, are provided to resist the each structural element. If the resistance of any element,
specified statistically significant load combinations that a including splices and connections, is exceeded, it is assumed
structure is expected to experience. that the structural resistance has been exceeded.
The structural supports are often statically determinate
and often cantilevered. As such they do not have significant
inelastic reserve strength or opportunity for load
redistribution to other components. The exception is
overhead trusses and frames.
1.5.2.5—Extreme Limit State C1.5.2.5

The extreme event limit state shall be used to ensure the Extreme event limit states are considered to be unique
survival of a structure during a major wind event. For these occurrences whose return period may be significantly greater
Specifications, the wind with gravity combination is than the design life of the structure. ASCE/SEI 7-10
considered an extreme event. considers wind to have a load factor of 1.0; this is the same
as seismic loads prescribed in that document. The wind
speed maps in ASCE/SEI 7-10 provide maximum wind
speeds greater than in the past. The wind load factor has
changed from 1.6 in 2005 to 1.0 in 2010 for example. The
overall wind load effect changes are relatively minor in most
locales, however, in some coastal regions, the changes were
significant.
1.6—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2009. AASHTO Transportation Glossary, Fourth Edition. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2013. Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals, Sixth
Edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2002. AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2014. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Seventh Edition. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2010. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications, Third Edition. American Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2014. Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 34th Edition.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
American Concrete Institute. 2011. ACI Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary. Farmington,
MI.
American Institute for Steel Construction. 2010. Steel Construction Manual. Chicago, IL.
ASCE/SEI 07–10. 2010. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and other Structures. American Society of Civil Engineers,
Reston, VA.
ASTM. 2012. Book of ASTM Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
Aluminum Association. 2010. Aluminum Design Manual. Aluminum Association, Arlington, VA.

AWS. 2010. Structural Welding Code—Steel, D1.1/D1.1M, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
AWS. 2008. Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, D1.2/D1.2M, American Welding Society, Miami, FL.
Puckett, J., Garlich, M., Barker, M., Nowak, A., Menzemer, C., 2014. Development and Calibration of AASHTO-LRFD
Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires, and Traffic Signals, NCHRP Report 796.
Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.
AWC. 2012. National Design Specification® (NDS®) for Wood Construction, American Wood Council, Leesburg, VA.

SECTION 2: GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
TABLE OF CONTENTS
2.1—SCOPE .............................................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.2—DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-1
2.3—AESTHETICS .................................................................................................................................................................. 2-2
2.4—FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS................................................................................................................................ 2-2

2.4.1—Lighting Systems.................................................................................................................................................... 2-2
2.4.1.1—Vertical Heights for Luminaire Supports.................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4.1.2—Illumination of the Roadway....................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4.2—Structural Supports for Signs and Traffic Signals ................................................................................................. 2-3
2.4.2.1—Vertical Clearances...................................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4.2.2—Size, Height, and Location of Signs............................................................................................................ 2-5
2.4.2.3—Illumination and Retroreflectivity of Signs ................................................................................................ 2-5
2.4.2.4—Changeable Message Signs ......................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.5—ROADSIDE REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS .......................................................................... 2-5

2.5.1—Clear Zone Distance ............................................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.5.2—Breakaway Supports .............................................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.5.2.1—Foundations ................................................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.5.2.2—Impact Height .............................................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.5.3—Guardrails and Other Barriers ................................................................................................................................ 2-6
2.5.4—Roadside Sign and Luminaire Supports ................................................................................................................ 2-6
2.5.5—Overhead Sign Supports and High-Level Lighting Supports ............................................................................... 2-7
2.5.6—Traffic Signal Supports .......................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5.7—Gores....................................................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5.8—Urban Areas............................................................................................................................................................ 2-7
2.5.9—Joint-Use Supports ................................................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.6—INTEGRATION OF STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS WITH ROADWAY AND BRIDGE DESIGN .......................... 2-8
2.6.1—Signs ....................................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.6.2—Luminaires.............................................................................................................................................................. 2-8
2.7—FABRICATION, MATERIALS, AND DETAILING ................................................................................................... 2-8
2.8—CONSTRUCTION ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.9—INSPECTION AND REPORTING ................................................................................................................................. 2-8
2.10—MANAGEMENT ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.11—REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2-i

SECTION 2:
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
2.1—SCOPE C2.1
Minimum requirements are provided or referenced for This Section provides the Designer with information and
aesthetics, clearances, constructibility, inspectability, and references to determine the configuration, overall dimensions,
maintainability of structural supports. Guidelines for and location of structural supports for highway signs,
determining vertical and horizontal clearances, use of luminaires, and traffic signals. The information in this Section
breakaway supports, use of guardrails, illumination of the is broad in scope. No attempt has been made to establish rigid
roadway, sizes of signs, illumination and reflectorization of criteria in such areas as vertical heights of traffic signal and
signs, and maintenance are provided in the following luminaire supports and levels of illumination. This Section
references: provides references and considerations for the different aspects
of design that should be considered in the preliminary stages
• AASHTO A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways of a project. In addition to the requirements provided within
and Streets, this Section, many Owners have specific requirements.
• Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD),
• AASHTO Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware
(MASH),
• NCHRP 350 Recommended Procedures for the Safety
Performance Evaluation of Highway Features,
• AASHTO Roadside Design Guide,
• AASHTO Maintenance Manual for Roadways and
Bridges, and
• AASHTO Roadway Lighting Design Guide.
2.2—DEFINITIONS
Barrier—Longitudinal traffic barrier, usually rigid, used to shield roadside obstacles or non-traversable terrain features. It may
occasionally be used to protect pedestrians from vehicle traffic.
Breakaway—Design feature that allows a sign, luminaire, or pole top-mounted traffic signal support to yield, fracture, or separate
near ground level on vehicle impact.
Clearance—Horizontal or vertical dimension to an obstruction.
Clear Zone—An unobstructed, relatively flat area beyond the edge of the traveled way for the recovery of errant vehicles. The
traveled way does not include shoulder or auxiliary lanes.
CMS—Abbreviation for Changeable Message Sign.
Curb—A vertical or sloping surface, generally along and defining the edge of a roadway or roadway shoulder.
DMS—Dynamic Message Sign, see CMS.
FHWA—U.S. Federal Highway Administration.
Gore—Center area immediately past the point where two roadways divide at an acute angle, usually where a ramp leaves a
roadway.
Guardrail—Type of longitudinal barrier that may deflect upon impact.
2-1

Mounting Height—Minimum vertical distance to the bottom of a sign or traffic signal relative to the pavement surface.
Pedestal Pole—Relatively short pole supporting a traffic signal head attached directly to the pole.
Roadside—Area between the shoulder edge and the right-of-way limits, or the area between roadways of a divided highway.
Roadway—Highway or street.
Support Facility—Transportation systems that support the roadway, e.g., parking lots, rest areas, etc.
Traveled Way—Roadway width not including shoulder or auxiliary lanes.
User—Person using the roadway including motorists, bicyclists, or pedestrians.
VMS—Variable Message Sign, see CMS.
2.3—AESTHETICS C2.3
The structural support should complement its The appearance of ordinary structural supports should
surroundings, be graceful yet functional in form, and present consider aesthetics and function. Combination poles, which
an appearance of adequate strength. The support should have a serve multiple functions for lighting, traffic control, and
pleasing appearance that is consistent with the aesthetic effect electrical power, should be considered to reduce the number of
of the highway’s other physical features. Supports should have individual poles along the highway.
clean, simple lines, which will present minimum hazard to “The use of [a] bridge as a support for message or
motorists, cyclists, or pedestrians. directional signing or lighting should be avoided wherever
Structural supports should be designed and located so as possible” (AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications
not to distract the user’s attention or obstruct the view of the (AASHTO 2014)). Tradeoffs may exist between bridge
highway, the view of other signs, or important roadway aesthetics and sign economy and functionality.
features. The effect that signing or lighting installations have
on the surrounding environment should be considered.
2.4—FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
2.4.1—Lighting Systems C2.4.1
The Designer should select the light source, luminaire The AASHTO Roadway Lighting Design Guide
distribution, mounting height, and luminaire overhang based (AASHTO 2005) provides information on the warranting
on factors including the geometry and character of the conditions for use of lighting, level and uniformity of
roadway, the environment, proposed maintenance, economics, luminance, quality of light, location of poles, use of breakaway
aesthetics, and overall lighting objectives. devices, high-mast poles, and maintenance. Additional
information may be found in the FHWA Lighting Handbook
(2012). Decisions on lighting may also be guided by crash
statistics and use of the Highway Safety Manual (HSM)
(AASHTO 2010).
Some communities limit the amount of surrounding
illumination, and shielding may be required. The same average
illumination can usually be obtained by more than one
installation arrangement.
The function for various roadway users, including
pedestrians and cyclists, may have differing requirements that
should be considered.

Section 2: General Features of Design 2-3
2.4.1.1—Vertical Heights for Luminaire Supports C2.4.1.1
The height of the luminaire support should be determined Design attributes that should be considered in determining
by the Designer to meet a particular need within the situational the height of a luminaire support include:
constraints.
• Glare characteristics,
• Desired level of illumination and distribution of light,
• Photometric characteristics of a selected lamp and
luminaire,
• Available space for placing the supports,
• Inspection capability,
• Maintenance capability (maximum attainable servicing
height),
• Compliance with local ordinances and statutes, and
• Consideration of local customs and aesthetics.
Height restrictions may be imposed by various
government agencies, such as the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) with respect to breakaway devices
and the Federal Aviation Administration for airspace
considerations.
2.4.1.2—Illumination of the Roadway C2.4.1.2
The Designer should consider the quality of light and the Highway illumination is provided to improve driver
level of illumination. nighttime visibility and to promote safer and more efficient use
of special roadway facilities located at ramps, intersections,
and potentially hazardous areas. Other roadway users,
including pedestrians and cyclists, may have different safety
requirements that should be considered.
The amount of illumination that should be provided over a
roadway depends on visibility, visual comfort, light
distribution, and geometry. Disability and discomfort glare,
pavement glare, road location, and obstructions to visibility
and traffic patterns are other factors that influence the level of
illumination.
A luminaire installation should provide a visual
environment that is conducive to safe and comfortable night
driving.
2.4.2—Structural Supports for Signs and Traffic Signals
2.4.2.1—Vertical Clearances C2.4.2.1
Vertical clearance shall be provided of not less than 17 ft The minimum clearance should include an allowance for
to the sign, light fixture, walkway, or sign bridge over the possible future overlays.
entire width of the pavement and shoulders unless the grade The additional 1-ft vertical clearance is required so that
separation structures or other structures nearby have lesser high vehicles will strike the stronger overpass structures first,
vertical clearance. In cases of lesser clearance, the overhead thereby lessening the chance of major collision damage to the
sign support may be as low as 1 ft higher than the vertical structurally weaker overhead sign support or traffic signal
clearance of other supports. support structures. A depiction of this clearance limit is
Additional guidance on vertical clearances may be found illustrated in Figure C2.4.2.1-1.
in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD).
(FHWA 2009)

Figure C2.4.2.1-1—Location of Structural Supports

2.4.2.2—Size, Height, and Location of Signs C2.4.2.2
The MUTCD should be consulted for the sizes, heights, The MUTCD includes information on signs for sizes,
and placement of signs for any installation. illumination and reflectorization, location, height, and lateral
clearance.
2.4.2.3—Illumination and Retroreflectivity of Signs C2.4.2.3
Illumination and retroreflectivity of signs should conform The Roadway Lighting Design Guide provides additional
with the provisions of the MUTCD. information.
Except where retroreflectivity is deemed adequate, all By an engineering study, headed or prismatic
overhead sign installations should normally be illuminated. retroreflectivity sheeting could be used to eliminate the need
The lighting equipment should produce uniform illumination for sign illumination.
for the sign surface and the position of the lighting fixtures
should not impair normal viewing of the sign or obstruct view
of the roadway. Where internal illumination is used in
conjunction with translucent materials, the colors of the sign
should appear essentially the same by night and day.
Retroreflectivity levels are required to be maintained
above minimum levels by use of a management or assessment
method.
2.4.2.4—Changeable Message Signs C2.4.2.4
The design of changeable message signs (CMS), CMS are composed of lamps or luminous elements that
enclosures, and connections to the support structure normally may be visible during the day as well as at night. The lamps
require additional considerations that are beyond the scope of and electronics are contained within an enclosure, which
these Specifications. The MUTCD should be consulted on typically weighs significantly more than most sign panels.
size, height, and placement. The MUTCD includes information on the use and design
of changeable message signs.
2.5—ROADSIDE REQUIREMENTS FOR C2.5

STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS
Consideration shall be given to safe passage of vehicles Where possible, a single support should be used for dual
adjacent to or under a structural support. The hazard to errant purposes (e.g., signals and lighting). Consideration should also
vehicles within the clear zone distance, defined in Article be given to locating luminaire supports to minimize the
2.5.1, should be minimized by locating obstacles a safe necessity of encroaching on the traveled way during routine
distance away from the traveled way. Roadside requirements maintenance.
and location of structural supports for highway signs,
luminaires, and traffic signals should generally adhere to the
principles given in Articles 2.5.1 through 2.5.9.
2.5.1—Clear Zone Distance C2.5.1
Structural supports should be located in conformance with The clear zone, illustrated in Figure C2.4.2.1-1, is the
the clear zone concept as contained in Chapter 3, “Roadside roadside border area beyond the traveled way, available for
Topography and Drainage Features,” of the Roadside Design safe use by errant vehicles. This area may consist of a
Guide (AASHTO 2011), or other clear zone policy accepted shoulder, a recoverable slope, a non-recoverable slope, and/or
by FHWA. Where the practical limits of structure costs, type a clear run-out area. The desired width is dependent on the
of structures, volume and design speed of through-traffic, and traffic volumes and speeds and on the roadside geometry.
structure arrangement make conformance with the Roadside Suggested minimum clear zone distances are provided in
Design Guide impractical, the structural support should be the Roadside Design Guide and are dependent on average
provided with a breakaway device or protected by the use of a daily traffic, slope of roadside, and design vehicle speed.
guardrail or other barrier. Additional discussions of clear zone distances and lateral
placement of structural support is provided in the MUTCD and
A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

(AASHTO 2011). Decisions on appropriate clear zones may

also be guided by the HSM.
2.5.2—Breakaway Supports C2.5.2
Breakaway supports should be used for luminaire and Generally, breakaway supports should be provided
roadside sign supports when they cannot be placed outside the whenever the support is exposed to traffic, even if beyond the
roadside clear zone or behind a guardrail. The requirements of clear zone on a traversable slope. The recommended clear
Section 12, “Breakaway Supports,” shall be satisfied. The zone distances included in the Roadside Design Guide
requirements of Articles 2.5.2.1 and 2.5.2.2 should be met for accommodate only about 80 percent of errant vehicles. The
the proper performance of the breakaway support. use of breakaway supports beyond the clear zone will provide
Breakaway supports housing electrical components shall an added measure of safety for the remaining 20 percent.
have the use of electrical disconnects considered for all new
installations and for existing installations that experience
frequent knockdown.
2.5.2.1—Foundations C2.5.2.1
The top of foundations and projections of any rigidly Foundations for breakaway supports located on slopes are
attached anchor bolts or anchor supports should not extend likely to require special details to avoid creating a notch in the
above the ground level enough to increase the hazard or to slope that could impede movement of the support when broken
interfere with the operation of a breakaway support. away or a projection of the foundation that could snag the
undercarriage of an impacting vehicle. Foundations should be
designed considering the breakaway stub height limitations of
Section 12.
2.5.2.2—Impact Height C2.5.2.2
Breakaway supports should be located such that the The Manual for Assessing Hardware Safety (MASH)
location of impact of an errant vehicle’s bumper is consistent (AASHTO 2009) provides guidance.
with the maximum bumper height used in breakaway
qualification tests.
2.5.3—Guardrails and Other Barriers C2.5.3
The location of roadside sign and luminaire supports Guardrails, as illustrated in Figure C2.4.2.1-1, are
behind a guardrail should provide clearance between the back provided to shield motorists from fixed objects and to protect
of the rail and the face of the support to ensure that the rail will fixed objects, such as overhead sign supports. The Roadside
deflect properly when struck by a vehicle. Continuity of the Design Guide provides guidance.
railing on rigid highway structures should not be interrupted
by sign or luminaire supports.
The clearance between the edge of a sign panel, which The clearance between the back of the barrier and the face
could present a hazard if struck, and the back of a barrier of the support may vary, depending on type of barrier system
should also take into consideration the deflection of the barrier. used. The Roadside Design Guide may be used to determine
The edge of a sign shall not extend inside the face of the the proper clearance.
railing.
2.5.4—Roadside Sign and Luminaire Supports C 2.5.4
Roadside sign and typical luminaire supports, within the Where there is a probability of being struck by errant
clear zone distance specified in Article 2.5.1, should be vehicles, even supports outside the suggested clear zone
designed with a breakaway feature acceptable under MASH, should preferably be breakaway.
NCHRP 350, or protected with a guardrail or other barrier. For many years, NCHRP 350 was the standard for the
Where viewing conditions are favorable, roadside sign and assessment and performance of highway safety features. The
typical luminaire supports may be placed outside the clear AASHTO/FHWA Joint Implementation Plan (2009) outlines
zone distance. details regarding the use of NCHRP 350 and MASH for
design and existing systems.

2.5.5—Overhead Sign Supports and High-Level Lighting C2.5.5

Supports
Overhead sign and high-level lighting structural supports Overhead sign and high-level lighting supports are
should be placed outside the clear zone distance or protected considered fixed-base support systems that do not yield or
with a proper guardrail or other barrier. break away on impact. The large mass of these support
systems and the potential safety consequences of falling to the
ground necessitate a fixed-base design. Fixed-base systems are
rigid obstacles and should not be used in the clear zone area
unless shielded by a barrier. In some cases, it may be cost
effective to place overhead sign supports outside the clear zone
with no barrier protection when the added cost of the greater
span structure is compared with the long-term costs of
guardrail and vegetation maintenance. Structures can
sometimes be located in combination with traffic barriers
protecting other hazards, such as culverts, bridge ends, and
embankments.
2.5.6—Traffic Signal Supports C2.5.6
Traffic signal supports that are installed on high-speed Traffic signal structural supports with mast arms or span
facilities should be placed as far away from the roadway as wires normally are not provided with a breakaway device.
practical. Shielding these supports should be considered if they However, pedestal pole traffic signal supports are
are within the clear zone for that particular roadway. appropriately designed to be breakaway devices. Pedestal
poles should, if possible, be placed on breakaway supports
because they are usually in close proximity to traffic lanes.
2.5.7—Gores
Where obstruction in the gore is unavoidable within the

clear zone, protection should be provided by an adequate crash
cushion or the structure should be provided with a breakaway
device.
2.5.8—Urban Areas C2.5.8
For sign, luminaire, and traffic signal structures located in The 24-in. offset is not an urban clear zone; rather it was
working urban areas, the minimum lateral clearance from a established to avoid interference with truck mirrors, open
barrier curb to the support is 24 in. Where no curb exists, the doors, and so forth.
horizontal clearance to the support should be as much as
reasonably possible, but at least 24 in.
2.5.9—Joint-Use Supports C2.5.9
Where possible, consideration should be given to the joint Preference should be given to joint usage to reduce the
usage of supports in urban areas. number of supports in urban areas. For example, a traffic sign
and signal support can be combined with a lighting pole.
Care should be taken at the design stage to ensure that the
critical load carrying members of the support are of sufficient
capacity for all the likely uses made of the support. This could
be achieved by indicating in design documents (the Owner’s
records) limitations on use such as maximum EPA and EPA
attachment eccentricity.

2.6—INTEGRATION OF STRUCTURAL SUPPORTS

WITH ROADWAY AND BRIDGE DESIGN
2.6.1—Signs C2.6.1
Sign panels may be supported on existing or proposed Sign installation on grade separated structures is generally
grade separation structures. Although the minimum vertical acceptable aesthetically when the sign panels do not extend
clearance requirements for overhead signs do not apply in below the girders or above the railing. The sign panel should
these cases, a minimal vertical clearance to avoid posting the be placed slightly above the minimum vertical clearance
bridge should be maintained. Frames and other attachments to specified for the grade separation structure. Close liaison
an existing structure shall be designed to support the sign between structural, bridge and traffic engineers is essential for
panel. The overhead sign should be located as near to the most signs mounted on grade separation structures.
advantageous position for traffic operation as possible, but The placement of overhead signs must be considered in
where structurally adequate support details can be provided. the preliminary design stages to avoid possibly restricting the
driver’s view of sign messages by other signs or structures.
Signing is an integral part of the roadway environment and
must be developed along with the roadway and bridge designs.
2.6.2—Luminaires C2.6.2
The location of luminaire supports should be coordinated The location of the luminaire supports should be
with the function and location of other structures. coordinated with the location of the sign structures so that the
driver’s view of sign legends is not hampered. Attention
should be given to correlating interchange and structure
lighting with the lighting provided on the other sections of the
roadway. Where practical, high-level lighting may be used to
reduce the number of supports required, present fewer
roadside obstacles, and improve safety for maintenance
personnel.
2.7—FABRICATION, MATERIALS, AND DETAILING C2.7
Guidance for fabrication of support structures is provided This section is new to the LRFD Structural Supports
in Section 14. Herein working drawings, connection details, Specifications. Previously, guidance was included in a variety
specific geometric requirements, etc. are addressed. of locations within the material sections.
2.8—CONSTRUCTION C2.8
Guidance for construction of support structures is This section is new to the LRFD Structural Supports
provided in Section 15. Erection procedures, anchorage Specifications. Previously, guidance was included in a variety
installations, protective systems, etc. are addressed there. of locations within the material sections.
2.9—INSPECTION AND REPORTING C2.9
Guidance for construction of support structures is This section is new to the LRFD Structural Supports
provided in Section 16. Inspection types, frequencies, Specifications. Previously, guidance was included in a variety
planning, scheduling, and access issues are addressed and of locations within the material sections.
element-level definitions are provided there.
2.10—MANAGEMENT C2.10
Guidance for asset management of support structures is This section is new to the LRFD Structural Supports
provided in Section 17. Archives, replacement considerations, Specifications. Previously, guidance was included in a variety
maintenance programs, etc. are addressed there. of locations within the material sections.

2.11—REFERENCES
AASHTO. 2007. AASHTO Maintenance Manual for Roadways and Bridges, Fourth Edition. American Association of State
AASHTO. 2011. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, Sixth Edition. American Association of State
AASHTO. 2010. Highway Safety Manual, First Edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2005. Roadway Lighting Design Guide, Sixth Edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2011. Roadside Design Guide, Fourth Edition. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2014. AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, Seventh Edition. American Association of State Highway and
AASHTO/FHWA. 2009. Joint Implementation Plan for the AASHTO Manual for Assessing Hardware, American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
AASHTO. 2009. Manual for Assessing Safety Hardware (MASH). First Edition, American Association of State Highway and
FHWA. 2009. Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC.
FHWA. 2012. FHWA Lighting Handbook, FHWA-SA-11-22. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of
Transportation, Washington, DC.
Ross, H. E., D. L. Sicking, R. A. Zimmer, and J. D. Michie. 1993. Recommended Procedures for the Safety Performance Evaluation
of Highway Features, NCHRP Report 350. Transportation Research Board, National Research Council, Washington, DC.

SECTION 3: LOADS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
3 3
3.1—SCOPE .................................................................................................................................................................................. 3-1
3.2—DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.3—NOTATION.......................................................................................................................................................................... 3-2
3.4—LOAD FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS ......................................................................................................... 3-3
3.5—PERMANENT LOADS ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-4
3.6—LIVE LOADS ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3-4
3.7—ICE LOAD–ATMOSPHERIC ICING ................................................................................................................................ 3-4
3.8—WIND LOAD ....................................................................................................................................................................... 3-4

3.8.1—Wind Pressure Equation........................................................................................................................................... 3-14
3.8.2—Basic Wind Speed .................................................................................................................................................... 3-14
3.8.2.1—Elevated Locations ........................................................................................................................................ 3-14
3.8.3—Special Wind Regions .............................................................................................................................................. 3-15
3.8.4—Height and Exposure Factor Kz ................................................................................................................................ 3-15
3.8.5—Directionality Factor Kd ........................................................................................................................................... 3-16
3.8.6—Gust Effect Factor G ................................................................................................................................................ 3-17
3.8.7—Drag Coefficients Cd ................................................................................................................................................ 3-17
3.9—DESIGN WIND LOADS ON STRUCTURES ................................................................................................................. 3-23

3.9.1—Load Application ...................................................................................................................................................... 3-23
3.9.2—Design Loads for Horizontal Supports .................................................................................................................... 3-23
3.9.3—Design Loads for Vertical Supports ........................................................................................................................ 3-23
3.9.4—Unsymmetrical Wind Loading ................................................................................................................................ 3-24
3.9.4.1—Overhead Cantilevered Supports................................................................................................................... 3-24
3.9.4.2—Concentrically Mounted Supports................................................................................................................. 3-25
3.10—REFERENCES ................................................................................................................................................................. 3-29
3-i

SECTION 3: LOADS 3-1
SECTION 3:
LOADS
3.1—SCOPE C3.1
This Section specifies minimum requirements for loads This Section includes consideration of dead, live, ice, and
and forces, the limits of their application, and load wind loads.
combinations that are used for the design or structural The Specification defines wind loads in terms of three-
evaluation of supports for highway signs, luminaires, and second (3-s) gust wind. Use of the 3-s gust wind speed map
traffic signals. may result in increases or decreases to loads relative to the
The operational risk category shall be used to establish fastest-mile used in Specifications editions prior to 2001.
the mean recurrence interval (MRI) for wind loads. The risk associated with a failure may include factors
Fatigue-sensitive supports are addressed in Section 11. such as average daily traffic and the likelihood of a structure
falling onto a roadway or other important facility. The risk
assessment may include the consequences of failure on a
lifeline system, e.g., exit routes from hurricane-prone
regions.
The MRI 300-yr, 700-yr, and 1700-yr interval wind
speed maps are provided in Article 3.8.
Note that in previous editions of the Specifications,
typically a 50-yr wind map was used with “safety factors” on
resistance. In previous versions of ASCE/SEI 7 (2005 and
before), a 50-yr wind map was available and adjustments
were made for hurricane and other regions with important
site-specific statistics. Additionally, the load factors
associated with wind were typically 1.6 for the strength limit
state. Beginning in 2010, ASCE/SEI 7-10 recalibrated the
wind speed maps to increase hurricane and other regions and
lower the load factor to be consistent with other extreme
events such as earthquakes, i.e., to 1.0. Henceforth, the
Specifications use the extreme limit state for non fatigue-
related wind loads and this is consistent with ASCE/SEI
7-10.
3.2—DEFINITIONS
Allowable Stress Design (ASD)—A design approach where load effects are based upon load expected during the service life
and nominal material strengths are decreased to provide a level of safety.
Basic Wind Speed, V—The 3-s gust wind speed at 33 ft above the ground associated with exposure C.
Design Wind Pressure, Pz —The pressure exerted on a member or attachment by wind. The pressure is calculated using
R
appropriate design values for all variables in the wind pressure equation.
Directionality Factor, Kd—The maximum wind can come from any direction and the probability that the maximum drag
coefficient is associated with the wind direction is reduced.
Drag Coefficient, Cd—A dimensionless coefficient that adjusts the effective velocity pressure for the effects of the geometry
of the element, surface roughness, and the Reynolds number.
Effective Velocity Pressure, vpz—The pressure exerted by the effects of the wind assuming that the drag coefficient, C d , isR R
equal to 1.0.
Effective Projected Area (EPA)—The equivalent Cd times the area projected area typically provided by a manufacturer. This
R
may be used as an “area” with a unit value for Cd . R

Fastest-Mile Wind Speed—The peak wind speed averaged over one mile of wind passing a point.
Gust Effect Factor, G—A dimensionless coefficient that adjusts the wind pressure to account for the dynamic interaction of
the wind and the structure.
Height and Exposure Factor, Kz —A dimensionless coefficient that adjusts the magnitude of wind pressure referenced to a
R
height above the ground of 33 ft for the variation of wind speed with height.
Lifeline Travelways—Travelways that are required to be open to all traffic after a major wind event and useable by emergency
vehicles and for security, defense, economic, or secondary life safety. May be designated as critical for a local emergency plan
(adapted from AASHTO, 2011).
Mean Recurrence Interval, MRI—The inverse of the probability of occurrence of a specific event in a 1-yr period.
Service Life—Period of time that the structure is expected to be in operation.
Solidity—The vertically projected area divided by the total enclosed elevation area for a truss or lattice structure.
Special Wind Region—A region where the magnitude of the local wind speeds is dramatically affected by local conditions.
Wind speeds in these areas should be determined by consulting the authority having local jurisdiction or through the analysis
of local meteorological conditions.
Three-Second Gust Wind Speed—The average wind speed measured over an interval of 3-s.
3.3—NOTATION
b = overall width (ft) (3.9.4.2)

BL n = R R basic load normal to the plane of the structure (3.9.3)
BL t = R R basic load transverse to the plane of the structure (3.9.3)
Cd = R R drag coefficient (3.2) (3.8.1) (3.8.7) (C3.8.7) (3.9.1)
CdD = R drag coefficient for round cylinder of diameter D (3.8.7)
Cdd = R drag coefficient for round cylinder of diameter d o (3.8.7)
R
Cdm = R drag coefficient for multisided section (3.8.7) (C3.8.7)

Cdr = R drag coefficient for round section (3.8.7) (C3.8.7)
Cv = R velocity conversion factor for the selected mean recurrence interval (3.8.7)
d = depth (diameter) of member (ft) (3.8.7)
D = major diameter of ellipse (ft) (3.8.7)
DL = dead load (lb) (3.9)
do = R minor diameter of ellipse (ft) (3.8.7)
G = gust effect factor (3.2) (3.8.1) (3.8.2) (3.8.6) (C3.8.6)
Ice = ice load (lb) (3.7) (3.9)
Kd = R R directionality factor (3.2) (3.8.1) (3.8.2) (3.8.5)
Kz = R R height and exposure factor (3.2) (3.8.1) (3.8.2) (3.8.4)
L sign =
R R longer dimension of the attached sign (ft) (3.8.7)
nc =
R R normal component of wind force (lb) (3.9.3)
Pz = R design wind pressure (psf) (3.2) (3.8.1)
rc = R ratio of corner radius to radius of inscribed circle (3.8.7) (C3.8.7)
rm = R ratio of corner radius to radius of inscribed circle where multisided section is considered multisided (3.8.7)
rr = R ratio of corner radius to radius of inscribed circle where multisided section is considered round (3.8.7)
rs = R ratio of corner radius to depth of square member (3.8.7)
tc =
R transverse component of wind force (lb) (3.9.3) (C3.9.3)

V = basic wind speed, expressed as a 3-s gust wind speed, at 33 ft above the ground in open terrain (mph) (3.2) (3.8.1)
(3.8.2) (3.8.7) (C3.8.7)
Wh = R wind load on exposed horizontal support (lb) (3.9.2) (3.9.3) (3.9.4.2)
Wl =R wind load on luminaires (lb) (3.9.2) (3.9.3) (3.9.4.2)
Wp = R wind load on sign panel or traffic signal (lb) (3.9.2) (3.9.3) (3.9.4.2)
Wsign R = shorter dimension of the attached sign (ft) (3.8.7)
Wv = R wind load on exposed vertical supports (lb) (3.9.3)
z = height at which wind pressure is calculated (ft) (3.8.4)
zg = constant for calculating the exposure factor and is a function of terrain (3.8.4)
α = constant for calculating the exposure factor and is a function of terrain (3.8.4)
3.4—LOAD FACTORS AND LOAD COMBINATIONS C3.4
The loads described in Articles 3.5 through 3.8 shall be This publication supersedes the AASHTO Standard
combined into appropriate load combinations as required in Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs,
Table 3.4-1. Each part of the structure shall be proportioned Luminaires, and Traffic Signals (2009). Beginning with this
for the combination producing the maximum load effect. edition, the design philosophy is based on LRFD. The load
The fatigue loads shall be computed in accordance with and resistance factors are calibrated to provide a reliability
Section 11. index of approximately 3.0 for 300-yr MRI, 3.0 to 3.5 for
700-yr MRI, and 3.5-4.0 for 1700-yr MRI for main
members.
These specifications use fatigue limit states I and II for
infinite and finite life approaches, respectively. AASHTO
LTS Design (Section 11) uses only the infinite life approach
for design (fatigue limit state I). The evaluation of the fatigue
limit may use a finite life approach to predict the remaining
fatigue life for asset management purposes.
NCHRP Report 796 outlines the calibration. (Puckett, et
al., 2014)
Table 3.4-1—Load Combinations and Load Factors
Permanent Transient Fatigue

Natural Combined
Wind Vortex- Wind on Galloping-
Load Live Gust Induced High- Induced
Combination Reference Dead Components Load Wind Truck Gust Vibration Vibration level Vibration
Limit State Description Articles (DC) (LL) (W) (TrG) (NWG) (VVW) Towers (GVW)
Max/Min Mean Apply separately
3.5, 3.6, and
Strength I Gravity 3.7 1.25 1.6
a
Extreme I Wind 3.5, 3.8, 3.9 1.1/0.9 1.0
b
Service I Translation 10.4 1.0 1.0
Crack control for
Prestressed
Service III Concrete 1.0 1.00
Fatigue I Infinite-life 11.7 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
Fatigue II Evaluation 17.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
a. Use Figures 3.8-1, 3.8-2, or 3.8-3 (for appropriate return period)
b. Use Figure 3.8-4 (service)

3.5—PERMANENT LOADS C3.5
The permanent load shall consist of the weight of the In the these specifications, the terms permanent load or
structural support, signs, luminaires, traffic signals, lowering dead load may be used interchangably. Dead load is to
devices, and any other appurtenances permanently attached include all permanently attached fixtures, including hoisting
to and supported by the structure. Temporary loads during devices and walkways provided for servicing of luminaires
inspection and maintenance shall also be considered as part or signs.
of the permanent loads. The points of application of the weights of the individual
items may be their respective centers of gravity.
Manufacturers’ data may be used for the weights of
components.
3.6—LIVE LOADS C3.6
A live load consisting of a single load of 0.5 kips The specified live load represents the weight of a person
distributed over 2.0 ft transversely to the member shall be and equipment during servicing of the structure. Only the
used for designing members for walkways and service members of walkways and service platforms are designed for
platforms. the live load. Any structural member designed for the
combined loadings in Article 3.4 will be adequately
proportioned for live load application. For OSHA-compliant
agencies, additional requirements may apply.
Typically, live load will not control the design of the
structural support.
3.7—ICE LOAD–ATMOSPHERIC ICING C3.7
Atmospheric ice load due to freezing rain or in-cloud NCHRP Report 796 illustrates that ice and wind on ice
icing may be applied around the surfaces of the structural does not practically control the critical load effect. To
supports, traffic signals, horizontal supports, and luminaires; simplify these Specifications, these load combinations have
but it may be considered only on one face of sign panels. been eliminated. (Puckett et al, 2014)
The Owner shall specify any special icing requirements For extreme cases where the Owner indicates, either
that occur, including those in and near mountainous terrain, local conditions or the ice and coincident wind loads
gorges, the Great Lakes, and Alaska. provided ASCE/SEI 7 may be used for guidance. (e.g.
ASCE/SEI 7, 2010).
3.8—WIND LOAD C3.8
Wind load shall be based on the pressure of the wind The selection of the MRI accounts for the consequences
acting horizontally on the supports, signs, luminaires, traffic of failure. A “typical” support could cross the travelway
signals, and other attachments computed in accordance with during a failure thereby creating a hazard for travelers (MRI
Articles 3.8.1 through 3.8.7, Eq. 3.8.1-1 using the appropriate = 700 yrs). The Owner should specify the ADT and Risk
mean recurrence interval basic wind speed as shown in Category (or MRI).
Figures 3.8-1, 3.8-2, 3.8-3, and 3.8-4. The mean recurrence All supports that could cross lifeline travelways are
interval is determined with Table 3.8-1. assigned a high risk category to consider the consquences of
failure (MRI = 1700 yrs).
Supports that cannot cross the travelway are assigned a
low risk and 300-yr MRI.

Table 3.8-1—Mean Recurrence Interval
Risk Category
Traffic Volume Typical High Low
ADT<100 300 1700 300
100<ADT≤1000 700 1700 300
1000<ADT≤10000 700 1700 300
ADT>10000 1700 1700 300
Typical: Failure could cross travelway
High: Support failure could stop a lifeline travelway
Low: Support failure could not cross travelway
Roadside sign supports: use 10-yr MRI, see Figure 3.8-4.

Figure 3.8-1a—700-Year MRI Basic Wind Speed, mph (m/s)–Western U.S. including Alaska (used with permission from
ASCE)

Figure 3.8-1b—700-Year MRI Basic Wind Speed, mph (m/s)—Eastern U.S. and Islands (used with permission from ASCE)
Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-s gust wind speeds in mph (m/s ) at 33 ft above ground for Exposure C category,
2. Linear interpolation between wind contours is permitted.
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined for unusual
wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 7 percent probability of exceedance in 50 yrs (Annual
Exceedance Probability = 0.00143, MRI = 700 Yrs)

Figure 3.8-2a—1700-Year MRI Basic Wind Speed, mph (m/s)–Western U.S. including Alaska (used with permission from
ASCE)

Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-s gust wind speeds in mph (m/s) at 33 ft above ground for
Exposure C category,
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed contour of the
coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be examined
for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 3 percent probability of exceedance in 50 yrs
(Annual Exceedance Probability = 0.000588, MRI = 1700 yrs)

Figure 3.8-3a— 300-Year MRI Basic Wind Speed, mph (m/s )–Western U.S. including Alaska (used with permission from
ASCE)

Notes:
1. Values are nominal design 3-s gust wind speeds in mph (m/s) at 33 ft above ground
for Exposure C category,
3. Islands and coastal areas outside the last contour shall use the last wind speed
contour of the coastal area.
4. Mountainous terrain, gorges, ocean promontories, and special wind regions shall be
examined for unusual wind conditions.
5. Wind speeds correspond to approximately a 15 percent probability of exceedance in
50 yrs (Annual Exceedance Probability = 0.00333, MRI = 300 Yrs)

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Title: Kuvia Raja-Karjalasta
Author: Otto Adolf Forsström
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Language: Finnish
Original publication: sinki: Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seura, 1894
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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK KUVIA RAJA-

KARJALASTA ***
KUVIA RAJA-KARJALASTA
Kirj.
O. A. Forsström
Helsingissä, Suomalaisen Kirjallisuuden Seuran kirjapainossa,

1894.
SISÄLLYS:
Ensimmäinen luku.
Laatokan rantamailla.
Toinen luku.
Salomailla.
Kolmas luku.
Runo- ja taikamailla.
Neljäs luku.
Karjalan aatelia.
Wiides luku.
Kovan onnen Karjala.
Kuudes luku.
Tapoja ja luonteita.
Ensimmäinen Luku.
Laatokan Rantamailla.
"Kohti pohjaista kulemme,

Kohti kuohuja kovia,
Lakkipäitä lainehia,
Sampoa tapoamahan,
Kirjokantta katsomahan
Pohjolan kivimäestä,
Waaran vaskisen sisästä."
Kalevala XXXIX.
Laatokan pohjoisten rantamaiden yleinen luonne. Korkeat vuoret.

Wenäjän puoleisen Laatokan rantamaat. Laatokan syvyys. Weden
korkeus, Laatokan myrskyt. Sumu. Kangastukset. Korkeat ranta
vuoret eli "riutat." Haukkariutta. Syvät lahdet. Kirjavalahti. Ilmasto.
Weden lämpömäärä. Jäälautat ja "komppeikot". Meriliike Laatokalla.
Wienti- ja tuontitavarat, Laatokan "saimat". Ilmansuuntien nimet,
Rehevä kasvisto, Harvinaisia kasveja ja puun lajeja. Laatokan
kalarikkaus. Kalastusta ja kalastajaelämää. Sampi ja miekkakala.
Norppa ja norpanpyynti. Laatokan pohjoisten rantamaiden mineraali-
rikkaus. Ruskealan marmorilouhos. Sordavaliitti. Kitilän granaatit.
Helmempyyntiä Impilahdella. Wärtsilän rautaruukki. Pitkänrannan
vaskikaivokset. Käynti valtiorajamme toisella puolella. "Anuksen
linnu." Sortavalan kaupunki ja Kymölän seminaari.
Laatokan pohjoiset rantamaat ovat epäilemättä maamme

kauniimpia seutuja. Näyttää siltä, ikäänkuin täällä Suomen sisämaan
ja merenrannikon luonto olisivat yhtyneet viimeiseen ponnistukseen,
muodostaakseen oikein jyrkkää vastakohtaa tuolle
"itäeurooppalaiselle tasangolle", joka yksitoikkoisena, järvettömänä,
vuorettomana alkaa valtiorajaimne itäpuolella. Merta edustavat
näissä maisemissa Laatokan aukeat ulapat ja "mereksi" sanookin
karjalainen tätä Euroopan suurinta järveä.
Omituista näille pohjoisen Laatokan rantamaille ovat korkeat
vuoret. Mutta turhaan saapi noita vuoria Suomen kartasta hakea.
Siinä ovat Laatokan rantaseudut ylt'yleiseen kuvatut tasankomaiksi.
Ei edes vahingossa ole pienintäkään tummanmustukaista karttaan
hairahtunut. Luulisi ihan olevansa Pohjanmaan lakeuksilla. Ja
kuitenkaan ei liene koko maassamme Kuusamoa etelämpänä moista
vuoriseutua. Sitä kestää Kurkijoelta Impilahteen asti ja se ulottuu
melkoisen kauaksi ylämaahan.
Erittäin komeilta näyttävät nuo rantavuoret, kun niitä mereltä päin

katselee tyynenä kesäiltana. Ne kohoavat kartion tapaisina toinen
toisensa vieressä. Kahden viereisen vuorikartion välissä on aina
syvä laakso, useimmiten kapea kaistale vain. Wuorenkukkulat eivät
siltä sula yhteen, sillä ilta-auringon valo lankeaa toiseen
heleämpänä, toiseen tummempana. Wielä silloinkin, kun ne
sinertävän autereisina katoavat etäisellä taivaanrannalla, ovat niiden
rajaviivat toisistaan erotettavissa.
Koko Wenäjän puoleinen Laatokan rannikko on sileätä

hiekkakangasta, paikka paikoin savensekaista, peräti lahdetoin ja
niin matala, että laivat vaan yksissä paikoin pääsevät rantaan
laskemaan. Siellä ei myöskään ole saaristoa, niinkuin Suomen
puolella. Seurauksena tästä on että luonto siellä näyttää hyvin
ikävältä ja yksitoikkoiselta.
Suomen puoleinen osa Laatokkaa on hyvin syvää vettä. Koko

Laatokan keskimääräinen syvyys on 350 jalkaa, siis Itämeren ja
Pohjanlahden syvyyttä melkoista suurempi. Syvimmät paikat löytyvät
Sortavalan pitäjän alueella. Länsipuolella Walamoa on eräs kohta,
jossa on 854 jalkaa vettä. Suuren Wironsaaren, Honkasaaren ja
Mustansaaren välimailla on 714-847 jalkaa syvää.
Wesi Laatokassa on puhdasta ja hyvänmakuista. Se on myös niin
kirkasta, että pohja näkyy monen sylen syvyydessä.
Weden korkeus Laatokassa vaihtelee eri vuosina suuresti. On

tapana sanoa, että se seitsemänä vuonna peräkkäin nousee,
seitsemänä laskee. Tämä luulo on kuitenkin perätöin. Kaikessa
tapauksessa tuo nouseminen ja laskeminen ei riipu lumisista eikä
lumettomista talvista, vaan muista suhteista. Korkeimman ja
alhaisimman vedenrajan eroitus on Laatokassa joskus ollut yli 9
jalkaa.
Koko Laatokan yhteenlaskettu pinta-ala on 18,130 neliökilometriä.
Laatokkaa voipi siis täydellä syyllä sanoa mereksi. Se on tunnettu

kovista myrskyistään. Sen aalto on lyhyt ja jyrkkä. Kansa sanoo sitä
"kareeksi." Myrskyt ovat kovimpia syksyiseen aikaan. Kamalassa
muistossa on kansalla vielä se myrsky, joka Laatokalla raivosi
syyskuun 21—22 p:inä 1883. 30 laivaa joutui silloin kerrassaan
haaksirikkoon, eräät väkineen päivineen. Sortanlahden sataman
suussa, Laatokan länsirannalla nähtiin silloin kauhea näytelmä.
Useimmat laivoista pyrkivät näet sinne myrskyn suojaan. Harvat
kuitenkaan pääsivät turvapaikkaan. Toiset ajoivat kumoon ankealla
merellä, toisia viskasi tuuli rantamatalikoille. Sortanlahdella joutui
kaikkiaan 17 laivaa haaksirikkoon.
Kesälläkin voipi Laatokka toisinaan olla hyvin oikullinen. Korkeat

rantavuoret kuumenevat päivänpaahteessa. Siitä syntyy rantavesillä
äkillisiä ilmanvirtoja, jotka helposti kaatavat purjehtijan purren, ell'ei
hän ole varoillaan. Tyynenä kesäiltana kuulee merensuussa
toisinaan kumeata jyrinää. Se on "maininki" edellisen päivän
myrskystä, joka tenhottomana murtuu saarien jyrkkiä kalliokupeita
vastaan.
Merimiesten vaarallisin vihollinen Laatokalla, niinkuin muillakin
vesillä, on sumu. Se viepi helposti purjehtijan harhateille oikeasta
suunnasta. Onneksi on Laatokan ulappa selvää meren selkää, jossa
ei ole kareja eikä hiekkamatalikkoja. Sitä vaikeampaa on sen sijaan
sumuisella säällä purjehtia rantavesillä.
Wenheellä kulkijasta näyttävät rantakalliot utuilmalla entistä

korkeammilta. Wuoriseinän yläosa on kokonaan usvan peitossa ja
kallio tuntuu niin loppumattoman korkealta, niin hirvittävän jyrkältä.
Mielikuvitusta jännittää vielä toinen, vähän etäämpänä oleva kallio,
joka synkän epäselvänä haamuna kohoaa vedenpinnasta,
kadotakseen sekin tiheään "tumanaan."
Kirkkaalla säällä, kevätaikana semminkin, näkee Laatokalla usein

kauniita kangastuksia. Meren ulapalla huomaa silmä laivan ajavan
täysissä purjeissa ja sen päällä toisen, samanlaisen laivan, alassuin
käännettynä. Etäisellä, taivaanrannalla näkyvät Walamon saaret
kullanhohtavine kirkonkattoineen, ikäänkuin olisivat aivan lähellä. Jo
näkyy hetkisen kuluttua toisia saaria ilmassa leijuilemassa. Kuluu
kotvan aikaa, ja jo on päällimmäinen saari kääntynyt alassuin. Ja
näin muuttuu kangastus aina sen mukaan, miten kevätauringon
säteet lankeavat ilman ohuisiin, läpikuultaviin auerkerroksiin.
Lähdemme jonakuna kauniina kesäpäivänä soutelemaan

Sortavalan saaristoa. Wenheemme kulkee jyrkkien kallioniemien ohi
ja syvyydestä kohoaa korkeita saaria, jotka kuvastavat louhisia
kupeitaan kirkkaaseen vedenpintaan. Kansa nimittää noita jyrkkiä
vuorenseiniä "riutoiksi." Niiden halkeamat ja koverot ovat mieluisia
pesintäsijoja haukoille ja muille petolinnuille.
Sellainen paikka on esim. Haukkariutta Haavuksen saarella, noin

6 kilometriä Sortavalan kaupungista. Se kohoaa rohkeasti merestä,
jyrkkänä kuin seinä. Tuntuu niin masentavan jylhältä, kun venheellä
soutelee sen alla. Edessä on Laatokan aukea ulappa. Alhaalla kiitää
pesästään eksynyt "vaakalintu", huutaen surkeasti vaikeroivalla
äänellä. — Kansantaru ei tietysti ole voinut olla hyväkseen
käyttämättä näitä mielikuvitukselle niin kiitollisia luonnonaiheita. Sen
todistavat nimet sellaiset kuin "Neitsytriutta" y.m.
Tuon tuostakin uurtaa meri mantereeseen tai suurempaan

saareen syviä lahtia. Ne ovat toisinaan monen kilometrin pituisia nuo
lahdet ja useinkin hyvin kapeita. On sanottu, että niissä on jotain
Norjan vuonojen tapaista; tielysti pienoiskoossa. Sellainen on esim.
kaunis Kirjavalahti noin 12 kilometriä Sortavalan kaupungista
itäänpäin. Korkeana, äkkijyrkkänä kohoaa siinä paikka paikoin ranta;
metsähuippuisina reunustavat sitä loitompana yksinäiset, mutta
tiheässä vierekkäin seisovat vuorenkartiot.
Näköala noilta vuorilta on hyvin laaja. Siellä täällä kimaltelee pieni

lampi ikäänkuin Helmi vehreän ympäristön keskeltä. Kauempana
katoaa salo sinisenä, utuisena. Eteläisellä ilmalla aukenee katsojan
eteen selvä meren selkä. Sitä reunustavat korkeat saaret
kallioriuttoineen; siinä kapeat salmet ja terheniset niemet. Ja
rantasaariston takana on aavaa vettä, niin pitkältä kuin silmä kantaa.
Ilmasto Laatokan rantavyöhykkeessä on meri-ilmaston kaltaista.

Kesä on siellä myöhäinen, talvi myöhäinen, syksyllä sakeat sumut ja
ankarat myrskyt. Myöhään syksyllä, kun säät ylämaassa jo alkavat
muuttua talvisiksi, on ilma vielä leutoa rantamailla ja vielä
suvisempaa ulkona merellä. Syvät ja laajat ulapat eivät vielä silloin
ole ehtineet suuresti jäähtyä. Keskeltä Laatokka hyvin harvoin jäätyy.
Ja yhtä verkkaan se keväällä lämpeneekin. Ulkosaarien rannoilla

on pintavesi juhannuksen aikana harvoin 6° C lämpöisempää.
Juhannuksen jälkeenkin näkee toisina vuosina sulamattomia lauttoja
uiskentelevan Laatokan ulapalla. Kesällä v. 1893 niitä nähtiin
heinäkuun alkupäiviin asti mutta edellinen talvi olikin ollut tavattoman
ankara ja meri kauttaaltaan jäätynyt.
Toisina vuosina kasvaa jää meren ulapalla sulan reunassa hyvin

paksuksi "romppeikoksi." Talviset myrskyt irroittavat jäälauttoja ja
ajavat niitä toisiensa päälle. Ne jäätyvät silloin kiinni toisiinsa. Tätä
menoa jatkuu jatkumistaan, kunnes tuo paksu jäälautta viimein
kadottaa tasapainon ja kääntyy syrjälleen. Se voipi silloin olla 70
jalan vahvuinen. Sellaiset jäämöhkäleet tietysti hyvin verkkaan
sulavat.
*****
Meriliike Laatokalla on hyvin vilkas. Suomen puolelta viedään

Pietariin ja yleensä Wenäjälle suuret määrät halkoja, pajunkuorta eli
"parkkia" ja kalaa. Woita ja lintuja viedään myöskin. Erittäin tärkeitä
vientitavaroita ovat vuoriteollisuuden tuotteet. Sortavalan kaupungin
tulliluettelojen mukaan nousi viimeksi mainittujen tavarain vienti
meritse Pietariin vuosina 1887—1888 seuraaviin määriin:
1887: 1888:
Waskea 83,845 kgr. 83,720 kgr.
Tinaa 5,705 " 15,621 "
Maubersuolaa 22,743 " 38,903 "
Wesilasia — 941 "
Punamultaa 6,800 " 102,830 "
Rautaa 3,750,142 " 6,052,409 "
Feltinaattia ja kvartsia 1,536,000 " 1,008,500 "
Dolomiittia — 340,000 "
Graniittia 1,825,500 " 1,398,700 "
Kovasinkiveä 70,000 kappal —
Tärkeimmät tuontitavarat ovat Wenäjän jauho, suola ja rihkama.

Suola kulkee vaan kauttakulku-tavarana Wenäjän läpi. Sitä saadaan
tuoda tätä tietä ainoastaan rajoitetussa määrässä. Jauhot tuodaan
enimmäkseen Sermaksin satamasta. Jauhoparkat saapuvat sinne
Sisä-Wenäjästä jokia ja kanavia myöten. "Jauhotuuleksi" sanookin
sortavalalainen kaakkoistuulta, koska sen avulla jauhosaimat
pääsevät Sermaksista tulemaan.
Laatokalla käytetyt purjelaivat ovat viime aikoihin asti olleet tuota

vanhaa mallia, jonka Pietari suuri toi mukanaan Hollannin
laivaveistämöiltä. Ne ovat muodoltaan kuin suuret altaat. Köliä eli
talkaa niissä ei ole kuin siksi nimeksi vaan. Näillä laivoilla ei
sentähden voi risteillä vastatuulessa. Usein on Laatokan kippari jo
aivan lähellä matkansa päämäärää, kun äkkiä nousee vastatuuli, ja
hänen täytyy seurata sen mukana kohti kotoisia rantoja. Ja jos oikein
kova onni kohtaa, niin saapi hän useampaan kertaan kesässä
uudistaa tätä peliä.
Myötätuulessa kulkevat nuo vanhanaikuiset laivat hyvin nopeasti.

Kauniita ovat ne myös kaukaa katsellen huippu- ja muine purjeineen.
Sellaisen laivan ruumaan mahtuu paljon ("ruusua" = lastia) kuten
Laatokan merimiehet sanovat. Suurimmat tämänmalliset laivat omat
"hukkari" ja "galjotta"; pienempiä sanotaan "saimoiksi." Kipparit ja
merimiehet ovat enimmäkseen salmilaisia, mutta myöskin
sortavalalaisia, impilahtelaisia ja jaakkimalaisia. Kipparit ovat koulua
käymätöintä väkeä; hoitavat alustaan vaan vanhaan, perittyyn
tapaan, tuntematta merenkulun tieteellisiä perusteita.
Wiime vuosikymmenen kuluessa on kuitenkin ruvettu Laatokalla
rakentamaan uusimallisia laivoja. Nämä syrjäyttävät verkkaan mutta
varmasti tuon vanhan mallin tieltään. Sortavalaan on sitä paitsi
äskettäin perustettu merikoulu, jossa Laatokan kipparit ja merimiehet
voivat oppia merenkulun alkeita.
Laatokan puoleisessa Karjalassa on ilmansuunnilla omat. Suomen

kirjakielestä poikkeavat nimityksensä. Salmissa käytetään seuraavia
nimiä:
Länsi Luvveh
Luode Kalttanje
Pohjonen Pohjanje
Koillinen Moallinje
Itä Koillinje
Kaakko Randusuvi
Etelä Suvi (Päivy on murginois.)
Lounas Töinje (Eholoiniekku)
Sortavalan saarelaisilla ovat ilmansuuntien nimet seuraavat:
Länsi Luuve
Luode Päivän lasku
Pohjonen Pohjoinen
Koillinen Päivän nousu. Moallinen. Itä.
Itä Koillinen
Kaakko Rantasuvi
Etelä Suvi
Lounas Lintu
Kasvisto pohjoisen Laatokan rantamailla ja saaristossa on

harvinaisen rikas ja rehevä. Syynä siihen on toiselta puolen leuto,
kostea ilmasto, toiselta puolen maan vuorisuus. Waarat suojaavat
tuulilta, ja kevättulvat ja kesäiset sateet liuentavat niistä laaksoihin
höysteaineita, jotka tekevät maaperän hedelmälliseksi.
Lehtimetsä on yleisempi kuin havumetsä. Saaristossa kasvaa

tavallisesti havumetsää meren puolella. Mantereen puolella, joka on
paremmin tuulen suojassa, kasvaa lehtimetsää. Tavallisia lehtipuita
mainitsematta, viihtyvät täällä vaaher ja lehmus villinä metsässä.
Edellinen puunlaji on jotenkin yleinen kaikilla suuremmilla Laatokan
saarilla. Jalavia löytyy myös, mutta nimeksi vaan.
Saarien jyrkillä riutoilla tapaa harvinaisia Saxifraga ja Cerastium

lajeja. Täkäläisen kasviston omituisuutena mainittakoon myös eräs
Aconitum laji, joka Laatokan saarilla ja pohjoisilla rantamailla on
hyvin yleinen ja tuoreperäisissä notkoissa kasvaa miehen
korkuiseksi.
*****
Laatokan kalarikkaus on viime aikoina entisestään suuresti

vähentynyt. Se on tuo säälimätöin ryöstökalastus, joka täällä,
niinkuin muissakin sisävesissämme, hävittää kalat. Kesät umpeen
vedetään lahtivesissä tiheätä "rantiita", [= rantanuotta] niin tiheätä,
että milt'ei tuumankin pituiset kalat sillä nousevat vedestä.
Kaikki kelpaa nuottamiehelle. Ainoastaan rautakalat

(Gasterosterus) jätetään kelvottomina rannalle. Ja niitä saadaan
nuotta-apajasta toisinaan kapottain. Laatokan kalastajat eivät vielä
ole oppineet noista pienistä, pistämistä kaloista öljyä keittämään,
niinkuin suomalaiset merensaarelaiset tekevät.
Arvokkaimmat kalalajit ovat siika, merilohi ja nieriäinen. Wiimeksi
mainittu on eräs Laatokalle omituinen lohilaji (Salmo alpinus). Se
löytyy myös Lapin tunturijärvissä.
Laatokan saarelainen harjoittaa kalastusta milt'ei ainoana työnään.

Maata viljelee hän siksi nimeksi vaan. Keväällä kalastetaan rysillä ja
merroilla.
Kesällä vedetään rantanuottaa. Vedenalaisilla luodoilla vedetään

"kierrenuottaa." Se on siitä omituinen, että siinä on polvi nuotan
toisessa päässä. Sitä vedetään aina yhdestä venheestä ja kolmin
miehin. Luoto piiritetään nuotalla. Yksi miehistä pitää venettä
paikoillaan pitkällä tangolla, jolla hän kaiken aikaa kolahuttaa
pohjakiviin, peloittaakseen kalat apajaan. Kaksi miestä vetää
sill'aikaa minkä vaan kerkiävät nuottaa venheeseen. Tällä tavoin
pyydetään enimmäkseen ahvenia ja siikoja kesällä, nieriäisiä
myohäsyksyllä.
Warsinainen kalapyynnin aika alkaa myöhäsyksyllä ja sitä kestää

kevääseen asti. Marraskuussa lähtevät miehet yksinäisille
merenluodoille monta peninkulmaa rantamailta. Siellä pyydetään
siikoja ja nieriöistä harvasilmäisillä verkoilla ja kierteellä. Werkot
lasketaan yhteen jaksoon, toinen toiseensa kiinnitettynä. Yhden
venekunnan "reäty" eli verkkojakso ulottuu 600, vieläpä toista
tuhattakin syltä pitkälle.
Kalastuspaikoilla on silloin aina kalanostajia, joille kalastajat

määrähinnasta myövät saaliinsa. Siiat myödään painon mukaan,
mutta nieriäiset elävinä "peäluvun" mukaan. Jokaisella kalalla on
silloin sama hinta, olipa pieni tai suuri. Warovaisesti ottaa kalastaja
kinnas kädessä nieriäisen verkosta ja panee sen rysäntapaiseen
laitokseen, joka on hänen venheeseensä kiinnitetty.
Rantaan tultuaan, viepi hän kohta kalansa kalanostajan saunaan,
joka on niin rakennettu, että laivan keskiosa on täytetty vedellä.
Tämän säiliön seiniin on kannettu reikiä vedenvaihdosta varten.
Saatuaan laivansa täyteen lastiin, viepi laivuri kalat elävinä Pietariin.
Parhaat kalastuspaikat omistaa Walamon luostari jonkinlaisen

ylimuistoisen oikeuden nojalla, jonka perustetta yhtä vähän käy
todistaminen kuin nykyisillä aikoina kieltäminenkään. Muutamille
luodoille ei luostari laske kuin omia kalastajiaan. Toisilla luodoilla
saapi "miero" kalastella määrätystä vuokrasta, joka viime vuosina on
ollut 40 nieriöistä venekunnalta. Sellainen kalastuspaikka on
Wossennoin saari, jonkun matkaa Walamon saariryhmästä. Luostari
on sinne rakentanut majatupia, joissa kalastajat tuosta samaisesta
vuokrasta saavat suojaa ja lämmintä.
Talvella vedetään suurta siikanuottaa. Tavallisesti on nuotta jaettu

kymmeneen osaan. Jokainen "osniekka" pitää huolta siitä, että
hänen nuottaosansa on hyvässä kunnossa. Hän on joko itse
vetämässä, tai palkkaa toisen sijaansa, sillä kymmenen miestä
tarvitaan nuotanvedossa. Sellaista nuottaa vedetään hevosen ja
"vorotan" eli pelikangen avulla.
Kuten jo mainittiin, pysyy keskiosa Laatokkaa tavallisesti koko

talven jäätymättä. Etelätuulet synnyttävät jäänalaisia virtoja ja vesi
nousee silloin järven pohjoispäässä. Kun tuulet lakkaavat tai
kääntyvät, niin alkaa vesi järven pohjoisosassa laskea ja virrata
etelään. Siikaparvet seuraavat näitä jäänalaisia uurtoja ja kalastajat
tietävät varsin hyvin, että heillä pitkällisten etelätuulien perästä on
runsas saalis odotettavana. Nuottaa vedetään silloin yksillä kala-
apajilla. Jokaisella nuottueella on oma vuoronsa, jota sen täytyy
seurata.
Wenäjän puoleisia rantoja väittävät kalastajat kalaisemmiksi kuin
Suomen puoleisia. Lieneekö tuossa väitteessä perää, vaan
johtuneeko se siitä, että kaukaisempi seutu aina mielikuvituksessa
kangastaa äveriäämpänä kuin oma kotipuoli.
Kesällä sattuu joskus sampi eksymään nuottamiesten apajaan.

Tätä arvokasta kalalajia löytyy nimittäin Laatokassa, vaikka
harvassa. Jos sampi on suurempi, kahdeksan- tai
kymmenleiviskäinen, niin viedään se elämänä Pietariin. Kalan
ulkonevaan kuonorustoon kaivetaan reikä, otus kiinnitetään köydellä
laivan perään ja niin sitä sitten mennään pitkälle matkalle.
Selittämättäkin on selvä, että tämä on julmaa eläinrääkkäystä.
Harvinaisuutena mainittakoon myös Laatokassa löytyvä

"miekkakala" (Peleucus cultratus). Se on siian näköinen,
valkeasuomuksinen kala, joka on saanut nimensä omituisesta
ruumiinmuodostaan. Watsapuoli sillä näet on terävä ja ylöspäin
käyristynyt kuin sabelin terä. Miekkakala lienee kaikkialla hyvin
harvinainen. Sitä tapaa muutamin paikoin Itämeressä,
Äänisjärvessä, Araljärvessä y.m.
Hylkeet hävittävät Laatokassa paljon kaloja. Laatokan hylje on

tuota pientä, mustantäplikästä lajia (Phoca annulata), joka on yleinen
Itämeressä ja löytyy Saimaankin vesissä. Kansa sanoo Laatokan
hyljettä "norpaksi."
Laatokan ahkerimpina norpanpyytäjinä mainitaan Hakalan ja

Telkinniemen miehiä Sortavalan pitäjässä. Keväisin, jäänlähdön
aikana, lähtee näistä kylistä joka vuosi useampia venekuntia
"norppiin." Wenheessä on tavallisesti kolme miestä, toisinaan
kaksikin vaan. Yksi miehistä hoitaa venettä, ett'ei se pääse
karkaamaan. Toiset väjyvät hylkeitä ajelehtivilla jäälautoilla.
Pyyntimies on puettu valkoiseen mekkoon, valkoinen huivi käärittynä
lakin ympäri.
Parisen, kolme viikkoa ovat norppamiehet merellä uiskentelevien

jäälauttojen keskellä. Jokaisella on vähintään kaksi täydellistä
vaatepartta mukanaan, jos sattuisi jää pettämään ja mies veteen
solahtamaan. Wenheessä on rautapelti tai muu tulensijan tapainen
ja sen verran tervaksia, että miehet aina silloin tällöin voivat
valmistaa keittoruokaa itselleen. Toisinaan voivat pyyntimiehet palata
retkellään hyvälläkin saaliilla, Kymmenen norppaa mieheen pidetään
jo keskinkertaista parempana.
Hylkeitä muuten ammutaan Laatokan saaristossa kesälläkin.

Kalastajilla on melkein aina pyssy venheessä, kun he merensuussa
liikkuvat, vaikkapa lyhemmilläkin matkoilla. Tavallisesti haulipyssy.
Hylkeen ampuminen kesällä kysyy suurta harjaantumista, norpalla
on huono näkö, mutta sen sijaan erittäin tarkka kuulo ja vielä
tarkempi hajuaisti.
Tyynenä kesäiltana nousee norppa mielellään lepäämään

yksinäiselle vesikivelle johonkin niemen nenään. Ei ole
yrittämistäkään päästä ammuntamatkan päähän muuta kuin tuulen
alta. Wedenpinta on ihan heratyyni eikä kokematoin luulisi
tuulenhenkeä löytyvän ilmassa. Tämä ei kuitenkaan petä kokenutta
saarelaista. Hän nyhtää hiuksen päästään, pitää sitä ilmassa, ja totta
tosiaankin, hius huojuu. Tuulenhenkeä on siis olemassa, vaikk'ei se
pysty vedenpintaan väreitä tekemään. Ja sen mukaan hiipii mies
avopäin, paljain jaloin varovasti lähemmä otustaan. Keväällä ja
kesällä ammuttu norppa uppoaa kohta, jos se veteen kuolee.
Syksyllä on norppa lihavampi ja jääpi kuolleena veden päälle
kellumaan.
Kesällä ammutaan myös norppia "moanittamalla." Kun nähdään
norppien uivan jonkun kalliokarin läheisyydessä, niin soudetaan
hiljaa sinne ja vedetään vene maalle johonkin piiloiseen paikkaan.
Toinen miehistä asettuu tuulen alla olevalle kalliosärmälle, matkii
norpan ääntä, vääntelee ruumistaan ja tekee ryömiviä liikkeitä.
Kalliolle asetetaan toisinaan puusta kolhomaisesti veistetty ja
mustaksi maalattu "norpan pulama" eli kuva.
Toinen miehistä sillä aikaa väijyy pyssy silmällä jossain

kallionkolossa. Lyhytnäköinen norppa lähestyy lähestymistään
"moanittajaa", luullen häntä kumppalikseen.
Jo on ammuntamatkan päässä! Älähän vielä! Täytyy odottaa,

kunnes se kääntää korvallisensa ampujaan päin.
Pamaus kaikuu kalliolta ja norppa on joutunut pois lohiluotoisilta

vesiltään.
Ennenkuin hieno savupilvi on ennättänyt haihtua, juoksevat miehet

täyttä kyytiä venheeseen, työntävät sen vesille ja soutavat minkä
jaksavat otuksen luo. Pari airontempausta vielä, ja otus ois
otettavissa!
Woi paha lykky! Jo vaipuu veden alle ja veriset kuplat osoittavat

vaan sitä paikkaa, missä se muutamia sekuntia sitten kellui.
Ei hätää mitään!
Toinen miehistä tempaa pitkävartisen keihään venheestä ja iskee

sillä uppoavaan norppaan. Ell'ei tämä onnistu, niin koetetaan
naaralla.
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Knowel AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design

Highway Bridge Superstructure Engineering LRFD Approaches

The Official Highway Code Department For Transport

Know Your Traffic Signs Department For Transport

Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and

Standard specifications for transportation materials and

Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and

Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices for Streets and

First Edition 2015

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

AASHTO Publications Staff

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

AASHTO Highways Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

SECTION 2: GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN ..........................................................................................................2-i

SECTION 3: LOADS ..........................................................................................................................................................3-i

SECTION 4: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN—GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................4-i

SECTION 5: STEEL DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................5-i

SECTION 6: ALUMINUM DESIGN ..................................................................................................................................6-i

SECTION 7: PRESTRESSED CONCRETE DESIGN .......................................................................................................7-i

SECTION 8: FIBER-REINFORCED COMPOSITES DESIGN .........................................................................................8-i

SECTION 9: WOOD DESIGN ............................................................................................................................................9-i

SECTION 10: SERVICEABILITY REQUIREMENTS....................................................................................................10-i

SECTION 11: FATIGUE DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................11-i

SECTION 12: BREAKAWAY SUPPORTS .....................................................................................................................12-i

SECTION 13: FOUNDATION DESIGN ..........................................................................................................................13-i

DIVISION II: FABRICATION AND CONSTRUCTION

SECTION 14: FABRICATION, MATERIALS, AND DETAILING ...............................................................................14-i

SECTION 15: CONSTRUCTION .....................................................................................................................................15-i

DIVISION III: ASSET MANAGEMENT

SECTION 16: INSPECTION AND REPORTING............................................................................................................16-i

SECTION 17: ASSET MANAGEMENT ..........................................................................................................................17-i

APPENDIX A: ANALYSIS OF SPAN-WIRE STRUCTURES ........................................................................................ A-i

APPENDIX B: DESIGN AIDS .......................................................................................................................................... B-i

APPENDIX D: DETAILED ELEMENT DESCRIPTIONS ............................................................................................... D-i

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

in developing the provisions. References to some of the

AASHTO—American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

ACI—American Concrete Institute.

AISC—American Institute for Steel Construction.

ASCE—American Society for Civil Engineers.

ASD—Allowable stress design.

AWS—American Welding Society.

Cantilever—A member, either horizontal or vertical, supported at one end only.

CMS—Changeable message sign, a sign that displays a variable message.

Design—Proportioning and detailing the components and connections of a structure.

Designer—The person responsible for design of the structural support.

Ductility—Property of a component or connection that allows inelastic response.

DMS—Dynamic Message Sign, see CMS.

Evaluation—Determination of load-carrying capacity or remaining life of an existing structure.

Factored Resistance—Nominal resistance multiplied by a resistance factor.

FHWA—U.S. Federal Highway Administration.

© 2015 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.

Load Effect—Same as force effect.