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AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications customary
U S units 4th ed Edition Aashto Digital Instant Download
Author(s): AASHTO
ISBN(s): 9781615831326, 1615831320
Edition: 4th ed
File Details: PDF, 71.56 MB
Year: 2007
Language: english
AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications
Customary U.S. Units
4 t h Ed iti o n
2007

American Association of State Highway

and Transportation Officials
 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
444 North Capitol Street, NW Suite 249
Washington, DC 20001
202-624-5800 phone/202-624-5806 fax
www.transportation.org

© 2007 by the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. All rights reserved. Duplication is a
violation of applicable law.

Cover photos courtesy of the Louisiana Department of Transportation and Development (top) and the Maryland
Department of Transportation (bottom).

ISBN: 1-56051-354-3 Publication Code: LRFDUS-4

 PREFACE AND
ABBREVIATED TABLE OF CONTENTS

The AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 4th Edition contains the following 14 sections and
an index:

1. Introduction
2. General Design and Location Features
3. Loads and Load Factors
4. Structural Analysis and Evaluation
5. Concrete Structures
6. Steel Structures
7. Aluminum Structures
8. Wood Structures
9. Decks and Deck Systems
10. Foundations
11. Abutments, Piers, and Walls
12. Buried Structures and Tunnel Liners
13. Railings
14. Joints and Bearings
Index

Detailed Tables of Contents precede each section. References follow each section, listed alphabetically
by author.

Figures, tables, and equations are denoted by their home article number and an extension, for example 1.2.3.4.5-1, but
when they are referenced in their home article or its commentary, they are identified only by the extension. For example,
in Article 1.2.3.4.5, Eq. 1.2.3.4.5-2 would simply be called “Eq. 2.” When this equation is referenced anywhere else other
than its home article, it is identified by its whole nomenclature; in other words, “Eq. 1.2.3.4.5-2.” The same convention
applies to figures and tables.

Please note that the AASHTO materials specifications (starting with M or T) cited throughout the LRFD
Specifications can be found in Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and
Testing, adopted by the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Materials. Unless otherwise indicated, these citations refer
to the current 26th edition. ASTM materials specifications are also cited.

ix
 FOREWORD
The first broadly recognized national standard for the design and construction of bridges in the United States was
published in 1931 by the American Association of State Highway Officials (AASHO), the predecessor to AASHTO. With
the advent of the automobile and the establishment of highway departments in all of the American states dating back to
just before the turn of the century, the design, construction, and maintenance of most U.S. bridges was the responsibility of
these departments and, more specifically, the chief bridge engineer within each department. It was natural, therefore, that
these engineers, acting collectively as the AASHTO Highway Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, would become the
author and guardian of this first bridge standard.

This first publication was entitled Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges and Incidental Structures. It quickly
became the de facto national standard and, as such, was adopted and used by not only the state highway departments but
also other bridge-owning authorities and agencies in the United States and abroad. Rather early on, the last three words of
the original title were dropped and it has been reissued in consecutive editions at approximately four-year intervals ever
since as Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, with the final 17th edition appearing in 2002.

The body of knowledge related to the design of highway bridges has grown enormously since 1931 and continues to
do so. Theory and practice have evolved greatly, reflecting advances through research in understanding the properties of
materials, in improved materials, in more rational and accurate analysis of structural behavior, in the advent of computers
and rapidly advancing computer technology, in the study of external events representing particular hazards to bridges such
as seismic events and stream scour, and in many other areas. The pace of advances in these areas has, if anything, stepped
up in recent years. To accommodate this growth in bridge engineering knowledge, the Subcommittee on Bridges and
Structures has been granted authority under AASHTO’s governing documents to approve and issue Bridge Interims each
year, not only with respect to the Standard Specifications but also to incrementally modify and enhance the twenty-odd
additional documents on bridges and structures engineering that are under its guidance and sponsorship.

In 1986, the Subcommittee submitted a request to the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research to undertake an
assessment of U.S. bridge design specifications, to review foreign design specifications and codes, to consider design
philosophies alternative to those underlying the Standard Specifications, and to render recommendations based on these
investigations. This work was accomplished under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP), an
applied research program directed by the AASHTO Standing Committee on Research and administered on behalf of
AASHTO by the Transportation Research Board (TRB). The work was completed in 1987, and, as might be expected with
a standard incrementally adjusted over the years, the Standard Specifications were judged to include discernible gaps,
inconsistencies, and even some conflicts. Beyond this, the specification did not reflect or incorporate the most recently
developing design philosophy, load-and-resistance factor design (LRFD), a philosophy which has been gaining ground in
other areas of structural engineering and in other parts of the world such as Canada and Europe.

From its inception until the early 1970s, the sole design philosophy embedded within the Standard Specifications was
one known as working stress design (WSD). WSD establishes allowable stresses as a fraction or percentage of a given
material’s load-carrying capacity, and requires that calculated design stresses not exceed those allowable stresses.
Beginning in the early 1970s, WSD began to be adjusted to reflect the variable predictability of certain load types, such as
vehicular loads and wind forces, through adjusting design factors, a design philosophy referred to as load factor design
(LFD). Both WSD and LFD are reflected in the current edition of the Standard Specifications.

A further philosophical extension results from considering the variability in the properties of structural elements, in
similar fashion to load variabilities. While considered to a limited extent in LFD, the design philosophy of load-and-
resistance factor design (LRFD) takes variability in the behavior of structural elements into account in an explicit manner.
LRFD relies on extensive use of statistical methods, but sets forth the results in a manner readily usable by bridge
designers and analysts.

With the advent of these specifications, bridge engineers had a choice of two standards to guide their designs, the
long-standing AASHTO Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, and the alternative, newly adopted AASHTO LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, and its companions, AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction Specifications and AASHTO
LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design Specifications. Subsequently, the Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) and
the states have established a goal that LRFD standards be incorporated in all new bridge designs after 2007.

Interim Specifications are usually published in the middle of the calendar year, and a revised edition of this book is
generally published every four years. The Interim Specifications have the same status as AASHTO standards, but are
tentative revisions approved by at least two-thirds of the Subcommittee. These revisions are voted on by the AASHTO
member departments prior to the publication of each new edition of this book and, if approved by at least two-thirds of the

v
members, they are included in the new edition as standards of the Association. AASHTO members are the 50 State
Highway or Transportation Departments, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. Each member has one vote. The U.S.
Department of Transportation is a nonvoting member.

Annual Interim Specifications are generally used by the States after their adoption by the Subcommittee. Orders for
these annual Interim Specifications may be placed by visiting our web site, bookstore.transportation.org; calling the AASHTO
Publication Sales Office toll free (within the U.S. and Canada), 1-800-231-3475; or mailing to P.O. Box 96716,
Washington, DC 20906-6716. A free copy of the current publication catalog can be downloaded from our website or
requested from the Publications Sales Office.

Attention is also directed to the following publications prepared and published by the Subcommittee on Bridges and
Structures:

AASHTO Guide for Commonly Recognized (CoRe) Structural Elements. 1998.

AASHTO Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges with Design Examples for
I-Girder and Box-Girder Bridges. 2003.

AASHTO Guide Specifications—Thermal Effects in Concrete Bridge Superstructures. 1989.

AASHTO LRFD Bridge Construction. 2004.

AASHTO LRFD Movable Highway Bridge Design. 1998.

Bridge Data Exchange (BDX) Technical Data Guide. 1995.

Bridge Welding Code: AASHTO/AWS-D1.5M/D1.5: 2002, an American National Standard. 2002.

Construction Handbook for Bridge Temporary Works. 1995.

Guide Design Specifications for Bridge Temporary Works. 1995.

Guide for Painting Steel Structures. 1997.

Guide Manual for Condition Evaluation and Load and Resistance Factor Rating (LRFR) of Highway Bridges.
2003.

Guide Specifications and Commentary for Vessel Collision Design of Highway Bridges. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Alternate Load Factor Design Procedures for Steel Beam Bridges Using Braced
Compact Sections. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Aluminum Highway Bridges. 1991.

Guide Specifications for Bridge Railings. 1989.

Guide Specifications for Design and Construction of Segmental Concrete Bridges. 1999.

Guide Specifications for Design of Pedestrian Bridges. 1997.

Guide Specifications for Fatigue Evaluation of Existing Steel Bridges. 1990.

Guide Specifications for Highway Bridge Fabrication with HPS070W Steel. 2000.

Guide Specifications for Seismic Isolation Design. 1999.

Guide Specifications for Strength Design of Truss Bridges (Load Factor Design). 1986.

Guide Specifications for Strength Evaluation of Existing Steel and Concrete Bridges. 1989.

Guide Specifications for Structural Design of Sound Barriers. 1989.

Guide Specifications for the Design of Stress-Laminated Wood Decks. 1991.

vi
 Guidelines for Bridge Management Systems. 1993.

Manual for Condition Evaluation of Bridges. 2000.

Movable Bridge Inspection, Evaluation and Maintenance Manual. 1998.

Standard Specifications for Movable Highway Bridges. 1988.

Standard Specifications for Structural Supports for Highway Signs, Luminaires and Traffic Signals. 2001.

Additional bridges and structures publications prepared and published by other AASHTO committees and task forces
are as follows:

Guide Specifications for Cathodic Protection of Concrete Bridge Decks. 1994.

Guide Specifications for Polymer Concrete Bridge Deck Overlays. 1995.

Guide Specifications for Shotcrete Repair of Highway Bridges. 1998.

Inspector’s Guide for Shotcrete Repair of Bridges. 1999.

Manual for Corrosion Protection of Concrete Components in Bridges. 1992.

Two Parts: Guide Specifications for Concrete Overlay Pavements and Bridge Decks. 1990.

AASHTO Maintenance Manual: The Maintenance and Management of Roadways and Bridges. 1999.

The following bridges and structures titles are the result of the AASHTO–NSBA Steel Bridge Collaboration and are
available for free download from the AASHTO web site, bookstore.transportation.org:

Design Drawing Presentation Guidelines. 2003.

Guidelines for Design Constructability. 2003.

Guide Specification for Coating Systems with Inorganic Zinc-Rich Primer. 2003.

Shop Detail Drawing Presentation Guidelines. 2003.

Shop Detail Drawing Review/Approval Guidelines. 2003.

Steel Bridge Fabrication Guide Specification. 2003.

Steel Bridge Fabrication QC/QA Guide Specification. 2003.

The following have served as chairmen of the Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures since its inception in 1921:
Messrs. E. F. Kelley, who pioneered the work of the Subcommittee; Albin L. Gemeny; R. B. McMinn; Raymond
Archiband; G. S. Paxson; E. M. Johnson; Ward Goodman; Charles Matlock; Joseph S. Jones; Sidney Poleynard; Jack
Freidenrich; Henry W. Derthick; Robert C. Cassano; Clellon Loveall; James E. Siebels; David Pope; Tom Lulay; and
Malcolm T. Kerley. The Subcommittee expresses its sincere appreciation of the work of these men and of those active
members of the past, whose names, because of retirement, are no longer on the roll.

The Subcommittee would also like to thank Mr. John M. Kulicki, Ph.D., and his associates at Modjeski and Masters
for their valuable assistance in the preparation of the LRFD Specifications.

Suggestions for the improvement of the LRFD Specifications are welcomed, just as they were for the Standard
Specifications before them. They should be sent to the Chairman, Subcommittee on Bridges and Structures, AASHTO,
444 North Capitol Street, N.W., Suite 249, Washington, DC 20001. Inquiries as to intent or application of the
specifications should be sent to the same address.

vii
 SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1
1.1 SCOPE OF THE SPECIFICATIONS .................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 1-2
1.3 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY ....................................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.3.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.3.2 Limit States .................................................................................................................................................. 1-3
1.3.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................... 1-3
1.3.2.2 Service Limit State............................................................................................................................. 1-4
1.3.2.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State........................................................................................................ 1-4
1.3.2.4 Strength Limit State ........................................................................................................................... 1-4
1.3.2.5 Extreme Event Limit States ............................................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.3 Ductility ....................................................................................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.4 Redundancy ................................................................................................................................................. 1-6
1.3.5 Operational Importance................................................................................................................................ 1-6
REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................................................. 1-8

1-i
 SECTION 2: GENERAL DESIGN AND LOCATION FEATURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
2
2.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 2-1
2.3 LOCATION FEATURES ...................................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.3.1 Route Location............................................................................................................................................. 2-3
2.3.1.1 General............................................................................................................................................... 2-3
2.3.1.2 Waterway and Floodplain Crossings ................................................................................................. 2-3
2.3.2 Bridge Site Arrangement ............................................................................................................................. 2-4
2.3.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................... 2-4
2.3.2.2 Traffic Safety ..................................................................................................................................... 2-4
2.3.2.2.1 Protection of Structures ........................................................................................................... 2-4
2.3.2.2.2 Protection of Users .................................................................................................................. 2-5
2.3.2.2.3 Geometric Standards................................................................................................................ 2-5
2.3.2.2.4 Road Surfaces .......................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.3.2.2.5 Vessel Collisions ..................................................................................................................... 2-5
2.3.3 Clearances.................................................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.3.1 Navigational....................................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.3.2 Highway Vertical............................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.3.3 Highway Horizontal........................................................................................................................... 2-6
2.3.3.4 Railroad Overpass.............................................................................................................................. 2-6
2.3.4 Environment................................................................................................................................................. 2-7
2.4 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION...................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.4.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.4.2 Topographic Studies .................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5 DESIGN OBJECTIVES......................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5.1 Safety ........................................................................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5.2 Serviceability ............................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.5.2.1 Durability........................................................................................................................................... 2-8
2.5.2.1.1 Materials .................................................................................................................................. 2-8
2.5.2.1.2 Self-Protecting Measures......................................................................................................... 2-8
2.5.2.2 Inspectability...................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.5.2.3 Maintainability................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.5.2.4 Rideability ......................................................................................................................................... 2-9
2.5.2.5 Utilities .............................................................................................................................................. 2-9
2.5.2.6 Deformations ................................................................................................................................... 2-10
2.5.2.6.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 2-10
2.5.2.6.2 Criteria for Deflection............................................................................................................ 2-11
2.5.2.6.3 Optional Criteria for Span-to-Depth Ratios ........................................................................... 2-13
2.5.2.7 Consideration of Future Widening................................................................................................... 2-14
2.5.2.7.1 Exterior Beams on Multibeam Bridges.................................................................................. 2-14
2.5.2.7.2 Substructure ........................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.5.3 Constructibility .......................................................................................................................................... 2-14
2.5.4 Economy .................................................................................................................................................... 2-15
2.5.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 2-15
2.5.4.2 Alternative Plans.............................................................................................................................. 2-15
2.5.5 Bridge Aesthetics....................................................................................................................................... 2-16
2.6 HYDROLOGY AND HYDRAULICS ................................................................................................................ 2-17
2.6.1 General....................................................................................................................................................... 2-17
2.6.2 Site Data..................................................................................................................................................... 2-18
2.6.3 Hydrologic Analysis .................................................................................................................................. 2-19
2.6.4 Hydraulic Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 2-20
2.6.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 2-20
2.6.4.2 Stream Stability................................................................................................................................ 2-20
2.6.4.3 Bridge Waterway ............................................................................................................................. 2-21
2.6.4.4 Bridge Foundations.......................................................................................................................... 2-21

2-i
2-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

2.6.4.4.1 General...................................................................................................................................2-21
2.6.4.4.2 Bridge Scour ..........................................................................................................................2-22
2.6.4.5 Roadway Approaches to Bridge.......................................................................................................2-24
2.6.5 Culvert Location, Length, and Waterway Area..........................................................................................2-24
2.6.6 Roadway Drainage .....................................................................................................................................2-25
2.6.6.1 General.............................................................................................................................................2-25
2.6.6.2 Design Storm....................................................................................................................................2-25
2.6.6.3 Type, Size, and Number of Drains ...................................................................................................2-25
2.6.6.4 Discharge from Deck Drains............................................................................................................2-26
2.6.6.5 Drainage of Structures......................................................................................................................2-26
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................2-27
 SECTION 3: LOADS AND LOAD FACTORS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
3
3.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.3 NOTATION ........................................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.3.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 3-3
3.3.2 Load and Load Designation ......................................................................................................................... 3-7
3.4 LOAD FACTORS AND COMBINATIONS.......................................................................................................... 3-7
3.4.1 Load Factors and Load Combinations ......................................................................................................... 3-7
3.4.2 Load Factors for Construction Loads......................................................................................................... 3-14
3.4.2.1 Evaluation at the Strength Limit State .............................................................................................3-14
3.4.2.2 Evaluation of Deflection at the Service Limit State.........................................................................3-15
3.4.3 Load Factors for Jacking and Post-Tensioning Forces............................................................................... 3-15
3.4.3.1 Jacking Forces .................................................................................................................................3-15
3.4.3.2 Force for Post-Tensioning Anchorage Zones...................................................................................3-15
3.5 PERMANENT LOADS........................................................................................................................................ 3-15
3.5.1 Dead Loads: DC, DW, and EV................................................................................................................... 3-15
3.5.2 Earth Loads: EH, ES, and DD.................................................................................................................... 3-16
3.6 LIVE LOADS....................................................................................................................................................... 3-16
3.6.1 Gravity Loads: LL and PL.......................................................................................................................... 3-16
3.6.1.1 Vehicular Live Load ........................................................................................................................3-16
3.6.1.1.1 Number of Design Lanes ....................................................................................................... 3-16
3.6.1.1.2 Multiple Presence of Live Load............................................................................................. 3-17
3.6.1.2 Design Vehicular Live Load............................................................................................................3-18
3.6.1.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 3-18
3.6.1.2.2 Design Truck ......................................................................................................................... 3-22
3.6.1.2.3 Design Tandem...................................................................................................................... 3-23
3.6.1.2.4 Design Lane Load.................................................................................................................. 3-23
3.6.1.2.5 Tire Contact Area .................................................................................................................. 3-23
3.6.1.2.6 Distribution of Wheel Loads Through Earth Fills ................................................................. 3-24
3.6.1.3 Application of Design Vehicular Live Loads ..................................................................................3-24
3.6.1.3.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 3-24
3.6.1.3.2 Loading for Optional Live Load Deflection Evaluation ........................................................ 3-25
3.6.1.3.3 Design Loads for Decks, Deck Systems, and the Top Slabs of Box Culverts ....................... 3-26
3.6.1.3.4 Deck Overhang Load............................................................................................................. 3-27
3.6.1.4 Fatigue Load ....................................................................................................................................3-27
3.6.1.4.1 Magnitude and Configuration................................................................................................ 3-27
3.6.1.4.2 Frequency .............................................................................................................................. 3-27
3.6.1.4.3 Load Distribution for Fatigue ................................................................................................ 3-28
3.6.1.4.3a Refined Methods........................................................................................................... 3-28
3.6.1.4.3b Approximate Methods .................................................................................................. 3-28
3.6.1.5 Rail Transit Load .............................................................................................................................3-28
3.6.1.6 Pedestrian Loads..............................................................................................................................3-28
3.6.1.7 Loads on Railings ............................................................................................................................3-29
3.6.2 Dynamic Load Allowance: IM................................................................................................................... 3-29
3.6.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................................3-29
3.6.2.2 Buried Components .........................................................................................................................3-30
3.6.2.3 Wood Components ..........................................................................................................................3-30
3.6.3 Centrifugal Forces: CE .............................................................................................................................. 3-31
3.6.4 Braking Force: BR...................................................................................................................................... 3-31
3.6.5 Vehicular Collision Force: CT ................................................................................................................... 3-34
3.6.5.1 Protection of Structures ...................................................................................................................3-34
3.6.5.2 Vehicle and Railway Collision with Structures ...............................................................................3-34
3.6.5.3 Vehicle Collision with Barriers .......................................................................................................3-35
3.7 WATER LOADS: WA .......................................................................................................................................... 3-35
3.7.1 Static Pressure............................................................................................................................................ 3-35

3-i
3-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

3.7.2 Buoyancy ...................................................................................................................................................3-35

3.7.3 Stream Pressure..........................................................................................................................................3-35
3.7.3.1 Longitudinal .....................................................................................................................................3-35
3.7.3.2 Lateral ..............................................................................................................................................3-37
3.7.4 Wave Load .................................................................................................................................................3-37
3.7.5 Change in Foundations Due to Limit State for Scour.................................................................................3-38
3.8 WIND LOAD: WL AND WS.................................................................................................................................3-38
3.8.1 Horizontal Wind Pressure ..........................................................................................................................3-38
3.8.1.1 General.............................................................................................................................................3-38
3.8.1.2 Wind Pressure on Structures: WS.....................................................................................................3-39
3.8.1.2.1 General...................................................................................................................................3-39
3.8.1.2.2 Loads from Superstructures ...................................................................................................3-40
3.8.1.2.3 Forces Applied Directly to the Substructure ..........................................................................3-40
3.8.1.3 Wind Pressure on Vehicles: WL.......................................................................................................3-41
3.8.2 Vertical Wind Pressure ..............................................................................................................................3-41
3.8.3 Aeroelastic Instability ................................................................................................................................3-41
3.8.3.1 General.............................................................................................................................................3-41
3.8.3.2 Aeroelastic Phenomena....................................................................................................................3-42
3.8.3.3 Control of Dynamic Responses........................................................................................................3-42
3.8.3.4 Wind Tunnel Tests ...........................................................................................................................3-42
3.9 ICE LOADS: IC....................................................................................................................................................3-43
3.9.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................3-43
3.9.2 Dynamic Ice Forces on Piers......................................................................................................................3-44
3.9.2.1 Effective Ice Strength.......................................................................................................................3-44
3.9.2.2 Crushing and Flexing .......................................................................................................................3-45
3.9.2.3 Small Streams ..................................................................................................................................3-46
3.9.2.4 Combination of Longitudinal and Transverse Forces ......................................................................3-47
3.9.2.4.1 Piers Parallel to Flow .............................................................................................................3-47
3.9.2.4.2 Piers Skewed to Flow.............................................................................................................3-48
3.9.2.5 Slender and Flexible Piers................................................................................................................3-48
3.9.3 Static Ice Loads on Piers ............................................................................................................................3-48
3.9.4 Hanging Dams and Ice Jams ......................................................................................................................3-48
3.9.5 Vertical Forces Due to Ice Adhesion .........................................................................................................3-48
3.9.6 Ice Accretion and Snow Loads on Superstructures ....................................................................................3-50
3.10 EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS: EQ.........................................................................................................................3-51
3.10.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................3-51
3.10.2 Acceleration Coefficient ..........................................................................................................................3-52
3.10.3 Importance Categories..............................................................................................................................3-56
3.10.4 Seismic Performance Zones .....................................................................................................................3-56
3.10.5 Site Effects ...............................................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.5.1 General...........................................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.5.2 Soil Profile Type I..........................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.5.3 Soil Profile Type II.........................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.5.4 Soil Profile Type III .......................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.5.5 Soil Profile Type IV .......................................................................................................................3-57
3.10.6 Elastic Seismic Response Coefficient ......................................................................................................3-58
3.10.6.1 General...........................................................................................................................................3-58
3.10.6.2 Exceptions......................................................................................................................................3-58
3.10.7 Response Modification Factors ................................................................................................................3-59
3.10.7.1 General...........................................................................................................................................3-59
3.10.7.2 Application.....................................................................................................................................3-60
3.10.8 Combination of Seismic Force Effects .....................................................................................................3-60
3.10.9 Calculation of Design Forces ...................................................................................................................3-61
3.10.9.1 General...........................................................................................................................................3-61
3.10.9.2 Seismic Zone 1...............................................................................................................................3-61
3.10.9.3 Seismic Zone 2...............................................................................................................................3-62
3.10.9.4 Seismic Zones 3 and 4....................................................................................................................3-62
TABLE OF CONTENTS 3-iii

3.10.9.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 3-62

3.10.9.4.2 Modified Design Forces ...................................................................................................... 3-63
3.10.9.4.3 Inelastic Hinging Forces ...................................................................................................... 3-63
3.10.9.4.3a General........................................................................................................................ 3-63
3.10.9.4.3b Single Columns and Piers........................................................................................... 3-63
3.10.9.4.3c Piers with Two or More Columns............................................................................... 3-64
3.10.9.4.3d Column and Pile Bent Design Forces ......................................................................... 3-65
3.10.9.4.3e Pier Design Forces ...................................................................................................... 3-66
3.10.9.4.3f Foundation Design Forces........................................................................................... 3-66
3.10.9.5 Longitudinal Restrainers................................................................................................................3-66
3.10.9.6 Hold-Down Devices ......................................................................................................................3-67
3.10.10 Requirements for Temporary Bridges and Stage Construction .............................................................. 3-67
3.11 EARTH PRESSURE: EH, ES, LS, AND DD ...................................................................................................... 3-68
3.11.1 General..................................................................................................................................................... 3-68
3.11.2 Compaction.............................................................................................................................................. 3-69
3.11.3 Presence of Water .................................................................................................................................... 3-69
3.11.4 Effect of Earthquake ................................................................................................................................ 3-70
3.11.5 Earth Pressure: EH................................................................................................................................... 3-70
3.11.5.1 Lateral Earth Pressure .....................................................................................................................3-70
3.11.5.2 At-Rest Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ko ...............................................................................3-71
3.11.5.3 Active Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, ka.................................................................................3-72
3.11.5.4 Passive Lateral Earth Pressure Coefficient, kp ...............................................................................3-74
3.11.5.5 Equivalent-Fluid Method of Estimating Rankine Lateral Earth Pressures.....................................3-76
3.11.5.6 Lateral Earth Pressures for Nongravity Cantilevered Walls ...........................................................3-78
3.11.5.7 Apparent Earth Pressure (AEP) for Anchored Walls .....................................................................3-82
3.11.5.7.1 Cohesionless Soils ............................................................................................................... 3-82
3.11.5.7.2 Cohesive Soils ..................................................................................................................... 3-84
3.11.5.7.2a Stiff to Hard ................................................................................................................ 3-84
3.11.5.7.2b Soft to Medium Stiff................................................................................................... 3-84
3.11.5.8 Lateral Earth Pressures for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls...................................................3-86
3.11.5.8.1 General ................................................................................................................................ 3-86
3.11.5.8.2 Internal Stability .................................................................................................................. 3-87
3.11.5.9 Lateral Earth Pressures for Prefabricated Modular Walls..............................................................3-87
3.11.6 Surcharge Loads: ES and LS .................................................................................................................... 3-89
3.11.6.1 Uniform Surcharge Loads (ES).......................................................................................................3-89
3.11.6.2 Point, Line and Strip Loads (ES)—Walls Restrained from Movement..........................................3-90
3.11.6.3 Strip Loads (ES)—Flexible Walls..................................................................................................3-93
3.11.6.4 Live Load Surcharge (LS)..............................................................................................................3-95
3.11.6.5 Reduction of Surcharge .................................................................................................................3-96
3.11.7 Reduction Due to Earth Pressure ............................................................................................................. 3-97
3.11.8 Downdrag ................................................................................................................................................ 3-97
3.12 FORCE EFFECTS DUE TO SUPERIMPOSED DEFORMATIONS: TU, TG, SH, CR, SE ............................... 3-99
3.12.1 General..................................................................................................................................................... 3-99
3.12.2 Uniform Temperature .............................................................................................................................. 3-99
3.12.2.1 Temperature Range for Procedure A .............................................................................................3-99
3.12.2.2 Temperature Range for Procedure B............................................................................................3-100
3.12.2.3 Design Thermal Movements........................................................................................................3-102
3.12.3 Temperature Gradient ............................................................................................................................ 3-102
3.12.4 Differential Shrinkage............................................................................................................................ 3-104
3.12.5 Creep...................................................................................................................................................... 3-104
3.12.6 Settlement .............................................................................................................................................. 3-104
3.13 FRICTION FORCES: FR ................................................................................................................................. 3-104
3.14 VESSEL COLLISION: CV............................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.14.1 General................................................................................................................................................... 3-105
3.14.2 Owner’s Responsibility.......................................................................................................................... 3-106
3.14.3 Importance Categories ........................................................................................................................... 3-106
3.14.4 Design Vessel ........................................................................................................................................ 3-106
3-iv AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

3.14.5 Annual Frequency of Collapse ...............................................................................................................3-107

3.14.5.1 Vessel Frequency Distribution .....................................................................................................3-108
3.14.5.2 Probability of Aberrancy..............................................................................................................3-109
3.14.5.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................3-109
3.14.5.2.2 Statistical Method ..............................................................................................................3-109
3.14.5.2.3 Approximate Method .........................................................................................................3-110
3.14.5.3 Geometric Probability ..................................................................................................................3-112
3.14.5.4 Probability of Collapse.................................................................................................................3-113
3.14.6 Design Collision Velocity ......................................................................................................................3-114
3.14.7 Vessel Collision Energy .........................................................................................................................3-115
3.14.8 Ship Collision Force on Pier ..................................................................................................................3-116
3.14.9 Ship Bow Damage Length .....................................................................................................................3-118
3.14.10 Ship Collision Force on Superstructure................................................................................................3-118
3.14.10.1 Collision with Bow ....................................................................................................................3-118
3.14.10.2 Collision with Deck House ........................................................................................................3-119
3.14.10.3 Collision with Mast ....................................................................................................................3-119
3.14.11 Barge Collision Force on Pier ..............................................................................................................3-119
3.14.12 Barge Bow Damage Length .................................................................................................................3-121
3.14.13 Damage at the Extreme Limit State......................................................................................................3-121
3.14.14 Application of Impact Force.................................................................................................................3-121
3.14.14.1 Substructure Design ...................................................................................................................3-121
3.14.14.2 Superstructure Design ................................................................................................................3-123
3.14.15 Protection of Substructures ..................................................................................................................3-124
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................................3-125
APPENDIX A3 SEISMIC DESIGN FLOWCHARTS .............................................................................................3-130
APPENDIX B3 OVERSTRENGTH RESISTANCE ................................................................................................3-132
 SECTION 4: STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4 Eq
4.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................................................................4-1
4.2 DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................................4-2
4.3 NOTATION...........................................................................................................................................................4-6
4.4 ACCEPTABLE METHODS OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS............................................................................4-9
4.5 MATHEMATICAL MODELING .......................................................................................................................4-10
4.5.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................4-10
4.5.2 Structural Material Behavior......................................................................................................................4-10
4.5.2.1 Elastic Versus Inelastic Behavior ....................................................................................................4-10
4.5.2.2 Elastic Behavior...............................................................................................................................4-11
4.5.2.3 Inelastic Behavior ............................................................................................................................4-11
4.5.3 Geometry ...................................................................................................................................................4-11
4.5.3.1 Small Deflection Theory..................................................................................................................4-11
4.5.3.2 Large Deflection Theory..................................................................................................................4-12
4.5.3.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................4-12
4.5.3.2.2 Approximate Methods ...........................................................................................................4-13
4.5.3.2.2a General .........................................................................................................................4-13
4.5.3.2.2b Moment Magnification—Beam Columns ....................................................................4-13
4.5.3.2.2c Moment Magnification—Arches..................................................................................4-15
4.5.3.2.3 Refined Methods ...................................................................................................................4-16
4.5.4 Modeling Boundary Conditions.................................................................................................................4-16
4.5.5 Equivalent Members ..................................................................................................................................4-16
4.6 STATIC ANALYSIS...........................................................................................................................................4-17
4.6.1 Influence of Plan Geometry .......................................................................................................................4-17
4.6.1.1 Plan Aspect Ratio ............................................................................................................................4-17
4.6.1.2 Structures Curved in Plan ................................................................................................................4-17
4.6.1.2.1 General ..................................................................................................................................4-17
4.6.1.2.2 Single-Girder Torsionally Stiff Superstructures ....................................................................4-18
4.6.1.2.3 Multicell Concrete Box Girders.............................................................................................4-18
4.6.1.2.4 Steel Multiple-Beam Superstructures ....................................................................................4-18
4.6.1.2.4a General .........................................................................................................................4-18
4.6.1.2.4b I-Girders .......................................................................................................................4-18
4.6.1.2.4c Closed Box and Tub Girders ........................................................................................4-19
4.6.2 Approximate Methods of Analysis ............................................................................................................4-20
4.6.2.1 Decks ...............................................................................................................................................4-20
4.6.2.1.1 General ..................................................................................................................................4-20
4.6.2.1.2 Applicability ..........................................................................................................................4-21
4.6.2.1.3 Width of Equivalent Interior Strips .......................................................................................4-21
4.6.2.1.4 Width of Equivalent Strips at Edges of Slabs........................................................................4-23
4.6.2.1.4a General .........................................................................................................................4-23
4.6.2.1.4b Longitudinal Edges.......................................................................................................4-23
4.6.2.1.4c Transverse Edges..........................................................................................................4-23
4.6.2.1.5 Distribution of Wheel Loads .................................................................................................4-24
4.6.2.1.6 Calculation of Force Effects ..................................................................................................4-24
4.6.2.1.7 Cross-Sectional Frame Action...............................................................................................4-25
4.6.2.1.8 Live Load Force Effects for Fully and Partially Filled Grids and for Unfilled Grid
Decks Composite with Reinforced Concrete Slabs ...............................................................................4-26
4.6.2.1.9 Inelastic Analysis...................................................................................................................4-27
4.6.2.2 Beam-Slab Bridges ..........................................................................................................................4-27
4.6.2.2.1 Application ............................................................................................................................4-27
4.6.2.2.2 Distribution Factor Method for Moment and Shear ..............................................................4-32
4.6.2.2.2a Interior Beams with Wood Decks.................................................................................4-32
4.6.2.2.2b Interior Beams with Concrete Decks............................................................................4-33
4.6.2.2.2c Interior Beams with Corrugated Steel Decks................................................................4-36
4.6.2.2.2d Exterior Beams .............................................................................................................4-37
4.6.2.2.2e Skewed Bridges ............................................................................................................4-38

4-i
4-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

4.6.2.2.2f Flexural Moments and Shear in Transverse Floorbeams...............................................4-39

4.6.2.2.3 Distribution Factor Method for Shear ....................................................................................4-40
4.6.2.2.3a Interior Beams...............................................................................................................4-40
4.6.2.2.3b Exterior Beams .............................................................................................................4-42
4.6.2.2.3c Skewed Bridges ............................................................................................................4-44
4.6.2.2.4 Curved Steel Bridges .............................................................................................................4-45
4.6.2.2.5 Special Loads with Other Traffic...........................................................................................4-46
4.6.2.3 Equivalent Strip Widths for Slab-Type Bridges ..............................................................................4-46
4.6.2.4 Truss and Arch Bridges....................................................................................................................4-48
4.6.2.5 Effective Length Factor, K...............................................................................................................4-48
4.6.2.6 Effective Flange Width ....................................................................................................................4-52
4.6.2.6.1 General...................................................................................................................................4-52
4.6.2.6.2 Segmental Concrete Box Beams and Single-Cell, Cast-in-Place Box Beams .......................4-53
4.6.2.6.3 Cast-in-Place Multicell Superstructures.................................................................................4-57
4.6.2.6.4 Orthotropic Steel Decks.........................................................................................................4-57
4.6.2.7 Lateral Wind Load Distribution in Multibeam Bridges ...................................................................4-59
4.6.2.7.1 I-Sections ...............................................................................................................................4-59
4.6.2.7.2 Box Sections ..........................................................................................................................4-61
4.6.2.7.3 Construction...........................................................................................................................4-61
4.6.2.8 Seismic Lateral Load Distribution ...................................................................................................4-61
4.6.2.8.1 Applicability ..........................................................................................................................4-61
4.6.2.8.2 Design Criteria.......................................................................................................................4-61
4.6.2.8.3 Load Distribution...................................................................................................................4-62
4.6.2.9 Analysis of Segmental Concrete Bridges.........................................................................................4-63
4.6.2.9.1 General...................................................................................................................................4-63
4.6.2.9.2 Strut-and-Tie Models .............................................................................................................4-63
4.6.2.9.3 Effective Flange Width ..........................................................................................................4-63
4.6.2.9.4 Transverse Analysis ...............................................................................................................4-63
4.6.2.9.5 Longitudinal Analysis............................................................................................................4-64
4.6.2.9.5a General..........................................................................................................................4-64
4.6.2.9.5b Erection Analysis..........................................................................................................4-64
4.6.2.9.5c Analysis of the Final Structural System........................................................................4-64
4.6.2.10 Equivalent Strip Widths for Box Culverts .....................................................................................4-64
4.6.2.10.1 General.................................................................................................................................4-64
4.6.2.10.2 Case 1: Traffic Travels Parallel to Span ..............................................................................4-64
4.6.2.10.3 Case 2: Traffic Travels Perpendicular to Span.....................................................................4-65
4.6.2.10.4 Precast Box Culverts...........................................................................................................4-65
4.6.3 Refined Methods of Analysis.....................................................................................................................4-66
4.6.3.1 General.............................................................................................................................................4-66
4.6.3.2 Decks ...............................................................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.2.1 General...................................................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.2.2 Isotropic Plate Model.............................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.2.3 Orthotropic Plate Model ........................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.3 Beam-Slab Bridges ..........................................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.3.1 General...................................................................................................................................4-67
4.6.3.3.2 Curved Steel Bridges .............................................................................................................4-69
4.6.3.4 Cellular and Box Bridges.................................................................................................................4-69
4.6.3.5 Truss Bridges ...................................................................................................................................4-70
4.6.3.6 Arch Bridges ....................................................................................................................................4-70
4.6.3.7 Cable-Stayed Bridges.......................................................................................................................4-71
4.6.3.8 Suspension Bridges..........................................................................................................................4-72
4.6.4 Redistribution of Negative Moments in Continuous Beam Bridges ..........................................................4-72
4.6.4.1 General.............................................................................................................................................4-72
4.6.4.2 Refined Method ...............................................................................................................................4-72
4.6.4.3 Approximate Procedure ...................................................................................................................4-72
4.6.5 Stability ......................................................................................................................................................4-72
4.6.6 Analysis for Temperature Gradient............................................................................................................4-73
TABLE OF CONTENTS 4-iii

4.7 DYNAMIC ANALYSIS......................................................................................................................................4-75

4.7.1 Basic Requirements of Structural Dynamics .............................................................................................4-75
4.7.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................4-75
4.7.1.2 Distribution of Masses.....................................................................................................................4-75
4.7.1.3 Stiffness ...........................................................................................................................................4-76
4.7.1.4 Damping ..........................................................................................................................................4-76
4.7.1.5 Natural Frequencies .........................................................................................................................4-76
4.7.2 Elastic Dynamic Responses .......................................................................................................................4-77
4.7.2.1 Vehicle-Induced Vibration ..............................................................................................................4-77
4.7.2.2 Wind-Induced Vibration..................................................................................................................4-77
4.7.2.2.1 Wind Velocities .....................................................................................................................4-77
4.7.2.2.2 Dynamic Effects ....................................................................................................................4-77
4.7.2.2.3 Design Considerations...........................................................................................................4-77
4.7.3 Inelastic Dynamic Responses ....................................................................................................................4-78
4.7.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................4-78
4.7.3.2 Plastic Hinges and Yield Lines........................................................................................................4-78
4.7.4 Analysis for Earthquake Loads..................................................................................................................4-78
4.7.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................4-78
4.7.4.2 Single-Span Bridges ........................................................................................................................4-78
4.7.4.3 Multispan Bridges............................................................................................................................4-79
4.7.4.3.1 Selection of Method...............................................................................................................4-79
4.7.4.3.2 Single-Mode Methods of Analysis ........................................................................................4-80
4.7.4.3.2a General .........................................................................................................................4-80
4.7.4.3.2b Single-Mode Spectral Method......................................................................................4-80
4.7.4.3.2c Uniform Load Method..................................................................................................4-81
4.7.4.3.3 Multimode Spectral Method ..................................................................................................4-83
4.7.4.3.4 Time-History Method ............................................................................................................4-83
4.7.4.4 Minimum Displacement Requirements ...........................................................................................4-84
4.7.5 Analysis for Collision Loads .....................................................................................................................4-85
4.8 ANALYSIS BY PHYSICAL MODELS .............................................................................................................4-85
4.8.1 Scale Model Testing ..................................................................................................................................4-85
4.8.2 Bridge Testing ...........................................................................................................................................4-85
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................................................4-86
APPENDIX A4 DECK SLAB DESIGN TABLE......................................................................................................4-90
 SECTION 5: CONCRETE STRUCTURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
5
5.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................................5-1
5.3 NOTATION...........................................................................................................................................................5-5
5.4 MATERIAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................................5-12
5.4.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................5-12
5.4.2 Normal and Structural Lightweight Concrete ............................................................................................5-12
5.4.2.1 Compressive Strength......................................................................................................................5-12
5.4.2.2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion...................................................................................................5-14
5.4.2.3 Shrinkage and Creep........................................................................................................................5-14
5.4.2.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................5-14
5.4.2.3.2 Creep .....................................................................................................................................5-15
5.4.2.3.3 Shrinkage...............................................................................................................................5-16
5.4.2.4 Modulus of Elasticity.......................................................................................................................5-17
5.4.2.5 Poisson’s Ratio ................................................................................................................................5-18
5.4.2.6 Modulus of Rupture.........................................................................................................................5-18
5.4.2.7 Tensile Strength ...............................................................................................................................5-18
5.4.3 Reinforcing Steel .......................................................................................................................................5-18
5.4.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-18
5.4.3.2 Modulus of Elasticity.......................................................................................................................5-19
5.4.3.3 Special Applications ........................................................................................................................5-19
5.4.4 Prestressing Steel .......................................................................................................................................5-19
5.4.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-19
5.4.4.2 Modulus of Elasticity.......................................................................................................................5-20
5.4.5 Post-Tensioning Anchorages and Couplers ...............................................................................................5-20
5.4.6 Ducts..........................................................................................................................................................5-21
5.4.6.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-21
5.4.6.2 Size of Ducts....................................................................................................................................5-22
5.4.6.3 Ducts at Deviation Saddles ..............................................................................................................5-22
5.5 LIMIT STATES...................................................................................................................................................5-22
5.5.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................5-22
5.5.2 Service Limit State.....................................................................................................................................5-22
5.5.3 Fatigue Limit State.....................................................................................................................................5-22
5.5.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-22
5.5.3.2 Reinforcing Bars..............................................................................................................................5-23
5.5.3.3 Prestressing Tendons .......................................................................................................................5-24
5.5.3.4 Welded or Mechanical Splices of Reinforcement............................................................................5-24
5.5.4 Strength Limit State ...................................................................................................................................5-25
5.5.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-25
5.5.4.2 Resistance Factors ...........................................................................................................................5-25
5.5.4.2.1 Conventional Construction ....................................................................................................5-25
5.5.4.2.2 Segmental Construction.........................................................................................................5-27
5.5.4.2.3 Special Requirements for Seismic Zones 3 and 4..................................................................5-28
5.5.4.3 Stability............................................................................................................................................5-28
5.5.5 Extreme Event Limit State.........................................................................................................................5-28
5.6 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...........................................................................................................................5-28
5.6.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................5-28
5.6.2 Effects of Imposed Deformation................................................................................................................5-28
5.6.3 Strut-and-Tie Model ..................................................................................................................................5-29
5.6.3.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-29
5.6.3.2 Structural Modeling .........................................................................................................................5-29
5.6.3.3 Proportioning of Compressive Struts...............................................................................................5-30
5.6.3.3.1 Strength of Unreinforced Strut ..............................................................................................5-30
5.6.3.3.2 Effective Cross-Sectional Area of Strut.................................................................................5-31
5.6.3.3.3 Limiting Compressive Stress in Strut ....................................................................................5-32
5.6.3.3.4 Reinforced Strut.....................................................................................................................5-33

5-i
5-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

5.6.3.4 Proportioning of Tension Ties .........................................................................................................5-33

5.6.3.4.1 Strength of Tie .......................................................................................................................5-33
5.6.3.4.2 Anchorage of Tie ...................................................................................................................5-34
5.6.3.5 Proportioning of Node Regions .......................................................................................................5-34
5.6.3.6 Crack Control Reinforcement ..........................................................................................................5-34
5.7 DESIGN FOR FLEXURAL AND AXIAL FORCE EFFECTS ..........................................................................5-35
5.7.1 Assumptions for Service and Fatigue Limit States ....................................................................................5-35
5.7.2 Assumptions for Strength and Extreme Event Limit States .......................................................................5-35
5.7.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................................5-35
5.7.2.2 Rectangular Stress Distribution........................................................................................................5-38
5.7.3 Flexural Members ......................................................................................................................................5-39
5.7.3.1 Stress in Prestressing Steel at Nominal Flexural Resistance............................................................5-39
5.7.3.1.1 Components with Bonded Tendons .......................................................................................5-39
5.7.3.1.2 Components with Unbonded Tendons...................................................................................5-40
5.7.3.1.3 Components with Both Bonded and Unbonded Tendons ......................................................5-41
5.7.3.1.3a Detailed Analysis ..........................................................................................................5-41
5.7.3.1.3b Simplified Analysis .......................................................................................................5-41
5.7.3.2 Flexural Resistance ..........................................................................................................................5-42
5.7.3.2.1 Factored Flexural Resistance .................................................................................................5-42
5.7.3.2.2 Flanged Sections ....................................................................................................................5-42
5.7.3.2.3 Rectangular Sections..............................................................................................................5-43
5.7.3.2.4 Other Cross-Sections .............................................................................................................5-43
5.7.3.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach ..............................................................................................5-43
5.7.3.3 Limits for Reinforcement.................................................................................................................5-44
5.7.3.3.1 Maximum Reinforcement ......................................................................................................5-44
5.7.3.3.2 Minimum Reinforcement.......................................................................................................5-44
5.7.3.4 Control of Cracking by Distribution of Reinforcement ...................................................................5-45
5.7.3.5 Moment Redistribution ....................................................................................................................5-48
5.7.3.6 Deformations....................................................................................................................................5-48
5.7.3.6.1 General...................................................................................................................................5-48
5.7.3.6.2 Deflection and Camber ..........................................................................................................5-48
5.7.3.6.3 Axial Deformation .................................................................................................................5-49
5.7.4 Compression Members...............................................................................................................................5-50
5.7.4.1 General.............................................................................................................................................5-50
5.7.4.2 Limits for Reinforcement.................................................................................................................5-50
5.7.4.3 Approximate Evaluation of Slenderness Effects..............................................................................5-52
5.7.4.4 Factored Axial Resistance................................................................................................................5-53
5.7.4.5 Biaxial Flexure.................................................................................................................................5-54
5.7.4.6 Spirals and Ties................................................................................................................................5-55
5.7.4.7 Hollow Rectangular Compression Members ...................................................................................5-56
5.7.4.7.1 Wall Slenderness Ratio ..........................................................................................................5-56
5.7.4.7.2 Limitations on the Use of the Rectangular Stress Block Method ..........................................5-56
5.7.4.7.2a General..........................................................................................................................5-56
5.7.4.7.2b Refined Method for Adjusting Maximum Usable Strain Limit ....................................5-57
5.7.4.7.2c Approximate Method for Adjusting Factored Resistance .............................................5-57
5.7.5 Bearing.......................................................................................................................................................5-57
5.7.6 Tension Members.......................................................................................................................................5-58
5.7.6.1 Factored Tension Resistance............................................................................................................5-58
5.7.6.2 Resistance to Combinations of Tension and Flexure .......................................................................5-59
5.8 SHEAR AND TORSION.....................................................................................................................................5-59
5.8.1 Design Procedures......................................................................................................................................5-59
5.8.1.1 Flexural Regions ..............................................................................................................................5-59
5.8.1.2 Regions Near Discontinuities...........................................................................................................5-59
5.8.1.3 Interface Regions .............................................................................................................................5-59
5.8.1.4 Slabs and Footings ...........................................................................................................................5-60
5.8.2 General Requirements................................................................................................................................5-60
5.8.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................................5-60
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5-iii

5.8.2.2 Modifications for Lightweight Concrete .........................................................................................5-62

5.8.2.3 Transfer and Development Lengths.................................................................................................5-62
5.8.2.4 Regions Requiring Transverse Reinforcement ................................................................................5-62
5.8.2.5 Minimum Transverse Reinforcement ..............................................................................................5-63
5.8.2.6 Types of Transverse Reinforcement ................................................................................................5-64
5.8.2.7 Maximum Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement ...........................................................................5-65
5.8.2.8 Design and Detailing Requirements ................................................................................................5-65
5.8.2.9 Shear Stress on Concrete ................................................................................................................5-66
5.8.3 Sectional Design Model.............................................................................................................................5-67
5.8.3.1 General .............................................................................................................................................5-67
5.8.3.2 Sections Near Supports....................................................................................................................5-68
5.8.3.3 Nominal Shear Resistance ...............................................................................................................5-72
5.8.3.4 Procedures for Determining Shear Resistance.................................................................................5-73
5.8.3.4.1 Simplified Procedure for Nonprestressed Sections................................................................5-73
5.8.3.4.2 General Procedure .................................................................................................................5-74
5.8.3.4.3 Simplified Procedure for Prestressed and Nonprestressed Sections .......................................5-80
5.8.3.5 Longitudinal Reinforcement ............................................................................................................5-82
5.8.3.6 Sections Subjected to Combined Shear and Torsion .......................................................................5-84
5.8.3.6.1 Transverse Reinforcement .....................................................................................................5-84
5.8.3.6.2 Torsional Resistance..............................................................................................................5-84
5.8.3.6.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement..................................................................................................5-85
5.8.4 Interface Shear Transfer—Shear Friction ..................................................................................................5-85
5.8.4.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-85
5.8.4.2 Computation of the Factored Interface Shear Force, Vui, for Girder/Slab Bridges ..........................5-88
5.8.4.3 Cohesion and Friction Factors .........................................................................................................5-90
5.8.4.4 Minimum Area of Interface Shear Reinforcement ..........................................................................5-91
5.8.5 Principal Stresses in Webs of Segmental Concrete Bridges ......................................................................5-92
5.8.6 Shear and Torsion for Segmental Box Girder Bridges ..............................................................................5-92
5.8.6.1 General .............................................................................................................................................5-92
5.8.6.2 Loading............................................................................................................................................5-93
5.8.6.3 Regions Requiring Consideration of Torsional Effects ...................................................................5-94
5.8.6.4 Torsional Reinforcement .................................................................................................................5-95
5.8.6.5 Nominal Shear Resistance ...............................................................................................................5-97
5.8.6.6 Reinforcement Details .....................................................................................................................5-98
5.9 PRESTRESSING AND PARTIAL PRESTRESSING ........................................................................................5-99
5.9.1 General Design Considerations..................................................................................................................5-99
5.9.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................5-99
5.9.1.2 Specified Concrete Strengths.........................................................................................................5-100
5.9.1.3 Buckling ........................................................................................................................................5-100
5.9.1.4 Section Properties ..........................................................................................................................5-100
5.9.1.5 Crack Control ................................................................................................................................5-100
5.9.1.6 Tendons with Angle Points or Curves ...........................................................................................5-100
5.9.2 Stresses Due to Imposed Deformation.....................................................................................................5-101
5.9.3 Stress Limitations for Prestressing Tendons............................................................................................5-101
5.9.4 Stress Limits for Concrete .......................................................................................................................5-102
5.9.4.1 For Temporary Stresses Before Losses—Fully Prestressed Components .....................................5-102
5.9.4.1.1 Compression Stresses ..........................................................................................................5-102
5.9.4.1.2 Tension Stresses ..................................................................................................................5-102
5.9.4.2 For Stresses at Service Limit State After Losses—Fully Prestressed Components.......................5-104
5.9.4.2.1 Compression Stresses ...........................................................................................................5-104
5.9.4.2.2 Tension Stresses ..................................................................................................................5-106
5.9.4.3 Partially Prestressed Components..................................................................................................5-108
5.9.5 Loss of Prestress ......................................................................................................................................5-108
5.9.5.1 Total Loss of Prestress...................................................................................................................5-108
5.9.5.2 Instantaneous Losses .....................................................................................................................5-109
5.9.5.2.1 Anchorage Set .....................................................................................................................5-109
5.9.5.2.2 Friction ................................................................................................................................5-109
5-iv AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

5.9.5.2.2a Pretensioned Construction ..........................................................................................5-109

5.9.5.2.2b Post-Tensioned Construction......................................................................................5-109
5.9.5.2.3 Elastic Shortening ................................................................................................................5-111
5.9.5.2.3a Pretensioned Members................................................................................................5-111
5.9.5.2.3b Post-Tensioned Members ...........................................................................................5-113
5.9.5.2.3c Combined Pretensioning and Post-Tensioning ...........................................................5-114
5.9.5.3 Approximate Estimate of Time-Dependent Losses........................................................................5-114
5.9.5.4 Refined Estimates of Time-Dependent Losses ..............................................................................5-116
5.9.5.4.1 General.................................................................................................................................5-116
5.9.5.4.2 Losses: Time of Transfer to Time of Deck Placement.........................................................5-117
5.9.5.4.2a Shrinkage of Girder Concrete .....................................................................................5-117
5.9.5.4.2b Creep of Girder Concrete............................................................................................5-118
5.9.5.4.2c Relaxation of Prestressing Strands..............................................................................5-118
5.9.5.4.3 Losses: Time of Deck Placement to Final Time .................................................................5-119
5.9.5.4.3a Shrinkage of Girder Concrete .....................................................................................5-119
5.9.5.4.3b Creep of Girder Concrete............................................................................................5-120
5.9.5.4.3c Relaxation of Prestressing Strands..............................................................................5-120
5.9.5.4.3d Shrinkage of Deck Concrete .......................................................................................5-121
5.9.5.4.4 Precast Pretensioned Girders Without Composite Topping.................................................5-121
5.9.5.4.5 Post-Tensioned Nonsegmental Girders................................................................................5-122
5.9.5.5 Losses for Deflection Calculations ................................................................................................5-122
5.10 DETAILS OF REINFORCEMENT.................................................................................................................5-122
5.10.1 Concrete Cover ......................................................................................................................................5-122
5.10.2 Hooks and Bends ...................................................................................................................................5-122
5.10.2.1 Standard Hooks............................................................................................................................5-122
5.10.2.2 Seismic Hooks .............................................................................................................................5-123
5.10.2.3 Minimum Bend Diameters...........................................................................................................5-123
5.10.3 Spacing of Reinforcement......................................................................................................................5-123
5.10.3.1 Minimum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars .......................................................................................5-123
5.10.3.1.1 Cast-in-Place Concrete.......................................................................................................5-123
5.10.3.1.2 Precast Concrete ................................................................................................................5-123
5.10.3.1.3 Multilayers .........................................................................................................................5-124
5.10.3.1.4 Splices................................................................................................................................5-124
5.10.3.1.5 Bundled Bars......................................................................................................................5-124
5.10.3.2 Maximum Spacing of Reinforcing Bars.......................................................................................5-124
5.10.3.3 Minimum Spacing of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts................................................................5-124
5.10.3.3.1 Pretensioning Strand ..........................................................................................................5-124
5.10.3.3.2 Post-Tensioning Ducts Not Curved in the Horizontal Plane..............................................5-125
5.10.3.3.3 Curved Post-Tensioning Ducts ..........................................................................................5-125
5.10.3.4 Maximum Spacing of Prestressing Tendons and Ducts in Slabs .................................................5-126
5.10.3.5 Couplers in Post-Tensioning Tendons .........................................................................................5-126
5.10.4 Tendon Confinement..............................................................................................................................5-126
5.10.4.1 General.........................................................................................................................................5-126
5.10.4.2 Wobble Effect in Slabs ................................................................................................................5-126
5.10.4.3 Effects of Curved Tendons ..........................................................................................................5-127
5.10.4.3.1 In-Plane Force Effects........................................................................................................5-127
5.10.4.3.2 Out-of-Plane Force Effects ................................................................................................5-129
5.10.5 External Tendon Supports......................................................................................................................5-130
5.10.6 Transverse Reinforcement for Compression Members ..........................................................................5-130
5.10.6.1 General.........................................................................................................................................5-130
5.10.6.2 Spirals ..........................................................................................................................................5-130
5.10.6.3 Ties...............................................................................................................................................5-131
5.10.7 Transverse Reinforcement for Flexural Members..................................................................................5-132
5.10.8 Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement...........................................................................................5-132
5.10.9 Post-Tensioned Anchorage Zones..........................................................................................................5-134
5.10.9.1 General.........................................................................................................................................5-134
5.10.9.2 General Zone and Local Zone......................................................................................................5-136
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5-v

5.10.9.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-136

5.10.9.2.2 General Zone .....................................................................................................................5-136
5.10.9.2.3 Local Zone.........................................................................................................................5-137
5.10.9.2.4 Responsibilities..................................................................................................................5-137
5.10.9.3 Design of the General Zone .........................................................................................................5-138
5.10.9.3.1 Design Methods.................................................................................................................5-138
5.10.9.3.2 Design Principles...............................................................................................................5-138
5.10.9.3.3 Special Anchorage Devices ...............................................................................................5-142
5.10.9.3.4 Intermediate Anchorages ...................................................................................................5-142
5.10.9.3.4a General .....................................................................................................................5-142
5.10.9.3.4b Tie-backs ..................................................................................................................5-142
5.10.9.3.4c Blister and Rib Reinforcement .................................................................................5-143
5.10.9.3.5 Diaphragms.........................................................................................................................5-143
5.10.9.3.6 Multiple Slab Anchorages .................................................................................................5-144
5.10.9.3.7 Deviation Saddles ..............................................................................................................5-144
5.10.9.4 Application of the Strut-and-Tie Model to the Design of General Zone .....................................5-145
5.10.9.4.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-145
5.10.9.4.2 Nodes.................................................................................................................................5-146
5.10.9.4.3 Struts...................................................................................................................................5-147
5.10.9.4.4 Ties ....................................................................................................................................5-148
5.10.9.5 Elastic Stress Analysis.................................................................................................................5-148
5.10.9.6 Approximate Stress Analyses and Design ...................................................................................5-149
5.10.9.6.1 Limitations of Application.................................................................................................5-149
5.10.9.6.2 Compressive Stresses ........................................................................................................5-150
5.10.9.6.3 Bursting Forces..................................................................................................................5-152
5.10.9.6.4 Edge Tension Forces .........................................................................................................5-153
5.10.9.7 Design of Local Zones.................................................................................................................5-153
5.10.9.7.1 Dimensions of Local Zone ................................................................................................5-153
5.10.9.7.2 Bearing Resistance ............................................................................................................5-155
5.10.9.7.3 Special Anchorage Devices ...............................................................................................5-157
5.10.10 Pretensioned Anchorage Zones............................................................................................................5-157
5.10.10.1 Factored Bursting Resistance.....................................................................................................5-157
5.10.10.2 Confinement Reinforcement......................................................................................................5-158
5.10.11 Provisions for Seismic Design .............................................................................................................5-158
5.10.11.1 General.......................................................................................................................................5-158
5.10.11.2 Seismic Zone 1 ..........................................................................................................................5-159
5.10.11.3 Seismic Zone 2 ..........................................................................................................................5-160
5.10.11.4 Seismic Zones 3 and 4 ...............................................................................................................5-160
5.10.11.4.1 Column Requirements .....................................................................................................5-160
5.10.11.4.1a Longitudinal Reinforcement ...................................................................................5-160
5.10.11.4.1b Flexural Resistance.................................................................................................5-161
5.10.11.4.1c Column Shear and Transverse Reinforcement........................................................5-162
5.10.11.4.1d Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement at Plastic Hinges...............................5-163
5.10.11.4.1e Spacing of Transverse Reinforcement for Confinement.........................................5-165
5.10.11.4.1f Splices .....................................................................................................................5-165
5.10.11.4.2 Requirements for Wall-Type Piers ..................................................................................5-167
5.10.11.4.3 Column Connections .......................................................................................................5-167
5.10.11.4.4 Construction Joints in Piers and Columns ........................................................................5-168
5.10.12 Reinforcement for Hollow Rectangular Compression Members .........................................................5-168
5.10.12.1 General.......................................................................................................................................5-168
5.10.12.2 Spacing of Reinforcement .........................................................................................................5-168
5.10.12.3 Ties ............................................................................................................................................5-168
5.10.12.4 Splices........................................................................................................................................5-169
5.10.12.5 Hoops.........................................................................................................................................5-169
5.11 DEVELOPMENT AND SPLICES OF REINFORCEMENT..........................................................................5-169
5.11.1 General...................................................................................................................................................5-169
5.11.1.1 Basic Requirements .....................................................................................................................5-169
5-vi AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

5.11.1.2 Flexural Reinforcement................................................................................................................5-169

5.11.1.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................5-169
5.11.1.2.2 Positive Moment Reinforcement .......................................................................................5-171
5.11.1.2.3 Negative Moment Reinforcement......................................................................................5-172
5.11.1.2.4 Moment Resisting Joints....................................................................................................5-172
5.11.2 Development of Reinforcement .............................................................................................................5-172
5.11.2.1 Deformed Bars and Deformed Wire in Tension ..........................................................................5-172
5.11.2.1.1 Tension Development Length............................................................................................5-172
5.11.2.1.2 Modification Factors That Increase Ɛd ...............................................................................5-173
5.11.2.1.3 Modification Factors which Decrease Ɛd ...........................................................................5-174
5.11.2.2 Deformed Bars in Compression ...................................................................................................5-174
5.11.2.2.1 Compressive Development Length ....................................................................................5-174
5.11.2.2.2 Modification Factors..........................................................................................................5-175
5.11.2.3 Bundled Bars................................................................................................................................5-175
5.11.2.4 Standard Hooks in Tension ..........................................................................................................5-175
5.11.2.4.1 Basic Hook Development Length ......................................................................................5-175
5.11.2.4.2 Modification Factors...........................................................................................................5-176
5.11.2.4.3 Hooked-Bar Tie Requirements ..........................................................................................5-176
5.11.2.5 Welded Wire Fabric .....................................................................................................................5-177
5.11.2.5.1 Deformed Wire Fabric .......................................................................................................5-177
5.11.2.5.2 Plain Wire Fabric ...............................................................................................................5-178
5.11.2.6 Shear Reinforcement....................................................................................................................5-178
5.11.2.6.1 General...............................................................................................................................5-178
5.11.2.6.2 Anchorage of Deformed Reinforcement............................................................................5-178
5.11.2.6.3 Anchorage of Wire Fabric Reinforcement.........................................................................5-179
5.11.2.6.4 Closed Stirrups...................................................................................................................5-179
5.11.3 Development by Mechanical Anchorages..............................................................................................5-179
5.11.4 Development of Prestressing Strand ......................................................................................................5-180
5.11.4.1 General.........................................................................................................................................5-180
5.11.4.2 Bonded Strand..............................................................................................................................5-180
5.11.4.3 Partially Debonded Strands..........................................................................................................5-182
5.11.5 Splices of Bar Reinforcement ................................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.1 Detailing.......................................................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.2 General Requirements..................................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.2.1 Lap Splices.........................................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.2.2 Mechanical Connections....................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.2.3 Welded Splices ..................................................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.3 Splices of Reinforcement in Tension ...........................................................................................5-183
5.11.5.3.1 Lap Splices in Tension.......................................................................................................5-184
5.11.5.3.2 Mechanical Connections or Welded Splices in Tension ....................................................5-184
5.11.5.4 Splices in Tension Tie Members..................................................................................................5-184
5.11.5.5 Splices of Bars in Compression ...................................................................................................5-185
5.11.5.5.1 Lap Splices in Compression...............................................................................................5-185
5.11.5.5.2 Mechanical Connections or Welded Splices in Compression............................................5-185
5.11.5.5.3 End-Bearing Splices...........................................................................................................5-186
5.11.6 Splices of Welded Wire Fabric ..............................................................................................................5-186
5.11.6.1 Splices of Welded Deformed Wire Fabric in Tension .................................................................5-186
5.11.6.2 Splices of Welded Smooth Wire Fabric in Tension .....................................................................5-186
5.12 DURABILITY .................................................................................................................................................5-187
5.12.1 General...................................................................................................................................................5-187
5.12.2 Alkali-Silica Reactive Aggregates .........................................................................................................5-188
5.12.3 Concrete Cover ......................................................................................................................................5-188
5.12.4 Protective Coatings ................................................................................................................................5-189
5.12.5 Protection for Prestressing Tendons.......................................................................................................5-189
5.13 SPECIFIC MEMBERS ....................................................................................................................................5-190
5.13.1 Deck Slabs..............................................................................................................................................5-190
5.13.2 Diaphragms, Deep Beams, Brackets, Corbels, and Beam Ledges .........................................................5-190
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5-vii

5.13.2.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-190

5.13.2.2 Diaphragms..................................................................................................................................5-190
5.13.2.3 Detailing Requirements for Deep Beams ....................................................................................5-191
5.13.2.4 Brackets and Corbels ...................................................................................................................5-192
5.13.2.4.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-192
5.13.2.4.2 Alternative to Strut-and-Tie Model ...................................................................................5-194
5.13.2.5 Beam Ledges ...............................................................................................................................5-196
5.13.2.5.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-196
5.13.2.5.2 Design for Shear ................................................................................................................5-197
5.13.2.5.3 Design for Flexure and Horizontal Force ..........................................................................5-197
5.13.2.5.4 Design for Punching Shear ................................................................................................5-197
5.13.2.5.5 Design of Hanger Reinforcement ......................................................................................5-198
5.13.2.5.6 Design for Bearing.............................................................................................................5-200
5.13.3 Footings .................................................................................................................................................5-200
5.13.3.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-200
5.13.3.2 Loads and Reactions ....................................................................................................................5-200
5.13.3.3 Resistance Factors .......................................................................................................................5-201
5.13.3.4 Moment in Footings.....................................................................................................................5-201
5.13.3.5 Distribution of Moment Reinforcement.......................................................................................5-201
5.13.3.6 Shear in Slabs and Footings.........................................................................................................5-202
5.13.3.6.1 Critical Sections for Shear .................................................................................................5-202
5.13.3.6.2 One-Way Action................................................................................................................5-202
5.13.3.6.3 Two-Way Action ...............................................................................................................5-203
5.13.3.7 Development of Reinforcement...................................................................................................5-203
5.13.3.8 Transfer of Force at Base of Column...........................................................................................5-203
5.13.4 Concrete Piles ........................................................................................................................................5-204
5.13.4.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-204
5.13.4.2 Splices..........................................................................................................................................5-205
5.13.4.3 Precast Reinforced Piles ..............................................................................................................5-205
5.13.4.3.1 Pile Dimensions.................................................................................................................5-205
5.13.4.3.2 Reinforcing Steel ...............................................................................................................5-205
5.13.4.4 Precast Prestressed Piles ..............................................................................................................5-206
5.13.4.4.1 Pile Dimensions.................................................................................................................5-206
5.13.4.4.2 Concrete Quality................................................................................................................5-206
5.13.4.4.3 Reinforcement ...................................................................................................................5-206
5.13.4.5 Cast-in-Place Piles .......................................................................................................................5-207
5.13.4.5.1 Pile Dimensions.................................................................................................................5-207
5.13.4.5.2 Reinforcing Steel ...............................................................................................................5-207
5.13.4.6 Seismic Requirements .................................................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.1 Zone 1................................................................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.2 Zone 2................................................................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.2a General .....................................................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.2b Cast-in-Place Piles....................................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.2c Precast Reinforced Piles ...........................................................................................5-208
5.13.4.6.2d Precast Prestressed Piles...........................................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3 Zones 3 and 4.....................................................................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3a General .....................................................................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3b Confinement Length.................................................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3c Volumetric Ratio for Confinement ...........................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3d Cast-in-Place Piles....................................................................................................5-209
5.13.4.6.3e Precast Piles..............................................................................................................5-209
5.14 PROVISIONS FOR STRUCTURE TYPES ....................................................................................................5-210
5.14.1 Beams and Girders.................................................................................................................................5-210
5.14.1.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-210
5.14.1.2 Precast Beams..............................................................................................................................5-210
5.14.1.2.1 Preservice Conditions ........................................................................................................5-210
5.14.1.2.2 Extreme Dimensions..........................................................................................................5-210
5-viii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

5.14.1.2.3 Lifting Devices ..................................................................................................................5-211

5.14.1.2.4 Detail Design .....................................................................................................................5-211
5.14.1.2.5 Concrete Strength ..............................................................................................................5-211
5.14.1.3 Spliced Precast Girders ................................................................................................................5-211
5.14.1.3.1 General...............................................................................................................................5-211
5.14.1.3.2 Joints Between Segments...................................................................................................5-213
5.14.1.3.2a General......................................................................................................................5-213
5.14.1.3.2b Details of Closure Joints ...........................................................................................5-213
5.14.1.3.2c Details of Match-Cast Joints .....................................................................................5-213
5.14.1.3.2d Joint Design ..............................................................................................................5-214
5.14.1.3.3 Girder Segment Design......................................................................................................5-214
5.14.1.3.4 Post-Tensioning .................................................................................................................5-215
5.14.1.4 Bridges Composed of Simple Span Precast Girders Made Continuous ......................................5-215
5.14.1.4.1 General...............................................................................................................................5-215
5.14.1.4.2 Restraint Moments .............................................................................................................5-216
5.14.1.4.3 Material Properties.............................................................................................................5-217
5.14.1.4.4 Age of Girder When Continuity Is Established .................................................................5-218
5.14.1.4.5 Degree of Continuity at Various Limit States....................................................................5-219
5.14.1.4.6 Service Limit State.............................................................................................................5-220
5.14.1.4.7 Strength Limit State ...........................................................................................................5-220
5.14.1.4.8 Negative Moment Connections..........................................................................................5-220
5.14.1.4.9 Positive Moment Connections ...........................................................................................5-221
5.14.1.4.9a General......................................................................................................................5-221
5.14.1.4.9b Positive Moment Connection Using Mild Reinforcement........................................5-222
5.14.1.4.9c Positive Moment Connection Using Prestressing Strand..........................................5-223
5.14.1.4.9d Details of Positive Moment Connection ...................................................................5-223
5.14.1.4.10 Continuity Diaphragms ....................................................................................................5-224
5.14.1.5 Cast-in-Place Girders and Box and T-Beams ..............................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.1 Flange and Web Thickness ................................................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.1a Top Flange ................................................................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.1b Bottom Flange ..........................................................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.1c Web...........................................................................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.2 Reinforcement....................................................................................................................5-225
5.14.1.5.2a Deck Slab Reinforcement Cast-in-Place in T-Beams and Box Girders ....................5-225
5.14.1.5.2b Bottom Slab Reinforcement in Cast-in-Place Box Girders.......................................5-226
5.14.2 Segmental Construction .........................................................................................................................5-226
5.14.2.1 General.........................................................................................................................................5-226
5.14.2.2 Analysis of Segmental Bridges ....................................................................................................5-227
5.14.2.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................5-227
5.14.2.2.2 Construction Analysis........................................................................................................5-227
5.14.2.2.3 Analysis of the Final Structural System.............................................................................5-227
5.14.2.3 Design ..........................................................................................................................................5-228
5.14.2.3.1 Loads..................................................................................................................................5-228
5.14.2.3.2 Construction Loads ............................................................................................................5-228
5.14.2.3.3 Construction Load Combinations at the Service Limit State .............................................5-230
5.14.2.3.4 Construction Load Combinations at Strength Limit States................................................5-232
5.14.2.3.5 Thermal Effects During Construction................................................................................5-232
5.14.2.3.6 Creep and Shrinkage ..........................................................................................................5-232
5.14.2.3.7 Prestress Losses .................................................................................................................5-233
5.14.2.3.8 Provisional Post-Tensioning Ducts and Anchorages .........................................................5-233
5.14.2.3.8a General......................................................................................................................5-233
5.14.2.3.8b Bridges with Internal Ducts ......................................................................................5-234
5.14.2.3.8c Provision for Future Dead Load or Deflection Adjustment ......................................5-234
5.14.2.3.9 Plan Presentation................................................................................................................5-234
5.14.2.3.10 Box Girder Cross-Section Dimensions and Details .........................................................5-235
5.14.2.3.10a Minimum Flange Thickness....................................................................................5-235
5.14.2.3.10b Minimum Web Thickness.......................................................................................5-235
TABLE OF CONTENTS 5-ix

5.14.2.3.10c Length of Top Flange Cantilever............................................................................5-236

5.14.2.3.10d Overall Cross-Section Dimensions.........................................................................5-236
5.14.2.3.10e Overlays..................................................................................................................5-237
5.14.2.3.11 Seismic Design ................................................................................................................5-238
5.14.2.4 Types of Segmental Bridges ........................................................................................................5-238
5.14.2.4.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-238
5.14.2.4.2 Details for Precast Construction ........................................................................................5-238
5.14.2.4.3 Details for Cast-in-Place Construction ..............................................................................5-240
5.14.2.4.4 Cantilever Construction .....................................................................................................5-240
5.14.2.4.5 Span-by-Span Construction ...............................................................................................5-241
5.14.2.4.6 Incrementally Launched Construction...............................................................................5-241
5.14.2.4.6a General .....................................................................................................................5-241
5.14.2.4.6b Force Effects Due to Construction Tolerances .........................................................5-242
5.14.2.4.6c Design Details...........................................................................................................5-242
5.14.2.4.6d Design of Construction Equipment ..........................................................................5-243
5.14.2.5 Use of Alternative Construction Methods ...................................................................................5-244
5.14.2.6 Segmental Bridge Substructures..................................................................................................5-246
5.14.2.6.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-246
5.14.2.6.2 Construction Load Combinations ......................................................................................5-246
5.14.2.6.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement of Hollow, Rectangular Precast Segmental Piers ................5-246
5.14.3 Arches ....................................................................................................................................................5-246
5.14.3.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-246
5.14.3.2 Arch Ribs.....................................................................................................................................5-247
5.14.4 Slab Superstructures ..............................................................................................................................5-247
5.14.4.1 Cast-in-Place Solid Slab Superstructures.....................................................................................5-247
5.14.4.2 Cast-in-Place Voided Slab Superstructures .................................................................................5-248
5.14.4.2.1 Cross-Section Dimensions.................................................................................................5-248
5.14.4.2.2 Minimum Number of Bearings..........................................................................................5-249
5.14.4.2.3 Solid End Sections.............................................................................................................5-249
5.14.4.2.4 General Design Requirements ...........................................................................................5-250
5.14.4.2.5 Compressive Zones in Negative Moment Area .................................................................5-250
5.14.4.2.6 Drainage of Voids..............................................................................................................5-250
5.14.4.3 Precast Deck Bridges...................................................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.1 General ..............................................................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.2 Shear Transfer Joints .........................................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.3 Shear-Flexure Transfer Joints............................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.3a General .....................................................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.3b Design.......................................................................................................................5-251
5.14.4.3.3c Post-Tensioning ........................................................................................................5-252
5.14.4.3.3d Longitudinal Construction Joints..............................................................................5-252
5.14.4.3.3e Cast-in-Place Closure Joint.......................................................................................5-252
5.14.4.3.3f Structural Overlay .....................................................................................................5-252
5.14.5 Additional Provisions for Culverts ........................................................................................................5-252
5.14.5.1 General ........................................................................................................................................5-252
5.14.5.2 Design for Flexure .......................................................................................................................5-253
5.14.5.3 Design for Shear in Slabs of Box Culverts ..................................................................................5-253
REFERENCES .........................................................................................................................................................5-254
APPENDIX A5 BASIC STEPS FOR CONCRETE BRIDGES ..............................................................................5-262
A5.1 GENERAL......................................................................................................................................................5-262
A5.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................................................................5-262
A5.3 BEAM AND GIRDER SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN................................................................................5-262
A5.4 SLAB BRIDGES ............................................................................................................................................5-263
A5.5 SUBSTRUCTURE DESIGN ..........................................................................................................................5-264
 SECTION 6: STEEL STRUCTURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
6
6.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 NOTATION........................................................................................................................................................... 6-9
6.4 MATERIALS....................................................................................................................................................... 6-20
6.4.1 Structural Steels .........................................................................................................................................6-20
6.4.2 Pins, Rollers, and Rockers .........................................................................................................................6-23
6.4.3 Bolts, Nuts, and Washers ...........................................................................................................................6-23
6.4.3.1 Bolts................................................................................................................................................. 6-23
6.4.3.2 Nuts.................................................................................................................................................. 6-24
6.4.3.3 Washers ........................................................................................................................................... 6-24
6.4.3.4 Alternative Fasteners ....................................................................................................................... 6-24
6.4.3.5 Load Indicator Devices.................................................................................................................... 6-25
6.4.4 Stud Shear Connectors...............................................................................................................................6-25
6.4.5 Weld Metal ................................................................................................................................................6-25
6.4.6 Cast Metal..................................................................................................................................................6-25
6.4.6.1 Cast Steel and Ductile Iron .............................................................................................................. 6-25
6.4.6.2 Malleable Castings........................................................................................................................... 6-26
6.4.6.3 Cast Iron .......................................................................................................................................... 6-26
6.4.7 Stainless Steel ............................................................................................................................................6-26
6.4.8 Cables ........................................................................................................................................................6-26
6.4.8.1 Bright Wire ...................................................................................................................................... 6-26
6.4.8.2 Galvanized Wire .............................................................................................................................. 6-27
6.4.8.3 Epoxy-Coated Wire ......................................................................................................................... 6-27
6.4.8.4 Bridge Strand ................................................................................................................................... 6-27
6.5 LIMIT STATES................................................................................................................................................... 6-27
6.5.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................6-27
6.5.2 Service Limit State.....................................................................................................................................6-27
6.5.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State................................................................................................................6-27
6.5.4 Strength Limit State ...................................................................................................................................6-28
6.5.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 6-28
6.5.4.2 Resistance Factors ........................................................................................................................... 6-28
6.5.5 Extreme Event Limit State .........................................................................................................................6-29
6.6 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE CONSIDERATIONS .......................................................................................... 6-29
6.6.1 Fatigue .......................................................................................................................................................6-29
6.6.1.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 6-29
6.6.1.2 Load-Induced Fatigue ...................................................................................................................... 6-29
6.6.1.2.1 Application ............................................................................................................................6-29
6.6.1.2.2 Design Criteria.......................................................................................................................6-31
6.6.1.2.3 Detail Categories ...................................................................................................................6-31
6.6.1.2.4 Restricted Use Details ...........................................................................................................6-42
6.6.1.2.5 Fatigue Resistance .................................................................................................................6-42
6.6.1.3 Distortion-Induced Fatigue .............................................................................................................. 6-45
6.6.1.3.1 Transverse Connection Plates................................................................................................6-45
6.6.1.3.2 Lateral Connection Plates ......................................................................................................6-45
6.6.1.3.3 Orthotropic Decks..................................................................................................................6-46
6.6.2 Fracture ......................................................................................................................................................6-46
6.7 GENERAL DIMENSION AND DETAIL REQUIREMENTS ........................................................................... 6-49
6.7.1 Effective Length of Span ...........................................................................................................................6-49
6.7.2 Dead Load Camber ....................................................................................................................................6-49
6.7.3 Minimum Thickness of Steel .....................................................................................................................6-51
6.7.4 Diaphragms and Cross-Frames ..................................................................................................................6-52
6.7.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 6-52
6.7.4.2 I-Section Members........................................................................................................................... 6-53
6.7.4.3 Box Section Members...................................................................................................................... 6-55
6.7.4.4 Trusses and Arches .......................................................................................................................... 6-56

6-i
6-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

6.7.5 Lateral Bracing...........................................................................................................................................6-57

6.7.5.1 General.............................................................................................................................................6-57
6.7.5.2 I-Section Members ...........................................................................................................................6-57
6.7.5.3 Tub Section Members ......................................................................................................................6-58
6.7.5.4 Trusses .............................................................................................................................................6-60
6.7.6 Pins.............................................................................................................................................................6-60
6.7.6.1 Location ...........................................................................................................................................6-61
6.7.6.2 Resistance ........................................................................................................................................6-61
6.7.6.2.1 Combined Flexure and Shear .................................................................................................6-61
6.7.6.2.2 Bearing...................................................................................................................................6-61
6.7.6.3 Minimum Size Pin for Eyebars ........................................................................................................6-62
6.7.6.4 Pins and Pin Nuts .............................................................................................................................6-62
6.7.7 Heat-Curved Rolled Beams and Welded Plate Girders ..............................................................................6-62
6.7.7.1 Scope................................................................................................................................................6-62
6.7.7.2 Minimum Radius of Curvature.........................................................................................................6-62
6.7.7.3 Camber.............................................................................................................................................6-63
6.8 TENSION MEMBERS ........................................................................................................................................6-64
6.8.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................6-64
6.8.2 Tensile Resistance......................................................................................................................................6-65
6.8.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................................6-65
6.8.2.2 Reduction Factor, U .........................................................................................................................6-65
6.8.2.3 Combined Tension and Flexure .......................................................................................................6-66
6.8.3 Net Area .....................................................................................................................................................6-67
6.8.4 Limiting Slenderness Ratio ........................................................................................................................6-68
6.8.5 Builtup Members........................................................................................................................................6-68
6.8.5.1 General.............................................................................................................................................6-68
6.8.5.2 Perforated Plates ..............................................................................................................................6-68
6.8.6 Eyebars.......................................................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.6.1 Factored Resistance..........................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.6.2 Proportions.......................................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.6.3 Packing.............................................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.7 Pin-Connected Plates .................................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.7.1 General.............................................................................................................................................6-69
6.8.7.2 Pin Plates..........................................................................................................................................6-70
6.8.7.3 Proportions.......................................................................................................................................6-70
6.8.7.4 Packing.............................................................................................................................................6-70
6.9 COMPRESSION MEMBERS..............................................................................................................................6-70
6.9.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................6-71
6.9.2 Compressive Resistance.............................................................................................................................6-71
6.9.2.1 Axial Compression...........................................................................................................................6-71
6.9.2.2 Combined Axial Compression and Flexure .....................................................................................6-71
6.9.3 Limiting Slenderness Ratio ........................................................................................................................6-73
6.9.4 Noncomposite Members.............................................................................................................................6-73
6.9.4.1 Nominal Compressive Resistance ....................................................................................................6-73
6.9.4.2 Plate Buckling Coefficients and Width of Plates for Axial Compression ........................................6-74
6.9.4.3 Built-up Members ............................................................................................................................6-76
6.9.4.3.1 General...................................................................................................................................6-76
6.9.4.3.2 Perforated Plates ....................................................................................................................6-77
6.9.5 Composite Members ..................................................................................................................................6-78
6.9.5.1 Nominal Compressive Resistance ....................................................................................................6-78
6.9.5.2 Limitations .......................................................................................................................................6-79
6.9.5.2.1 General...................................................................................................................................6-79
6.9.5.2.2 Concrete-Filled Tubes............................................................................................................6-79
6.9.5.2.3 Concrete-Encased Shapes ......................................................................................................6-80
6.10 I-SECTION FLEXURAL MEMBERS ..............................................................................................................6-80
6.10.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................6-80
6.10.1.1 Composite Sections........................................................................................................................6-81
6.10.1.1.1 Stresses ................................................................................................................................6-82
SECTION 6: STEEL STRUCTURES 6-iii

6.10.1.1.1a Sequence of Loading .................................................................................................. 6-82

6.10.1.1.1b Stresses for Sections in Positive Flexure .................................................................... 6-82
6.10.1.1.1c Stresses for Sections in Negative Flexure................................................................... 6-83
6.10.1.1.1d Concrete Deck Stresses .............................................................................................. 6-83
6.10.1.1.1e Effective Width of Concrete Deck.............................................................................. 6-83
6.10.1.2 Noncomposite Sections.................................................................................................................. 6-83
6.10.1.3 Hybrid Sections ............................................................................................................................. 6-84
6.10.1.4 Variable Web Depth Members ...................................................................................................... 6-84
6.10.1.5 Stiffness ......................................................................................................................................... 6-86
6.10.1.6 Flange Stresses and Member Bending Moments ........................................................................... 6-86
6.10.1.7 Minimum Negative Flexure Concrete Deck Reinforcement.......................................................... 6-89
6.10.1.8 Net Section Fracture ...................................................................................................................... 6-90
6.10.1.9 Web Bend-Buckling Resistance .................................................................................................... 6-91
6.10.1.9.1 Webs without Longitudinal Stiffeners .................................................................................6-91
6.10.1.9.2 Webs with Longitudinal Stiffeners ......................................................................................6-93
6.10.1.10 Flange-Strength Reduction Factors.............................................................................................. 6-94
6.10.1.10.1 Hybrid Factor, Rh ...............................................................................................................6-94
6.10.1.10.2 Web Load-Shedding Factor, Rb .........................................................................................6-95
6.10.2 Cross-Section Proportion Limits..............................................................................................................6-99
6.10.2.1 Web Proportions ............................................................................................................................ 6-99
6.10.2.1.1 Webs without Longitudinal Stiffeners .................................................................................6-99
6.10.2.1.2 Webs with Longitudinal Stiffeners ....................................................................................6-100
6.10.2.2 Flange Proportions........................................................................................................................ 6-100
6.10.3 Constructibility ......................................................................................................................................6-101
6.10.3.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-101
6.10.3.2 Flexure ......................................................................................................................................... 6-102
6.10.3.2.1 Discretely Braced Flanges in Compression .......................................................................6-102
6.10.3.2.2 Discretely Braced Flanges in Tension ...............................................................................6-104
6.10.3.2.3 Continuously Braced Flanges in Tension or Compression .................................................6-104
6.10.3.2.4 Concrete Deck ....................................................................................................................6-104
6.10.3.3 Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 6-105
6.10.3.4 Deck Placement ........................................................................................................................... 6-106
6.10.3.5 Dead Load Deflections ................................................................................................................ 6-108
6.10.4 Service Limit State.................................................................................................................................6-108
6.10.4.1 Elastic Deformations.................................................................................................................... 6-108
6.10.4.2 Permanent Deformations.............................................................................................................. 6-109
6.10.4.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-109
6.10.4.2.2 Flexure...............................................................................................................................6-109
6.10.5 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State............................................................................................................6-112
6.10.5.1 Fatigue ......................................................................................................................................... 6-112
6.10.5.2 Fracture........................................................................................................................................ 6-112
6.10.5.3 Special Fatigue Requirement for Webs........................................................................................ 6-112
6.10.6 Strength Limit State ...............................................................................................................................6-113
6.10.6.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-113
6.10.6.2 Flexure ......................................................................................................................................... 6-113
6.10.6.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-113
6.10.6.2.2 Composite Sections in Positive Flexure.............................................................................6-115
6.10.6.2.3 Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Sections..............................6-117
6.10.6.3 Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 6-119
6.10.6.4 Shear Connectors ......................................................................................................................... 6-119
6.10.7 Flexural Resistance—Composite Sections in Positive Flexure..............................................................6-119
6.10.7.1 Compact Sections ........................................................................................................................ 6-119
6.10.7.1.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-119
6.10.7.1.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .............................................................................................6-120
6.10.7.2 Noncompact Sections .................................................................................................................. 6-122
6.10.7.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-122
6.10.7.2.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .............................................................................................6-123
6.10.7.3 Ductility Requirement.................................................................................................................. 6-124
6-iv AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

6.10.8 Flexural Resistance—Composite Sections in Negative Flexure and Noncomposite Sections ..............6-124
6.10.8.1 General.........................................................................................................................................6-124
6.10.8.1.1 Discretely Braced Flanges in Compression.........................................................................6-124
6.10.8.1.2 Discretely Braced Flanges in Tension................................................................................6-125
6.10.8.1.3 Continuously Braced Flanges in Tension or Compression ................................................6-125
6.10.8.2 Compression-Flange Flexural Resistance .....................................................................................6-125
6.10.8.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................6-125
6.10.8.2.2 Local Buckling Resistance.................................................................................................6-126
6.10.8.2.3 Lateral Torsional Buckling Resistance ..............................................................................6-127
6.10.8.3 Tension-Flange Flexural Resistance ............................................................................................6-135
6.10.9 Shear Resistance.....................................................................................................................................6-135
6.10.9.1 General..........................................................................................................................................6-135
6.10.9.2 Nominal Resistance of Unstiffened Webs.....................................................................................6-136
6.10.9.3 Nominal Resistance of Stiffened Webs.........................................................................................6-137
6.10.9.3.1 General................................................................................................................................6-137
6.10.9.3.2 Interior Panels ....................................................................................................................6-137
6.10.9.3.3 End Panels..........................................................................................................................6-138
6.10.10 Shear Connectors ..................................................................................................................................6-139
6.10.10.1 General.......................................................................................................................................6-139
6.10.10.1.1 Types.................................................................................................................................6-139
6.10.10.1.2 Pitch .................................................................................................................................6-140
6.10.10.1.3 Transverse Spacing ..........................................................................................................6-141
6.10.10.1.4 Cover and Penetration......................................................................................................6-141
6.10.10.2 Fatigue Resistance......................................................................................................................6-142
6.10.10.3 Special Requirements for Points of Permanent Load Contraflexure ..........................................6-142
6.10.10.4 Strength Limit State ...................................................................................................................6-143
6.10.10.4.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-143
6.10.10.4.2 Nominal Shear Force .......................................................................................................6-143
6.10.10.4.3 Nominal Shear Resistance................................................................................................6-145
6.10.11 Stiffeners ...............................................................................................................................................6-146
6.10.11.1 Transverse Stiffeners..................................................................................................................6-146
6.10.11.1.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-146
6.10.11.1.2 Projecting Width ..............................................................................................................6-146
6.10.11.1.3 Moment of Inertia ............................................................................................................6-147
6.10.11.2 Bearing Stiffeners ......................................................................................................................6-148
6.10.11.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-148
6.10.11.2.2 Projecting Width ..............................................................................................................6-149
6.10.11.2.3 Bearing Resistance...........................................................................................................6-149
6.10.11.2.4 Axial Resistance of Bearing Stiffeners ............................................................................6-149
6.10.11.2.4a General....................................................................................................................6-149
6.10.11.2.4b Effective Section.....................................................................................................6-150
6.10.11.3 Longitudinal Stiffeners...............................................................................................................6-150
6.10.11.3.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-150
6.10.11.3.2 Projecting Width ..............................................................................................................6-152
6.10.11.3.3 Moment of Inertia and Radius of Gyration ......................................................................6-153
6.10.12 Cover Plates .........................................................................................................................................6-154
6.10.12.1 General.......................................................................................................................................6-154
6.10.12.2 End Requirements ......................................................................................................................6-154
6.10.12.2.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-154
6.10.12.2.2 Welded Ends ....................................................................................................................6-155
6.10.12.2.3 Bolted Ends......................................................................................................................6-155
6.11 BOX-SECTION FLEXURAL MEMBERS .....................................................................................................6-155
6.11.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................6-155
6.11.1.1 Stress Determinations...................................................................................................................6-158
6.11.1.2 Bearings .......................................................................................................................................6-161
6.11.1.3 Flange-to-Web Connections.........................................................................................................6-161
6.11.1.4 Access and Drainage....................................................................................................................6-162
6.11.2 Cross-Section Proportion Limits ............................................................................................................6-162
SECTION 6: STEEL STRUCTURES 6-v

6.11.2.1 Web Proportions .......................................................................................................................... 6-162

6.11.2.1.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-162
6.11.2.1.2 Webs without Longitudinal Stiffeners ............................................................................... 6-162
6.11.2.1.3 Webs with Longitudinal Stiffeners ....................................................................................6-162
6.11.2.2 Flange Proportions....................................................................................................................... 6-163
6.11.2.3 Special Restrictions on Use of Live Load Distribution Factor for Multiple Box Sections .......... 6-163
6.11.3 Constructibility ......................................................................................................................................6-164
6.11.3.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-164
6.11.3.2 Flexure ......................................................................................................................................... 6-164
6.11.3.3 Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 6-167
6.11.4 Service Limit State.................................................................................................................................6-167
6.11.5 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State............................................................................................................6-168
6.11.6 Strength Limit State ...............................................................................................................................6-170
6.11.6.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-170
6.11.6.2 Flexure ......................................................................................................................................... 6-170
6.11.6.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-170
6.11.6.2.2 Sections in Positive Flexure...............................................................................................6-171
6.11.6.2.3 Sections in Negative Flexure .............................................................................................6-172
6.11.6.3 Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 6-172
6.11.6.4 Shear Connectors ......................................................................................................................... 6-172
6.11.7 Flexural Resistance—Sections in Positive Flexure................................................................................6-172
6.11.7.1 Compact Sections ........................................................................................................................ 6-172
6.11.7.1.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-172
6.11.7.1.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .............................................................................................6-173
6.11.7.2 Noncompact Sections .................................................................................................................. 6-173
6.11.7.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-173
6.11.7.2.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .............................................................................................6-174
6.11.8 Flexural Resistance—Sections in Negative Flexure ..............................................................................6-175
6.11.8.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-175
6.11.8.1.1 Box Flanges in Compression .............................................................................................6-175
6.11.8.1.2 Continuously Braced Flanges in Tension ..........................................................................6-176
6.11.8.2 Flexural Resistance of Box Flanges in Compression................................................................... 6-176
6.11.8.2.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-176
6.11.8.2.2 Unstiffened Flanges ............................................................................................................6-177
6.11.8.2.3 Longitudinally Stiffened Flanges.......................................................................................6-179
6.11.8.3 Tension-Flange Flexural Resistance ............................................................................................ 6-180
6.11.9 Shear Resistance ....................................................................................................................................6-180
6.11.10 Shear Connectors .................................................................................................................................6-181
6.11.11 Stiffeners..............................................................................................................................................6-182
6.11.11.1 Web Stiffeners ........................................................................................................................... 6-182
6.11.11.2 Longitudinal Compression-Flange Stiffeners ............................................................................ 6-183
6.12 MISCELLANEOUS FLEXURAL MEMBERS .............................................................................................. 6-186
6.12.1 General...................................................................................................................................................6-186
6.12.1.1 Scope ........................................................................................................................................... 6-186
6.12.1.2 Strength Limit State ..................................................................................................................... 6-187
6.12.1.2.1 Flexure...............................................................................................................................6-187
6.12.1.2.2 Combined Flexure and Axial Load.................................................................................... 6-187
6.12.1.2.3 Shear ..................................................................................................................................6-187
6.12.2 Nominal Flexural Resistance .................................................................................................................6-187
6.12.2.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-187
6.12.2.2 Noncomposite Members .............................................................................................................. 6-188
6.12.2.2.1 I- and H-Shaped Members.................................................................................................6-188
6.12.2.2.2 Box-Shaped Members .......................................................................................................6-189
6.12.2.2.3 Circular Tubes ...................................................................................................................6-189
6.12.2.2.4 Channels, Angles, Tees, and Bars......................................................................................6-190
6.12.2.3 Composite Members .................................................................................................................... 6-190
6.12.2.3.1 Concrete-Encased Shapes ..................................................................................................6-190
6.12.2.3.2 Concrete-Filled Tubes .......................................................................................................6-191
6-vi AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

6.12.3 Nominal Shear Resistance of Composite Members ...............................................................................6-192

6.12.3.1 Concrete-Encased Shapes ............................................................................................................6-192
6.12.3.2 Concrete-Filled Tubes..................................................................................................................6-192
6.12.3.2.1 Rectangular Tubes .............................................................................................................6-192
6.12.3.2.2 Circular Tubes....................................................................................................................6-192
6.13 CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES....................................................................................................................6-193
6.13.1 General ...................................................................................................................................................6-193
6.13.2 Bolted Connections ................................................................................................................................6-194
6.13.2.1 General.........................................................................................................................................6-194
6.13.2.1.1 Slip-Critical Connections ...................................................................................................6-194
6.13.2.1.2 Bearing-Type Connections ................................................................................................6-195
6.13.2.2 Factored Resistance......................................................................................................................6-195
6.13.2.3 Bolts, Nuts, and Washers .............................................................................................................6-196
6.13.2.3.1 Bolts and Nuts....................................................................................................................6-196
6.13.2.3.2 Washers..............................................................................................................................6-196
6.13.2.4 Holes ............................................................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.1 Type ...................................................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.1a General......................................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.1b Oversize Holes..........................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.1c Short-Slotted Holes ...................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.1d Long-Slotted Holes ...................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.4.2 Size ....................................................................................................................................6-197
6.13.2.5 Size of Bolts.................................................................................................................................6-198
6.13.2.6 Spacing of Bolts ...........................................................................................................................6-198
6.13.2.6.1 Minimum Spacing and Clear Distance...............................................................................6-198
6.13.2.6.2 Maximum Spacing for Sealing Bolts .................................................................................6-198
6.13.2.6.3 Maximum Pitch for Stitch Bolts.........................................................................................6-199
6.13.2.6.4 Maximum Pitch for Stitch Bolts at the End of Compression Members .............................6-199
6.13.2.6.5 End Distance ......................................................................................................................6-199
6.13.2.6.6 Edge Distances...................................................................................................................6-200
6.13.2.7 Shear Resistance ..........................................................................................................................6-200
6.13.2.8 Slip Resistance .............................................................................................................................6-201
6.13.2.9 Bearing Resistance at Bolt Holes .................................................................................................6-205
6.13.2.10 Tensile Resistance......................................................................................................................6-206
6.13.2.10.1 General.............................................................................................................................6-206
6.13.2.10.2 Nominal Tensile Resistance.............................................................................................6-206
6.13.2.10.3 Fatigue Resistance ...........................................................................................................6-206
6.13.2.10.4 Prying Action ...................................................................................................................6-206
6.13.2.11 Combined Tension and Shear ....................................................................................................6-207
6.13.3 Welded Connections ..............................................................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.1 General.........................................................................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.2 Factored Resistance......................................................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.1 General...............................................................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.2 Complete Penetration Groove-Welded Connections..........................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.2a Tension and Compression .........................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.2b Shear .........................................................................................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.3 Partial Penetration Groove-Welded Connections...............................................................6-208
6.13.3.2.3a Tension or Compression ...........................................................................................6-209
6.13.3.2.3b Shear .........................................................................................................................6-209
6.13.3.2.4 Fillet-Welded Connections ................................................................................................6-209
6.13.3.2.4a Tension and Compression .........................................................................................6-209
6.13.3.2.4b Shear .........................................................................................................................6-209
6.13.3.3 Effective Area ..............................................................................................................................6-210
6.13.3.4 Size of Fillet Welds......................................................................................................................6-210
6.13.3.5 Minimum Effective Length of Fillet Welds .................................................................................6-211
6.13.3.6 Fillet Weld End Returns...............................................................................................................6-211
6.13.3.7 Seal Welds ...................................................................................................................................6-211
6.13.4 Block Shear Rupture Resistance ............................................................................................................6-211
SECTION 6: STEEL STRUCTURES 6-vii

6.13.5 Connection Elements .............................................................................................................................6-212

6.13.5.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-212
6.13.5.2 Tension ........................................................................................................................................ 6-213
6.13.5.3 Shear ............................................................................................................................................ 6-213
6.13.6 Splices....................................................................................................................................................6-213
6.13.6.1 Bolted Splices .............................................................................................................................. 6-213
6.13.6.1.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-213
6.13.6.1.2 Tension Members ..............................................................................................................6-213
6.13.6.1.3 Compression Members ......................................................................................................6-214
6.13.6.1.4 Flexural Members..............................................................................................................6-214
6.13.6.1.4a General...................................................................................................................... 6-214
6.13.6.1.4b Web Splices.............................................................................................................. 6-216
6.13.6.1.4c Flange Splices........................................................................................................... 6-220
6.13.6.1.5 Fillers.................................................................................................................................6-224
6.13.6.2 Welded Splices ............................................................................................................................ 6-225
6.13.7 Rigid Frame Connections.......................................................................................................................6-226
6.13.7.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-226
6.13.7.2 Webs ............................................................................................................................................ 6-226
6.14 PROVISIONS FOR STRUCTURE TYPES .................................................................................................... 6-227
6.14.1 Through-Girder Spans............................................................................................................................6-227
6.14.2 Trusses ...................................................................................................................................................6-228
6.14.2.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-228
6.14.2.2 Truss Members ............................................................................................................................ 6-228
6.14.2.3 Secondary Stresses....................................................................................................................... 6-228
6.14.2.4 Diaphragms.................................................................................................................................. 6-228
6.14.2.5 Camber......................................................................................................................................... 6-229
6.14.2.6 Working Lines and Gravity Axes ................................................................................................ 6-229
6.14.2.7 Portal and Sway Bracing.............................................................................................................. 6-229
6.14.2.7.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-229
6.14.2.7.2 Through-Truss Spans.........................................................................................................6-229
6.14.2.7.3 Deck Truss Spans ..............................................................................................................6-230
6.14.2.8 Gusset Plates................................................................................................................................ 6-230
6.14.2.9 Half Through-Trusses .................................................................................................................. 6-230
6.14.2.10 Factored Resistance ................................................................................................................... 6-230
6.14.3 Orthotropic Deck Superstructures..........................................................................................................6-231
6.14.3.1 General......................................................................................................................................... 6-231
6.14.3.2 Effective Width of Deck .............................................................................................................. 6-231
6.14.3.3 Superposition of Global and Local Effects .................................................................................. 6-231
6.14.3.3.1 General ..............................................................................................................................6-231
6.14.3.3.2 Decks in Global Tension ...................................................................................................6-231
6.14.3.3.3 Decks in Global Compression ...........................................................................................6-232
6.14.3.4 Transverse Flexure....................................................................................................................... 6-232
6.14.3.5 Diaphragms.................................................................................................................................. 6-233
6.14.4 Solid Web Arches ..................................................................................................................................6-233
6.14.4.1 Moment Amplification for Deflection ......................................................................................... 6-233
6.14.4.2 Web Slenderness.......................................................................................................................... 6-233
6.14.4.3 Flange Stability ............................................................................................................................ 6-234
6.15 PILES............................................................................................................................................................... 6-234
6.15.1 General...................................................................................................................................................6-234
6.15.2 Structural Resistance..............................................................................................................................6-234
6.15.3 Compressive Resistance.........................................................................................................................6-236
6.15.3.1 Axial Compression ...................................................................................................................... 6-236
6.15.3.2 Combined Axial Compression and Flexure ................................................................................. 6-236
6.15.3.3 Buckling....................................................................................................................................... 6-236
6.15.4 Maximum Permissible Driving Stresses ................................................................................................6-236
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................................... 6-237
6-viii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

APPENDIX A6 FLEXURAL RESISTANCE OF STRAIGHT COMPOSITE I-SECTIONS IN

NEGATIVE FLEXURE AND STRAIGHT NONCOMPOSITE I-SECTIONS WITH COMPACT OR
NONCOMPACT WEBS...........................................................................................................................................6-246
A6.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................6-246
A6.1.1 Sections with Discretely Braced Compression Flanges..........................................................................6-247
A6.1.2 Sections with Discretely Braced Tension Flanges..................................................................................6-248
A6.1.3 Sections with Continuously Braced Compression Flanges ....................................................................6-249
A6.1.4 Sections with Continuously Braced Tension Flanges.............................................................................6-249
A6.2 WEB PLASTIFICATION FACTORS ............................................................................................................6-250
A6.2.1 Compact Web Sections .........................................................................................................................6-250
A6.2.2 Noncompact Web Sections....................................................................................................................6-251
A6.3 FLEXURAL RESISTANCE BASED ON THE COMPRESSION FLANGE.................................................6-252
A6.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................6-252
A6.3.2 Local Buckling Resistance ....................................................................................................................6-254
A6.3.3 Lateral Torsional Buckling Resistance..................................................................................................6-255
A6.4 FLEXURAL RESISTANCE BASED ON TENSION FLANGE YIELDING ................................................6-259
APPENDIX B6 MOMENT REDISTRIBUTION FROM INTERIOR–PIER I-SECTIONS IN STRAIGHT
CONTINUOUS-SPAN BRIDGES............................................................................................................................6-260
B6.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................6-260
B6.2 SCOPE.............................................................................................................................................................6-260
B6.2.1 Web Proportions....................................................................................................................................6-261
B6.2.2 Compression Flange Proportions...........................................................................................................6-262
B6.2.3 Section Transitions ................................................................................................................................6-262
B6.2.4 Lateral Bracing ......................................................................................................................................6-262
B6.2.5 Shear......................................................................................................................................................6-263
B6.2.6 Bearing Stiffeners ..................................................................................................................................6-263
B6.3 SERVICE LIMIT STATE ...............................................................................................................................6-263
B6.3.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................6-263
B6.3.2 Flexure...................................................................................................................................................6-263
B6.3.2.1 Adjacent to Interior-Pier Sections................................................................................................6-263
B6.3.2.2 At All Other Locations.................................................................................................................6-264
B6.3.3 Redistribution Moments ........................................................................................................................6-264
B6.3.3.1 At Interior-Pier Sections ..............................................................................................................6-264
B6.3.3.2 At All Other Locations.................................................................................................................6-265
B6.4 STRENGTH LIMIT STATE............................................................................................................................6-265
B6.4.1 Flexural Resistance................................................................................................................................6-265
B6.4.1.1 Adjacent to Interior-Pier Sections................................................................................................6-265
B6.4.1.2 At All Other Locations.................................................................................................................6-265
B6.4.2 Redistribution Moments ........................................................................................................................6-266
B6.4.2.1 At Interior-Pier Sections ..............................................................................................................6-266
B6.4.2.2 At All Other Sections...................................................................................................................6-267
B6.5 EFFECTIVE PLASTIC MOMENT.................................................................................................................6-267
B6.5.1 Interior-Pier Sections with Enhanced Moment-Rotation Characteristics...............................................6-267
B6.5.2 All Other Interior-Pier Sections .............................................................................................................6-268
B6.6 REFINED METHOD ......................................................................................................................................6-268
B6.6.1 General ..................................................................................................................................................6-268
B6.6.2 Nominal Moment-Rotation Curves........................................................................................................6-270
APPENDIX C6 BASIC STEPS FOR STEEL BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURES....................................................6-272
C6.1 GENERAL ......................................................................................................................................................6-272
C6.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS ...................................................................................................................6-272
C6.3 SUPERSTRUCTURE DESIGN ......................................................................................................................6-272
C6.4 FLOWCHARTS FOR FLEXURAL DESIGN OF I-SECTIONS....................................................................6-277
C6.4.1 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.3 .......................................................................................................6-277
C6.4.2 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.4 .......................................................................................................6-278
C6.4.3 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.5 .......................................................................................................6-278
C6.4.4 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.6 .......................................................................................................6-279
C6.4.5 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.7 .......................................................................................................6-280
C6.4.6 Flowchart for LRFD Article 6.10.8 .......................................................................................................6-281
SECTION 6: STEEL STRUCTURES 6-ix

C6.4.7 Flowchart for Appendix A6 ..................................................................................................................6-283

C6.4.8 Flowchart for Article D6.4.1 .................................................................................................................6-285
C6.4.9 Flowchart for Article D6.4.2 .................................................................................................................6-286
C6.4.10 Moment Gradient Modifier, Cb (Sample Cases)..................................................................................6-287
APPENDIX D6 FUNDAMENTAL CALCULATIONS FOR FLEXURAL MEMBERS....................................... 6-289
D6.1 PLASTIC MOMENT...................................................................................................................................... 6-289
D6.2 YIELD MOMENT .......................................................................................................................................... 6-291
D6.2.1 Noncomposite Sections.........................................................................................................................6-291
D6.2.2 Composite Sections in Positive Flexure ................................................................................................6-292
D6.2.3 Composite Sections in Negative Flexure ...............................................................................................6-293
D6.2.4 Sections with Cover Plates.....................................................................................................................6-293
D6.3 DEPTH OF THE WEB IN COMPRESSION ................................................................................................. 6-293
D6.3.1 In the Elastic Range (Dc).......................................................................................................................6-293
D6.3.2 At Plastic Moment (Dcp)........................................................................................................................6-294
D6.4 LATERAL TORSIONAL BUCKLING EQUATIONS FOR CB > 1.0, WITH EMPHASIS ON
UNBRACED LENGTH REQUIREMENTS FOR DEVELOPMENT OF THE MAXIMUM FLEXURAL
RESISTANCE .......................................................................................................................................................... 6-295
D6.4.1 By the Provisions of Article 6.10.8.2.3 .................................................................................................6-295
D6.4.2 By the Provisions of Article A6.3.3 ......................................................................................................6-296
D6.5 CONCENTRATED LOADS APPLIED TO WEBS WITHOUT BEARING STIFFENERS ......................... 6-297
D6.5.1 General..................................................................................................................................................6-297
D6.5.2 Web Local Yielding ..............................................................................................................................6-298
D6.5.3 Web Crippling.......................................................................................................................................6-299
 SECTION 7: ALUMINUM STRUCTURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
7
7.1 SCOPE ...................................................................................................................................................................7-1
7.2 DEFINITIONS.......................................................................................................................................................7-1
7.3 NOTATION...........................................................................................................................................................7-1
7.4 MATERIALS.........................................................................................................................................................7-3
7.4.1 General.........................................................................................................................................................7-3
7.4.2 Aluminum Sheet, Plate, and Shapes ............................................................................................................7-3
7.4.2.1 Extrusions and Mechanically Fastened Builtup Members.................................................................7-3
7.4.2.2 Welded Builtup Members..................................................................................................................7-4
7.4.3 Material for Pins, Rollers, and Expansion Rockers .....................................................................................7-6
7.4.4 Fasteners—Rivets and Bolts ........................................................................................................................7-6
7.4.5 Weld Metal ..................................................................................................................................................7-7
7.4.6 Aluminum Castings .....................................................................................................................................7-7
7.4.7 Aluminum Forgings.....................................................................................................................................7-7
7.5 LIMIT STATES.....................................................................................................................................................7-7
7.5.1 Service Limit State.......................................................................................................................................7-7
7.5.1.1 Appearance of Buckling ....................................................................................................................7-7
7.5.1.2 Effective Width for Calculation of Deflection of Thin Gage Sections ..............................................7-8
7.5.1.3 Web Crippling ...................................................................................................................................7-9
7.5.1.4 Live Load Deflection.........................................................................................................................7-9
7.5.2 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State..................................................................................................................7-9
7.5.3 Strength Limit State ...................................................................................................................................7-10
7.5.4 Resistance Factors......................................................................................................................................7-10
7.6 FATIGUE AND FRACTURE CONSIDERATIONS..........................................................................................7-11
7.6.1 Fatigue .......................................................................................................................................................7-11
7.6.1.1 General ............................................................................................................................................7-11
7.6.1.2 Load-Induced Fatigue......................................................................................................................7-12
7.6.1.2.1 Application ............................................................................................................................7-12
7.6.1.2.2 Design Criteria.......................................................................................................................7-12
7.6.1.2.3 Detail Categories ...................................................................................................................7-12
7.6.1.2.4 Fatigue Resistance .................................................................................................................7-16
7.6.1.3 Distortion-Induced Fatigue ..............................................................................................................7-17
7.6.1.3.1 Transverse Connection Plates................................................................................................7-18
7.6.1.3.2 Lateral Connection Plates ......................................................................................................7-18
7.6.2 Fracture ......................................................................................................................................................7-18
7.7 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS ...........................................................................................................................7-18
7.7.1 Dead Load Camber ....................................................................................................................................7-18
7.7.2 Welding Requirements ..............................................................................................................................7-18
7.7.3 Welding Procedures...................................................................................................................................7-18
7.7.4 Nondestructive Testing ..............................................................................................................................7-19
7.7.5 Uplift and Slip of Deck Slabs ....................................................................................................................7-19
7.7.6 Composite Sections....................................................................................................................................7-19
7.8 GENERAL DIMENSION AND DETAIL REQUIREMENTS ...........................................................................7-19
7.8.1 Effective Length of Span ...........................................................................................................................7-19
7.8.2 Slenderness Ratios for Tension and Compression Members .....................................................................7-20
7.8.3 Minimum Thickness of Aluminum............................................................................................................7-21
7.8.4 Diaphragms and Cross-Frames ..................................................................................................................7-21
7.8.5 Lateral Bracing ..........................................................................................................................................7-22
7.8.5.1 General .............................................................................................................................................7-22
7.8.5.2 Through-Spans.................................................................................................................................7-22
7.8.6 Pins and Pin-Connected Elements .............................................................................................................7-22
7.9 TENSION MEMBERS........................................................................................................................................7-23
7.9.1 General.......................................................................................................................................................7-23
7.9.2 Tensile Resistance......................................................................................................................................7-23
7.9.3 Effective Area of Angle and T-Sections ....................................................................................................7-23
7.9.4 Net Area.....................................................................................................................................................7-24
7.10 COMPRESSION MEMBERS ...........................................................................................................................7-24

7-i
7-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

7.10.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................7-24
7.10.2 Compressive Resistance of Columns .......................................................................................................7-26
7.10.3 Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns—Outstanding Flanges and Legs..........................7-27
7.10.4 Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns, Gross Section—Flat Plates with Both
Edges Supported ..................................................................................................................................................7-28
7.10.4.1 General...........................................................................................................................................7-28
7.10.4.2 Effect of Local Buckling of Elements on Column Strength...........................................................7-29
7.10.5 Compressive Resistance of Components of Columns, Gross Section—Curved Plates Supported on
Both Edges, Walls of Round, or Oval Tubes .......................................................................................................7-29
7.11 FLEXURAL MEMBERS ..................................................................................................................................7-30
7.11.1 Tensile Resistance of Flexural Member....................................................................................................7-30
7.11.1.1 Net Section......................................................................................................................................7-30
7.11.1.2 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams, Structural Shapes Bent about Strong Axis,
Rectangular Tubes ........................................................................................................................................7-30
7.11.1.3 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams, Round, or Oval Tubes........................................................7-30
7.11.1.4 Tension in Extreme Fibers of Beams—Shapes Bent about Weak Axis, Rectangular
Bars, Plates ...................................................................................................................................................7-31
7.11.2 Compressive Resistance of Flexural Members ........................................................................................7-31
7.11.2.1 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Single-Web Beams Bent about
Strong Axis ...................................................................................................................................................7-31
7.11.2.2 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Round or Oval Tubes .............................7-33
7.11.2.3 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Solid Rectangular Beams .......................7-33
7.11.2.4 Compression in Beams, Extreme Fiber, Gross Section, Rectangular Tubes, and
Box Sections .................................................................................................................................................7-34
7.11.3 Compressive Resistance of Flexural Members Limited by Plate Slenderness.........................................7-35
7.11.3.1 General...........................................................................................................................................7-35
7.11.3.2 Compression in Components of Beams with Component under Uniform Compression,
Gross Section, Outstanding Flanges .............................................................................................................7-36
7.11.3.2.1 General.................................................................................................................................7-36
7.11.3.2.2 Effect of Local Buckling of Elements on Resistance...........................................................7-37
7.11.3.3 Compression in Components of Beams with Component under Uniform Compression,
Gross Section, Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported.................................................................................7-37
7.11.3.4 Compression in Components of Beams—Curved Sections ...........................................................7-38
7.11.3.5 Compression in Components of Beams with Component under Bending in Own Plane,
Gross Section, Flat Plates with Compression Edge Free, Tension Edge Supported .....................................7-38
7.11.3.6 Webs of Beams, Gross Section, Flat Plates with Both Edges Supported.......................................7-39
7.11.3.7 Webs of Beams with Longitudinal Stiffener, Both Edges Supported ............................................7-40
7.11.4 Shear Resistance ......................................................................................................................................7-40
7.11.4.1 Shear—Unstiffened Flat Webs ......................................................................................................7-40
7.11.4.2 Shear in Webs—Stiffened Flat Webs.............................................................................................7-41
7.11.5 Design of Stiffeners..................................................................................................................................7-42
7.11.5.1 Longitudinal Stiffeners for Webs...................................................................................................7-42
7.11.5.2 Transverse Stiffeners for Shear in Webs........................................................................................7-43
7.11.5.3 Stiffeners for Outstanding Flanges.................................................................................................7-44
7.11.5.4 Bearing Stiffeners ..........................................................................................................................7-45
7.12 TORSION ..........................................................................................................................................................7-45
7.12.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................7-45
7.12.2 Compression Members Subjected to Torsion ..........................................................................................7-45
7.12.2.1 Members with Double-Axis Symmetry .........................................................................................7-46
7.12.2.2 Members with Single-Axis Symmetry...........................................................................................7-46
7.12.3 St. Venant Torsion ...................................................................................................................................7-46
7.12.3.1 Open Section..................................................................................................................................7-46
7.12.3.2 Box Section....................................................................................................................................7-47
7.12.4 Warping Torsion ......................................................................................................................................7-47
7.12.4.1 Open Sections .................................................................................................................................7-47
7.12.4.2 Box Section....................................................................................................................................7-48
7.13 COMBINED FORCE EFFECTS .......................................................................................................................7-48
7.13.1 Combined Compression and Flexure .......................................................................................................7-48
7.13.2 Combined Shear, Compression, and Flexure ...........................................................................................7-48
TABLE OF CONTENTS 7-iii

7.13.3 Torsion and Shear in Tubes .....................................................................................................................7-49

7.13.4 Combined Compression and Flexure—Webs..........................................................................................7-49
7.14 CONNECTIONS AND SPLICES .....................................................................................................................7-50
7.14.1 General.....................................................................................................................................................7-50
7.14.2 Bolted Connections..................................................................................................................................7-50
7.14.2.1 Bolts and Nuts ...............................................................................................................................7-50
7.14.2.2 Holes..............................................................................................................................................7-51
7.14.2.3 Size of Fasteners ............................................................................................................................7-51
7.14.2.4 Spacing of Fasteners ......................................................................................................................7-51
7.14.2.4.1 Minimum Pitch and Clear Distance.....................................................................................7-51
7.14.2.4.2 Maximum Pitch for Sealing Fasteners.................................................................................7-51
7.14.2.4.3 Maximum Pitch for Stitch Fasteners ...................................................................................7-52
7.14.2.4.4 Stitch Fasteners at the End of Compression Members .......................................................7-52
7.14.2.4.5 End and Edge Distances ......................................................................................................7-52
7.14.2.5 Shear Resistance of Fasteners........................................................................................................7-52
7.14.2.6 Slip-Critical Connections...............................................................................................................7-53
7.14.2.7 Bearing Resistance at Fastener Holes ............................................................................................7-53
7.14.2.7.1 General ................................................................................................................................7-53
7.14.2.7.2 Bearing Resistance at Rivet and Bolt Holes ........................................................................7-53
7.14.2.7.3 Bearing on Flat Surfaces and Pins .......................................................................................7-53
7.14.2.8 Tension ..........................................................................................................................................7-53
7.14.3 Block Shear or End Rupture ....................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4 Splices......................................................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4.1 General ..........................................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4.2 Tension Members ..........................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4.3 Compression Members ..................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4.4 Flexural Members..........................................................................................................................7-54
7.14.4.5 Welding .........................................................................................................................................7-55
7.15 PROVISIONS FOR STRUCTURE TYPES ......................................................................................................7-55
7.15.1 Floor System............................................................................................................................................7-55
7.15.2 Lateral Bracing ........................................................................................................................................7-55
7.15.3 Beam and Girder Framing .......................................................................................................................7-55
7.15.4 Trusses .....................................................................................................................................................7-55
7.15.4.1 General ..........................................................................................................................................7-55
7.15.4.2 Portal and Sway Bracing ...............................................................................................................7-56
7.15.5 Arches ......................................................................................................................................................7-56
REFERENCES ...........................................................................................................................................................7-57
 SECTION 8: WOOD STRUCTURES

TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.2 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 8-1
8.3 NOTATION........................................................................................................................................................... 8-3
8.4 MATERIALS......................................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.4.1 Wood Products............................................................................................................................................. 8-5
8.4.1.1 Sawn Lumber..................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.4.1.1.1 General .................................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.4.1.1.2 Dimensions .............................................................................................................................. 8-5
8.4.1.1.3 Moisture Content ..................................................................................................................... 8-5
8.4.1.1.4 Reference Design Values......................................................................................................... 8-6
8.4.1.2 Structural Glued Laminated Timber (Glulam) ................................................................................. 8-11
8.4.1.2.1 General .................................................................................................................................. 8-11
8.4.1.2.2 Dimensions ............................................................................................................................ 8-12
8.4.1.2.3 Reference Design Values........................................................................................................ 8-13
8.4.1.3 Piles ................................................................................................................................................. 8-17
8.4.2 Metal Fasteners and Hardware................................................................................................................... 8-17
8.4.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 8-17
8.4.2.2 Minimum Requirements .................................................................................................................. 8-17
8.4.2.2.1 Fasteners ................................................................................................................................ 8-17
8.4.2.2.2 Prestressing Bars.................................................................................................................... 8-17
8.4.2.2.3 Split Ring Connectors............................................................................................................ 8-17
8.4.2.2.4 Shear Plate Connectors .......................................................................................................... 8-18
8.4.2.2.5 Nails and Spikes .................................................................................................................... 8-18
8.4.2.2.6 Drift Pins and Bolts ............................................................................................................... 8-18
8.4.2.2.7 Spike Grids ............................................................................................................................ 8-18
8.4.2.2.8 Toothed Metal Plate Connectors............................................................................................ 8-18
8.4.2.3 Corrosion Protection ........................................................................................................................ 8-18
8.4.2.3.1 Metallic Coating .................................................................................................................... 8-18
8.4.2.3.2 Alternative Coating................................................................................................................ 8-19
8.4.3 Preservative Treatment .............................................................................................................................. 8-19
8.4.3.1 Requirement for Treatment.............................................................................................................. 8-19
8.4.3.2 Treatment Chemicals ....................................................................................................................... 8-19
8.4.3.3 Inspection and Marking ................................................................................................................... 8-19
8.4.3.4 Fire Retardant Treatment ................................................................................................................. 8-20
8.4.4 Adjustment Factors for Reference Design Values ..................................................................................... 8-20
8.4.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 8-20
8.4.4.2 Format Conversion Factor, CKF ........................................................................................................ 8-21
8.4.4.3 Wet Service Factor, CM ..................................................................................................................... 8-21
8.4.4.4 Size Factor, CF, for Sawn Lumber .................................................................................................... 8-22
8.4.4.5 Volume Factor, CV, (Glulam)........................................................................................................... 8-23
8.4.4.6 Flat-Use Factor, Cfu ........................................................................................................................... 8-24
8.4.4.7 Incising Factor, Ci ............................................................................................................................. 8-25
8.4.4.8 Deck Factor, Cd ................................................................................................................................. 8-25
8.4.4.9 Time Effect Factor, CO ...................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.5 LIMIT STATES................................................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.5.1 Service Limit State..................................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.5.2 Strength Limit State ................................................................................................................................... 8-26
8.5.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 8-26
8.5.2.2 Resistance Factors ........................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.5.2.3 Stability............................................................................................................................................ 8-27
8.5.3 Extreme Event Limit State ......................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.6 COMPONENTS IN FLEXURE........................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.6.1 General....................................................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.6.2 Rectangular Section ................................................................................................................................... 8-27
8.6.3 Circular Section ......................................................................................................................................... 8-29
8.7 COMPONENTS UNDER SHEAR ...................................................................................................................... 8-29
8-i
8-ii AASHTO LRFD BRIDGE DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS

8.8 COMPONENTS IN COMPRESSION .................................................................................................................8-29

8.8.1 General .......................................................................................................................................................8-29
8.8.2 Compression Parallel to Grain ...................................................................................................................8-29
8.8.3 Compression Perpendicular to Grain..........................................................................................................8-30
8.9 COMPONENTS IN TENSION PARALLEL TO GRAIN...................................................................................8-31
8.10 COMPONENTS IN COMBINED FLEXURE AND AXIAL LOADING .........................................................8-31
8.10.1 Components in Combined Flexure and Tension ......................................................................................8-31
8.10.2 Components in Combined Flexure and Compression Parallel to Grain ...................................................8-32
8.11 BRACING REQUIREMENTS ..........................................................................................................................8-32
8.11.1 General .....................................................................................................................................................8-32
8.11.2 Sawn Wood Beams ..................................................................................................................................8-32
8.11.3 Glued Laminated Timber Girders.............................................................................................................8-33
8.11.4 Bracing of Trusses....................................................................................................................................8-33
8.12 CAMBER REQUIREMENTS ...........................................................................................................................8-33
8.12.1 Glued Laminated Timber Girders.............................................................................................................8-33
8.12.2 Trusses .....................................................................................................................................................8-33
8.12.3 Stress Laminated Timber Deck Bridge ....................................................................................................8-33
8.13 CONNECTION DESIGN ...................................................................................................................................8-33
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................................................8-34
 SECTION 9: DECKS AND DECK SYSTEMS

TABLE OF CONTENTS
9
9.1 SCOPE ................................................................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.2 DEFINITIONS....................................................................................................................................................... 9-1
9.3 NOTATION........................................................................................................................................................... 9-4
9.4 GENERAL DESIGN REQUIREMENTS.............................................................................................................. 9-4
9.4.1 Interface Action ........................................................................................................................................... 9-4
9.4.2 Deck Drainage ............................................................................................................................................. 9-4
9.4.3 Concrete Appurtenances .............................................................................................................................. 9-5
9.4.4 Edge Supports .............................................................................................................................................. 9-5
9.4.5 Stay-in-Place Formwork for Overhangs....................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5 LIMIT STATES..................................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5.2 Service Limit States ..................................................................................................................................... 9-5
9.5.3 Fatigue and Fracture Limit State.................................................................................................................. 9-6
9.5.4 Strength Limit States.................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.5.5 Extreme Event Limit States ......................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.6 ANALYSIS............................................................................................................................................................ 9-6
9.6.1 Methods of Analysis .................................................................................................................................... 9-6
9.6.2 Loading ........................................................................................................................................................ 9-6
9.7 CONCRETE DECK SLABS ................................................................................................................................. 9-7
9.7.1 General......................................................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.7.1.1 Minimum Depth and Cover ............................................................................................................... 9-7
9.7.1.2 Composite Action .............................................................................................................................. 9-7
9.7.1.3 Skewed Decks.................................................................................................................................... 9-7
9.7.1.4 Edge Support ..................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.7.1.5 Design of Cantilever Slabs ................................................................................................................ 9-8
9.7.2 Empirical Design ......................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.7.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................... 9-8
9.7.2.2 Application ........................................................................................................................................ 9-9
9.7.2.3 Effective Length ................................................................................................................................ 9-9
9.7.2.4 Design Conditions ........................................................................................................................... 9-10
9.7.2.5 Reinforcement Requirements........................................................................................................... 9-11
9.7.2.6 Deck with Stay-in-Place Formwork................................................................................................. 9-12
9.7.3 Traditional Design ..................................................................................................................................... 9-12
9.7.3.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 9-12
9.7.3.2 Distribution Reinforcement ............................................................................................................. 9-12
9.7.4 Stay-in-Place Formwork ............................................................................................................................ 9-12
9.7.4.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 9-12
9.7.4.2 Steel Formwork................................................................................................................................ 9-13
9.7.4.3 Concrete Formwork ......................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.7.4.3.1 Depth ..................................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.7.4.3.2 Reinforcement ....................................................................................................................... 9-13
9.7.4.3.3 Creep and Shrinkage Control................................................................................................. 9-14
9.7.4.3.4 Bedding of Panels.................................................................................................................. 9-14
9.7.5 Precast Deck Slabs on Girders ................................................................................................................... 9-14
9.7.5.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 9-14
9.7.5.2 Transversely Joined Precast Decks .................................................................................................. 9-14
9.7.5.3 Longitudinally Post-Tensioned Precast Decks................................................................................. 9-15
9.7.6 Deck Slabs in Segmental Construction ...................................................................................................... 9-15
9.7.6.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 9-15
9.7.6.2 Joints in Decks................................................................................................................................. 9-15
9.8 METAL DECKS.................................................................................................................................................. 9-15
9.8.1 General....................................................................................................................................................... 9-15
9.8.2 Metal Grid Decks....................................................................................................................................... 9-16
9.8.2.1 General............................................................................................................................................. 9-16
9.8.2.2 Open Grid Floors ............................................................................................................................. 9-17
9.8.2.3 Filled and Partially Filled Grid Decks ............................................................................................. 9-17
9-i
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“I had a mother,” replied George simply, “But she was not beautiful
like you. She dressed differently and her legs were fat and strong.”
“There, there!” said the Bishop. But Arabella laughed merrily.
The Bishop told how they had been with nineteen other Bishops and
their families upon a cruise in the steam-yacht Oyster, each Bishop
engaging to preach on Sundays to the lay passengers, and how the
propeller had been broken and they had been carried out of their
course and tossed this way and that, and finally wrecked (he
thought) with the loss of all hands, though the wireless operator had
stuck to his post to the last and managed to get off the tidings of the
calamity with latitude and longitude into the air.
It all conveyed very little to George, but it was an acute pleasure to
him to hear their voices, and as they talked he looked from one to
the other with a happy, friendly smile.
He was very proud to show his island to his visitors, but distressed at
the havoc wrought by the storm, and he apologised for its unusual
behaviour in moving.
“It has never done it before,” he explained, and was rather hurt
because Arabella laughed.
He showed them where, as far as he could remember, his father and
mother lay buried, and he took them to the top of the hill, and to
amuse them caught a goat and a little kind of kangaroo there was in
the forest, and a turtle. He displayed his hammock in the palm tree
and showed how he curled up in it and wedged himself in so as not
to fall out, and promised to prepare two other trees for them. They
demurred. The Bishop asked if he might have the lair, and Arabella
asked George to build her a house. He did not know what a house
was, but looked it up in Tittiker and could find mention only of the
House of Swells and the House of Talk. Arabella made a little house
of sand; he caught the idea and spent the day weaving her a cabin
of palm branches and mud and pebbles. He sang whole passages
from Tittiker as he worked, and when it was finished he led Arabella
to the cabin and she smiled so dazzlingly that he reeled, but quickly
recovered himself, remembered as in a vision how it had been with
his mother, flung his arms round her neck and kissed her, saying:
“I love you.”
“I think we had better look for my father,” said Arabella.

IV: THE SKITISH NAVY

For three nights did the Bishop sleep in the lair and Arabella in her
cabin. A grey scrub grew on the Bishop’s chin, and during the
daytime he instructed George solemnly and heavily as he delivered
himself of his invariable confirmation address,—(on the second day
he baptised George in the creek, and Arabella was delighted to be
his god-mother)—with an eager pride as he told him of the Skitish
Isles where his diocese and the seat of the Empire lay. The United
Kingdom, he said, consisted of four countries, Fatland, Smugland,
Bareland, and Snales, but only Fatland mattered, because the
Fattish absorbed the best of the Smugs and the Barish and the
Snelsh and found jobs for the cleverest of them in Bondon or
Buntown, which was the greatest city in the world. He assured
George that he might go down on his knees and thank God—now
that he was baptised—for having been born a Fattishman, and that if
they ever returned to Bondon he would receive a reward for having
added to the Skitish Empire.
George knew all about the Emperor-King and his family, and liked
the idea of giving his island as a present. He asked the Bishop if he
thought the Emperor-King would give him Arabella.
“That,” said the Bishop, “does not rest with the Emperor-King.”
“But I want her,” answered George.
Thereafter the Bishop was careful never to leave his daughter alone,
so that at last she protested and said she found Mr. Samways very
interesting and was perfectly able to take care of herself.
So she was, and next time George kissed her she gave him a
motherly caress in return and he was more than satisfied; he was in
an ecstasy of happiness and danced to please her and showed her
all the little tricks he had invented to while away the tedium of his
solitude, as lying on his back with a great stone on his feet and
kicking it into the air, and walking on his knees with his feet in his
hands, and thrusting his toe into his mouth. He was downcast when
she asked him not to repeat some of his tricks.
On the fourth day, for want of any other employment, the Bishop
decided to confirm George, who consented willingly when he learned
that Arabella had been confirmed. The ceremony impressed him
greatly, and he had just resolved never to have anything to do with
Original Sin when a terrifying boom broke in upon their solemnity.
Some such noise had preceded the detachment of the island, and
George ran like a goat to the top of the hill, whence, bearing down,
he saw a dark grey vessel belching smoke and casting up a great
wave before and leaving a white spume aft. Also on the side of the
island away from his dwelling he saw two sticks above water, and
knew, from the Bishop’s description, that it must be the steam-yacht
Oyster. He hastened back with the news, and presently the vessel
hove in sight of the beach, and it conceived and bare a little vessel
which put out and came over the waves to the shore. A handsome
man all gold and blue stepped out of the little vessel and planted a
stick with a piece of cloth on it on the sands and said:
“I claim this island for the Skitish Empire.”
“This island,” said the Bishop, “is the property of Mr. George
Samways.”
“Damme,” roared the man in gold and blue, “it isn’t on the chart.”
“Mr. Samways was born here,” said Arabella with the most charming
smile.
“Yes.” George saw the man glance approvingly at Arabella and was
anxious to assert himself. “Yes, I was born on the island, but it broke
loose in a storm.”
The officer roared again, the Bishop protested, the men in the boat
grinned, and at last Arabella took the affair in hand and explained
that her father was the Bishop of Bygn and that they had been in the
ill-fated Oyster.
The officer removed his hat and begged pardon. They had received
messages from the Oyster, but the bearings were wrongly reported.
Sighting land not marked on the chart, they had decided to turn in to
annex it, but, of course, if Mr. Samways were a Skitish subject that
would be unnecessary, and—hum, ha!—All’s well that ends well and
it was extremely fortunate.
Arabella said that Mr. Samways was not only a Skitish subject but a
member of the Church of Fatland, and would be only too pleased to
hand over his island to the Colonial or whatever office might desire
to govern it. Mr. Samways was, so far, the island’s whole permanent
population and would gladly give all particulars. For herself she was
only anxious to return to Fatland, and was excited at the prospect of
travelling on board one of the Emperor-King’s ships of war.
Meanwhile would Mr. ——
“Bich.”
—would Mr. Bich stay to luncheon?
Mr. Bich stayed to luncheon. In the afternoon he made a rough
survey of the island, sounded the surrounding waters, declared that
movement had ceased, and that so far as he could make out the
island was fast on a submarine reef, with which it had collided so
violently that a promontory had cracked and was even now sinking,
and with it the Oyster.
Careful examination of the shore on that side of the island revealed
no more than the bodies of two Lascars, two nailbrushes, a corded
silk hat, a Bible, a keg of rum and five tins of condensed milk. In that
awful shipwreck had perished nineteen Bishops and their families, a
hundred and ten members of the professional and trading classes,
the crew, the captain, mates, and a cat.
They stood there on that wild shore amid the solitude of sea and sky,
the Skitish officer, the Bishop, Arabella, and George Samways, and
their emotions were too deep for words.
V: CAPTAIN COURAGEOUS
The ship lay-to, and, while the Captain and Mr. Bich discussed the
island in the language of their trade, the Bishop, whenever possible,
preached a sermon, or discoursed on the beauties of nature; but
Arabella took George under her protection, had his hair cut and his
beard shaved, and with a smile bought of the youngest sub-
lieutenant a suit of his shore-going clothes, a set of shirts, collars,
and all necessary under-garments. George found them most
uncomfortable, but bore with them for her sake.
As the result of the eloquence of Mr. Bich the Captain went ashore
and returned to report that, the promontory now having sunk to the
depths of the ocean, a very decent harbour had been made and the
island would be valuable to the Empire as a coaling-station. His
pockets were bulging when he came aboard, and Arabella elicited
from Mr. Bich that the island was rich in precious stones and metals,
and that the pebbles of which her cabin had been built were
emeralds and aquamarines such as had never before been seen.
Arabella told her father, and he bade her say nothing, adding
impressively:
“We must protect Mr. Samways’ interests.”
But George was thinking of nothing but the best means of
obliterating Mr. Bich, upon whom it seemed to him that Arabella was
casting a too favourable eye.

VI: HOSTILITIES
As the ship steamed away from the island the smoke of another
vessel was sighted. It was signalled, but no reply was hoisted. There
was great excitement on board and the chief gunner said:
“Let me have a go at them.”
The Captain stood upon the bridge, a figure of calm dignity with a
telescope to his eye. Mr. Bich explained to Arabella and George that
the ship was a Fatter ship, and that the Fatters had lately been
taking islands on the sly without saying anything to anybody,
because they were jealous of the Skitish Empire and wanted to have
one too.
“Do islands make an Empire?” asked George.
“Anything you can get,” replied Mr. Bich.
The Fatter ship was making for the island. After her went the grey
vessel, and it was a nose-to-nose race who should first reach the
harbour. The Fatter ship won. The grey vessel fired a gun. The gig
was lowered and the Captain, looking very grim and determined, put
off in her.... Arabella dropped a pin and it was heard all over the
vessel. It was a relief to all on board when the Bishop knelt and
offered up a prayer for the Captain’s safety. The Amen that came at
the end of it brought the tears to George’s eyes, and his blood ran
cold when it swelled into a cheer as the Captain’s gig broke loose
from the Fatter ship and came tearing over the smooth waters.
The Captain’s face was very white as he stepped on deck and called
Mr. Bich and the other officers to his state-room, and whiter still were
the faces of Mr. Bich and the officers when they left it. The vessel
shook with the vibration of the engines: there was a strange and
stormy muttering among the men: the vessel headed for the open
sea. George was taken to his cabin and locked in. He lay down on
the floor and tried to go to sleep. A roaring and a rumbling and a
banging and a thudding made that impossible. The shaking made
him feel so sick that he wished to die. Near by he could hear
Arabella weeping, and that was more than he could bear. He thrust
and bumped against his door and worked himself into a sweat over
it, but it seemed that it would not give. As he reached the very pit of
despair, the door gave, the floor gave, the walls heaved in upon him;
in one roaring convulsion he was flung up and up and up, and
presently came down and down and down into the sea. It tasted salt
and was cool to his sweating body and he was glad of it.

VII: SIEBENHAAR
He was not glad of it for long, because he soon became very cold
and was nipped to numbness. He assumed that it was the end, and
felt a remote regret for Arabella. Other thought he had none.
When he came to himself he was, or seemed to be, once more in the
room from which he had been so violently propelled, but there were
two men standing near him and talking in a strange tongue.
Presently there came a third man who spoke to him in Fattish.
“Hullo! Thought you were done in,” said the man.
George stared.
“Done in. Dead.”
“Yes, I was.”
The man laughed.
“Funny fellow you are. Eyes just like a baby.”
“Where is Arabella?” asked George. “Where am I?”
“Give you three guesses,” said the man.
“On a ship?”
“Right.”
“The Emperor-King’s ship?”
“No. The King-Emperor’s. You have the honour to be the first
prisoner in the great Fattero-Fattish war.”
“War? What is that?”
“War? You don’t know what war is? Have you never read a
newspaper?”
“I have only read Tittiker. It tells about a War Office, but I never knew
what it was for.”
“My name’s Siebenhaar, engineer and philosophical student, and I
fancy you are the man I have been looking for all my life. You should
be capable of a pure idea....”
“What,” asked George, “is an idea?”
Siebenhaar flung his arms around him and embraced him and
recited a long poem in his own language.
“You shall be presented at the Universities!” he said. “You shall be a
living reproach to all writers, thinkers, artists, and I, Siebenhaar, will
be your humble attendant.”
“Did I say anything unusual?”
“Unusual? Unique! Colossal! The ultimate question! ‘What is war?
What is an idea?’ Ach?”
George insisted on an explanation of the meaning of war, and then
he asked why the Fattish and the Fatters should be intent upon
mutual destruction, and also what the difference between them might
be.
“Difference?” said Siebenhaar. “The Fattish drink beer that you can
hold; the Fatters drink beer that runs through you. That is all there is
to it.”
With that he sent for some Fatter beer and drank a large quantity
himself and made George taste it. He spat it out.
“Is that why they are making war?”
Siebenhaar smacked his lips.
“Man,” he said, “is the creature of his internal organs, almost, I might
say, their slave. The lungs, the heart, the kidneys, the stomach, the
bladder, these control a man, and every day refashion him. If they do
their work well, so does he. If they do it ill, then so does he. Each of
the organs has secretions which periodically choke their interaction,
and bring about a state of ill-humour and discomfort in which the
difference between man and man is accentuated, and their good
relations degenerate into hatred and envy and distrust. At such times
murders are committed and horrible assaults, but frequently
discretion prevails over those desires, suppresses them but does not
destroy them. They accumulate and find expression in war, which
has been led up to by a series of actions on the part of men suffering
from some internal congestion. Modern war, they say, is made by
money, and the lust for it. That is no explanation. No man becomes a
victim of the lust for money except something interferes with his
more natural lusts: no man, I go so far as to say, could so desire
money as to become a millionaire except he were const——”
“But what has this to do with beer?” interrupted George.
“I’m coming to that,” continued Siebenhaar.
“Beer taken in excess is a great getter of secretions, and man is so
vain an animal as to despise those whose secretions differ from his
own. What is more obvious than that the implacable enemies of the
Eastern hemisphere should be those whose drink is so much the
same but so profoundly different in its effects? Internal congestion
may bring about war, but in this war the material is undoubtedly
supplied by beer. And I may add, in support of my theory, that once
war is embarked upon, those engaged in it suffer so terribly from
internal disorganisation as to become unanswerable for their actions,
and so mad as to rejoice in the near prospect of a violent death.
Moltke was notoriously decayed inside and the state of Napoleon’s
internal organs will not bear thinking on.”
George protested that he had never heard of Napoleon or Moltke,
and Siebenhaar was on the point of embracing him, when, muttering
something about Fatter beer, he rose abruptly and left the room.

VIII: MORE OF SIEBENHAAR

“There is a woman aboard,” said Siebenhaar when he returned. “I
suppose you have never seen a woman?”
“Two,” said George simply.
Siebenhaar slapped his leg.
“Have you any theory about them?” he asked.
“Theory? I don’t know what theory is. I loved them. I put my arms
round their necks and rubbed my face against their soft faces. It was
very nice. I should like to do it every night before I go to sleep. I
should like to do it now.”
“You shall,” said Siebenhaar, and he went out and came back with
Arabella.
George leaped from his berth and flung his arms round her neck and
embraced her, and she was so surprised and delighted that she
kissed him, and Siebenhaar wept to see it.
“I don’t know who you are, madam,” he said, “but if I were you I
should stick to that young man like a barnacle to a ship’s bottom. I
would creep into his heart and curl up in it like a grub in a ripe
raspberry, and I would go down on my knees and thank Heaven for
having sent me the one man in the modern world who may be
capable of a genuine and constant affection. You have him, madam,
straight from his mother’s arms, with a soul, a heart, as virgin as I
hope your own are.”
Arabella disengaged herself from George’s now ardent embrace,
drew herself up, and with the haughtiness of her race, said:
“My father was a bishop of the Church of Fatland.”
“That,” said Siebenhaar, “does not exempt you from the normal
internal economy of your sex or its need of the (perfectly honest)
love of the opposite sex. My point is that you have here an unrivalled
opportunity of meeting an honest love, and I implore you to take it.”
“I would have you know,” retorted Arabella, “that I am engaged to my
late father’s chaplain.”
“War,” said Siebenhaar, “is war, and I should advise you to seek
protection where it is offered.”
“If you would hold my hand in yours,” said George to Arabella, “I
think I should sleep now. I am so tired.”
Arabella held George’s hand and in two minutes he was asleep.

IX: SIEBENHAAR ON WOMEN

“There are some,” said Siebenhaar, “who regard women as a
disease, a kind of fungoid distortion of the human form. But only the
very lowest species are hermaphrodite, and the higher seem to be
split up into male and female for the purpose of reproduction without
temporary loss of efficiency in the task of procuring food. The share
of the male in the act of reproduction is soon over, and among the
wisest inhabitants of the globe the male is destroyed as soon as his
share is performed. Human beings are not very wise: they have an
exaggerated idea of their importance; and they are reluctant to
destroy the life of their kind except in occasional outbursts of
organised homicide such as that on which we are now engaged. The
share of the female entails the devotion of many months, during
which she needs the protection of the male, whom, for that reason,
and also because she hopes to repeat the performance, she retains
by every art at her disposal. Hence has arisen the institution of
marriage, which pledges the male to the protection of the female and
their offspring. Whether a moral principle is engaged in this
institution is a question upon which philosophers cannot agree. It is
therefore left out of most systems of philosophy. Mine is based on
my answer to it, which is that there is no moral principle engaged.
Morality is for the few who are capable of it. Few men have the
capacity for ideas, but all men love women, except a few miserable
degenerates, who prefer a substitute. There is no idea in marriage. It
is an expedient. Sensible communities admit of open relief from it; in
duller communities relief has to be sought in the byways. And still no
moral principle is engaged. It is a matter only of supplying the
necessities of human nature. Now, love is a different affair
altogether. Love is an idea, a direct inspiration. It alone can
transcend the tyranny of the internal organs and lead a man not only
to perceive his limitations but within them to create beauty, and
creative a man must be directly he becomes aware of the heat of
love in the heart of a woman. There is no other such purging fire,
none that can so illuminate the dark places of the world or so
concentrate and distil such lightness as there is. All evil, I have said,
comes from congestion; to release the good a purge is necessary,
and there is no purge like woman. Therefore, madam, I do most
solemnly charge you to tend the fire of love in your heart. Never
again will you find a man so sensible to its warmth—(most men can
see no difference between love and indigestion)—Oh, madam,
discard all thoughts of marriage, which is an expedient of prudence,
which is cowardice, of modesty, which is a lure, of innocence, which
in an adult female is a lie, to the winds, do exactly as you feel
inclined to do, and love. Madam ——”
But by this Arabella was asleep. She had sunk back against George,
her lovely tresses lay upon his shoulder, and her hand clasped his.
Siebenhaar wiped away a tear, heaved a great sigh, took his beer-
mug in his hand and crept away on tip-toe.

X: LOVE

XI: MUSIC
On deck was a band playing dirge-like dragging hymns, for the
Admiral of that ship was a very pious man and believed that the
Almighty was personally directing the war against the enemies of
Fatterland, and would be encouraged to hear that ship’s company
taking him seriously.
No sooner did Siebenhaar set foot on deck than he was arrested.
The Chaplain had listened to every word of his discourse and
reported it to the Admiral, who detested Siebenhaar because he was
always laughing and was very popular with the crew. Word for word
the Chaplain had quoted Siebenhaar’s sayings, so that he could
deny nothing but only protest that it was purely a private matter, a
series of opinions and advice given gratuitously to an interesting
couple.
“Nothing,” roared the Admiral, “is given to the enemies of our
country.”
“We are all human,” said Siebenhaar. “I was carried away by the
discovery of human feeling amid the callousness of this pompous
war.”
The Admiral went pale. The Chaplain shuddered. The officers hid
their faces.
“He has spoken against God’s holy war,” said the Chaplain.
“That’s all my eye,” said Siebenhaar. “Why drag God into it? You are
making war simply because you have so many ships that you are
ashamed not to use them. The armament companies want to build
more ships and can invent no other way of getting rid of them.”
“God has given us ships of war,” said the Chaplain, “even as He has
given us the good grain and the fish of the sea. Who are we that we
should not use them?”
The sub-Chaplain had been sent to discover the effect of
Siebenhaar’s advice upon the enemies of Fatterland. The accused
had just opened his mouth to resume his defence when the sub-
Chaplain returned and whispered into the ear of his chief.
“God help us all!” cried the Chaplain. “They are desecrating His
ship!”
There was a whispered consultation. George and Arabella were
brought before the court, and if George was the object of general
execration, Arabella won the admiration of all eyes, especially the
Admiral’s, who regarded his affections as his own particular, private
and peculiar devil and was now tempted by him. The Chaplain held
forth at great length; the Admiral grunted in apostrophe. Only
Siebenhaar could interpret. He said:
“They say we have blasphemed their God of War. I by giving advice,
you by acting on it. It is not good to be fortunate and favoured among
hundreds of mateless males. It will go hard with us.”
“And Arabella?” asked George.
“They will keep Arabella,” replied Siebenhaar.
They were silenced.
A boat was stocked with corned beef, biscuits, and water. George
and Siebenhaar were placed in it and it was lowered. The band
resumed its playing of dirge-like dragging hymns, and through the
wailing of the oboes and the cornet-à-piston George could hear the
sobs of Arabella.
XII: ADRIFT
“Now,” said Siebenhaar, “you have an opportunity to exercise your
national prerogative and rule the waves.”
George made no reply. His internal organs were supplying him with
an illustration of Siebenhaar’s theory. The waves did just as they
liked with the boat, sent it spinning in one direction, wrenched it back
in another, slipped from under it, picked it up again and every now
and then playfully sent a drenching spray over its occupants.
Siebenhaar talked, sang and slept, and, when he was doing none of
these things, ate voraciously.
“I insist on dying with a full stomach,” he said when George
protested.
George ate and slept and thought of Arabella, when he could think at
all.
“Death,” said Siebenhaar, “must be very surprising: but then, so is
life when you penetrate its disguises and discover its immutability.
We hate death only because it is impossible to pretend that it is
something else, so that it comes at the end of the comedy to give us
the lie. After this experience I think I shall change my philosophy and
seek the truth of life with the light of death. You never know: it might
become fashionable. Women like their thoughts ready-made, and
they like them bizarre. Women are undoubtedly superior to men....”
But by this time George was in such a state of discomfort that he lay
flat on his face in the bottom of the boat and groaned:
“I am going to die.”
“Eat,” said Siebenhaar, “eat and drink.” And he offered corned beef
and water.
“I want to die,” moaned George, and he wept because death would
not come at once. He hid his face in his hands and howled and
roared. Siebenhaar himself ate the corned beef and drank the water,
and went on eating and drinking until he had exhausted all their
supply. Then he curled up in the bows and went to sleep and snored.
And the waves changed their mood and gave the boat only a gentle
rocking.
George opened his eyes and gazed up into the sky. It was night and
the stars were shining brilliantly. Red and yellow and white they were
and they danced above him. He was astonished to find that he did
not wish to die. He was very hungry. He crawled over to Siebenhaar
and shook him and woke him up.
There was neither food nor water in the locker.
“In the great cities of the civilised world,” said Siebenhaar, “there are
occasional performers who go without food for forty days. We shall
see.”
“I am thirsty,” whimpered George.
“Those occasional performers,” returned Siebenhaar, “drink water
and smoke cigarettes, and they are sheltered from the elements by
walls of glass. We shall see.”
With that he turned over and went to sleep again.

XIII: HUNGER
George’s face was sunk and his eyes glared. Siebenhaar tried to
spit into the sea, but it was impossible. He was daunted into silence.
Another day began to dawn.
“If this goes on,” said George in a dry whistling croak of a voice, “I
shall eat you.”
And he glared so at Siebenhaar’s throat that the philosopher turned
up his coat collar to cover it.

XIV: MILITARY
At dawn a shower of rain came. They collected water in George’s
boots. They had already eaten Siebenhaar’s.
Thus revived, George stood up, and on the edge of the sea saw blue
land and little white sails. They came nearer and nearer, and
presently they were delivered by a little vessel that contained one
white man and ten negroes. Neither George nor Siebenhaar could
speak, but they pointed to their bellies and were given to eat.
“I recant,” said Siebenhaar. “There is nothing to be learnt from death,
for death is nothing. The stomach is lord of life and master of the
world.”
With that he recounted their adventures and the reason for their
being in such a woeful plight. The master of the ship, on learning that
Siebenhaar was a Fatter, said that he must deliver him up as a
prisoner when they reached Cecilia, the capital of the Fattish colony
which they would see as soon as the fleet—for it was a fishing fleet
—turned into the bay.
“As a Philosopher,” said Siebenhaar, “I have no nationality. As an
engineer—but I am no longer an engineer. The Admiral and the
Chaplain will have seen to that. My life is now devoted to Mr.
Samways, as in a certain narrower sense it has nearly been.” And he
told the master of the ship how George was by birth the proprietor of
the island in dispute between the two nations, and how the island
shone with precious stones and glittered with a mountain of gold.
The master’s cupidity was aroused, and he agreed to grant
Siebenhaar his liberty on the promise of a rich reward at the
conclusion of the war. He was a Fattishman, and could not believe
that there would be any other end than a Fattish triumph.
A pact was signed and they sailed into Cecilia, the governor of which
colony was Siebenhaar’s cousin and delighted to see him and to
have a chance of talking the Fatter language and indulging in
philosophical speculations for which his Fattish colleagues had no
taste. He welcomed George warmly on his first entry in a civilised
land, and was delighted to instruct him in the refinements of Fattish
manners: how you did not eat peas or gravy with your knife, and how
(roughly speaking) no portion of the body between the knees and
shoulders might be mentioned in polite society, and how sneezing
and coughing and the like sudden affections were to be checked or
disguised. George talked of Arabella and the wonderful stir of the
emotions she had caused in him. Colonel Sir Gerard Schweinfleisch
(for that was his name) was greatly shocked, and told how in the
best Fattish society all talk of love was forbidden, left by the men to
the women, and how among men the emotions were never
discussed, and how, since it was impossible to avoid all mention of
that side of life, men in civilisation had invented a system of droll
stories which both provided amusement and put a stop to the
embarrassment of intimate revelations.
However, as George’s vigour was restored by the good food he ate
in enormous quantities, he could not forbear to think of Arabella or to
talk of her. He spoke quite simply of her to a company of officers,
and they roared with laughter and found it was the best story they
had ever heard.
When the officers were not telling droll stories, they were playing
cards or ball games or boasting one against the other or talking
about money.
George asked what money was, and they showed him some. He
was disappointed. He had expected something much more
remarkable because they had been so excited about it. They told
him he must have money, and Colonel Sir Gerard Schweinfleisch
gave him a sovereign. A man in the street asked George to lend him
a sovereign and George gave it to him. The officers were highly
amused.
The adventurers had not been in Cecilia above a week when the
town was besieged and presently bombarded. Except that there was
a shortage of food and that every day at least thirty persons were
killed, there was no change in the life of the place. The officers told
droll stories and played cards or ball games or boasted one against
the other or talked about money. They ate, drank, slept, and
quarrelled, and George found them not so very much unlike himself
except that he was serious about his love for Arabella, while they
laughed. He asked Siebenhaar what civilisation was. Said the
philosopher with a wave of his hand:
“They have built a lot of houses.”
“But the ships out there are knocking them down.”
“They have made railways from one town to another.”
“But the black men have torn the railways up.” (For the native tribes
had risen.)
Said Siebenhaar:
“No one can define civilisation. It means doing things.”
“Why?”
“Thou art the greatest of men,” replied Siebenhaar, and his face
beamed approbation and love upon his friend. But to put an
unanswerable question to Siebenhaar was to set him off on his
theories.
“First,” he said, “the stomach must be fed. Two men working together
can procure more food than two men working separately. That is as
far as we have got. Until the two men trust each other we are not
likely to get any further. Until then they will steal each other’s tools,
goods, women, and squabble over the proceeds of their work and
make the world a hell for the young. When one man steals or
murders it is a crime: when forty million men steal, murder, rape,
burn, destroy, pillage, sack, oppress, they are making glorious
history, a lot of money, and, if they like to call it so, an Empire. But
Empire and petty thefts are both occasioned by the lamentable
distrust of the two men of our postulate.”
“But for Arabella,” said George, “I could wish I had never left my
island.”
News of the war came dribbling in. The island had been twice
captured by the Fatter fleet, and twice it had been evacuated. The
Fatters had suffered defeat in their home waters but had gained a
victory in the Indian seas. Came news that the island had again been
captured, then the tidings that the whole of the Fatter fleet and army
was to be concentrated upon Cecilia and the colony of which it was
the capital.
“Why?” asked George.
“Because a new reef of gold has been discovered up-country.”
The bombardment grew very fierce. From the mountain above the
town ships of war could be seen coming from all directions, and
some of them were Fattish ships, but not enough as yet to come to
grips with the Fatter fleet.
The inland frontiers were attacked but held, though with frightful loss
of life. Then one night from the Fatter fleet came a landing party, and
Colonel Sir Gerard Schweinfleisch called a council of war, and the
officers sat from ten o’clock until three in the morning debating what
had best be done.
At half-past one the landing party were only a mile away. A shell
burst in the street as George was walking to his lodging and three
men were killed in front of him. It was the first time he had seen such
a thing. It froze his blood. He gave a yell that roused the whole town,
ran, was followed by a crowd of riff-raff seizing weapons as they
went, and rushed down upon the enemy, who had stopped for a
moment to see two dogs fighting in the road. They were taken by
surprise and utterly routed.
There is no more rousing episode in the whole military history of
Fatland. George was for three days the hero of the Empire. He
received by wireless telegraphy countless offers of marriage, ten
proposals from music-hall engagements, and by cable a demand for
the story of the fight from the noble proprietor of a Sunday
newspaper. It was impossible to persuade that noble proprietor that
there was no extant photograph of Mr. Samways, and a fortune was
spent in cablegrams in the fruitless attempts to do so.

XV: NAVAL
As it turned out the concentration on Cecilia was a fatal tactical error,
directly traceable to the King-Emperor, who had never left the capital
of Fatterland and had been misled by certain telegrams which had
been wrongly deciphered. The entire Fattish navy was collected
upon the bombarding fleet and utterly destroyed it.
George and Siebenhaar watched the engagement from the mountain
above Cecilia. It was almost humorous to see the huge vessels
curtsey to the water and so disappear. It was astonishing to see the
Fattish admiral surround nine of his own vessels and cause them
also to curtsey and disappear.
“What in hell,” said George, who had by now learned the nature of
an oath, “what in hell is he doing that for?”
“That,” said Siebenhaar, “is for the benefit of the armament
contractors. A war without loss of ships is no use to them.”
And suddenly George burst into tears, because he had thought of all
the men on board, and was overcome with the futility of it all and the
feeling that he was partially to blame for having been born on his
island.

XVI: NATIONAL
The Fattish are an emotional race. They had overcome the Fatters,
and the only outstanding hero of that war was George. They insisted
on seeing George. They clamoured for him. They sent a cruiser to
fetch him from Cecilia, and the commander of that cruiser was none
other than Mr. Bich, who had won promotion.
His astonishment was no less great than George’s, but his
adventures were less interesting. After the destruction of the ship he
had been saved by a turtle which had been attracted by his brass
buttons and had allowed him to ride on his back so long as they
lasted. He had had to give it one every twenty minutes, and had just
come to his last when he was seen and rescued. He had thought
himself the only survivor, and when he heard that Arabella also had
been delivered from the waves there came into his eye a gleam
which George did not like.
The voyage was quite monotonously uneventful and George was
glad when they reached Fatland. The Mayor, Corporation, and
Citizens, also dogs and children, of the port at which he landed,
turned out to meet him; he was given the freedom of the borough,
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