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Yunzhi Zou
Multi-Variable Calculus
Also of Interest
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Fractional Calculus in Applied Sciences and Engineering

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ISSN 2509-7210
Yunzhi Zou

Multi-Variable
Calculus

|
A First Step
Mathematics Subject Classification 2010
Primary: 26B12, 26B20, 26B15; Secondary: 26B05, 26B10

Author
Prof. Yunzhi Zou
Department of Mathematics
Sichuan University
610065 Chengdu
People’s Republic of China
[email protected]

ISBN 978-3-11-067414-9
e-ISBN (PDF) 978-3-11-067437-8
e-ISBN (EPUB) 978-3-11-067443-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019953764

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de.

© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston

Cover image: shulz/iStock/Getty Images Plus
Typesetting: VTeX UAB, Lithuania
Printing and binding: CPI books GmbH, Leck

www.degruyter.com
Contents
Introduction | IX

1 Vectors and the geometry of space | 1

1.1 Vectors | 1
1.1.1 Concepts of vectors | 1
1.1.2 Linear operations involving vectors | 2
1.1.3 Coordinate systems in three-dimensional space | 3
1.1.4 Representing vectors using coordinates | 5
1.1.5 Lengths, direction angles | 7
1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product | 9
1.2.1 The dot product | 9
1.2.2 Projections | 12
1.2.3 The cross product | 13
1.2.4 Scalar triple product | 17
1.3 Equations of lines and planes | 18
1.3.1 Lines | 18
1.3.2 Planes | 23
1.4 Curves and vector-valued functions | 30
1.5 Calculus of vector-valued functions | 32
1.5.1 Limits, derivatives, and tangent vectors | 32
1.5.2 Antiderivatives and definite integrals | 35
1.5.3 Length of curves, curvatures, TNB frame | 37
1.6 Surfaces in space | 42
1.6.1 Graph of an equation F (x, y, z) = 0 | 42
1.6.2 Cylinder | 44
1.6.3 Quadric surfaces | 46
1.6.4 Surface of revolution | 46
1.7 Parameterized surfaces | 49
1.8 Intersecting surfaces and projection curves | 50
1.9 Regions bounded by surfaces | 56
1.10 Review | 57
1.11 Exercises | 59
1.11.1 Vectors | 59
1.11.2 Lines and planes in space | 60
1.11.3 Curves and surfaces in space | 61

2 Functions of multiple variables | 65

2.1 Functions of multiple variables | 65
2.1.1 Definitions | 65
2.1.2 Graphs and level curves | 67
VI | Contents

2.1.3 Functions of more than two variables | 69

2.1.4 Limits | 70
2.1.5 Continuity | 75
2.2 Partial derivatives | 76
2.2.1 Definition | 76
2.2.2 Interpretations of partial derivatives | 80
2.2.3 Partial derivatives of higher order | 82
2.3 Total differential | 83
2.3.1 Linearization and differentiability | 83
2.3.2 The total differential | 89
2.3.3 The linear/differential approximation | 90
2.4 The chain rule | 92
2.4.1 The chain rule with one independent variable | 92
2.4.2 The chain rule with more than one independent variable | 94
2.4.3 Partial derivatives for abstract functions | 97
2.5 The Taylor expansion | 98
2.6 Implicit differentiation | 101
2.6.1 Functions implicitly defined by a single equation | 101
2.6.2 Functions defined implicitly by systems of equations | 103
2.7 Tangent lines and tangent planes | 106
2.7.1 Tangent lines and normal planes to a curve | 106
2.7.2 Tangent planes and normal lines to a surface | 109
2.8 Directional derivatives and gradient vectors | 113
2.9 Maximum and minimum values | 122
2.9.1 Extrema of functions of two variables | 122
2.9.2 Lagrange multipliers | 130
2.10 Review | 136
2.11 Exercises | 138
2.11.1 Functions of two variables | 138
2.11.2 Partial derivatives and differentiability | 139
2.11.3 Chain rules and implicit differentiation | 140
2.11.4 Tangent lines/planes, directional derivatives | 141
2.11.5 Maximum/minimum problems | 142

3 Multiple integrals | 145

3.1 Definition and properties | 145
3.2 Double integrals in rectangular coordinates | 150
3.3 Double integral in polar coordinates | 157
3.4 Change of variables formula for double integrals | 161
3.5 Triple integrals | 165
3.5.1 Triple integrals in rectangular coordinates | 165
3.5.2 Cylindrical and spherical coordinates | 175
 Contents | VII

3.6 Change of variables in triple integrals | 179

3.7 Other applications of multiple integrals | 181
3.7.1 Surface area | 181
3.7.2 Center of mass, moment of inertia | 187
3.8 Review | 188
3.9 Exercises | 191
3.9.1 Double integrals | 191
3.9.2 Triple integrals | 192
3.9.3 Other applications of multiple integrals | 193

4 Line and surface integrals | 195

4.1 Line integral with respect to arc length | 195
4.1.1 Definition and properties | 196
4.1.2 Evaluating a line integral, ∫C f (x, y)ds, in ℝ2 | 197
4.1.3 Line integrals ∫C f (x, y, z)ds in ℝ3 | 199
4.2 Line integral of a vector field | 201
4.2.1 Vector fields | 201
4.2.2 The line Integral of a vector field along a curve C | 202
4.3 The fundamental theorem of line integrals | 208
4.4 Green’s theorem: circulation-curl form | 216
4.4.1 Positive oriented simple curve and simply connected region | 216
4.4.2 Circulation around a closed curve | 217
4.4.3 Circulation density | 217
4.4.4 Green’s theorem: circulation-curl form | 219
4.4.5 Applications of Green’s theorem in circulation-curl form | 222
4.5 Green’s theorem: flux-divergence form | 231
4.5.1 Flux | 231
4.5.2 Flux density – divergence | 232
4.5.3 The divergence-flux form of Green’s theorem | 233
4.6 Source-free vector fields | 235
4.7 Surface integral with respect to surface area | 237
4.8 Surface integrals of vector fields | 241
4.8.1 Orientable surfaces | 241
4.8.2 Flux integral ∬S (F ⋅ N)dS | 242
4.9 Divergence theorem | 248
4.9.1 Divergence of a three-dimensional vector field | 248
4.9.2 Divergence theorem | 250
4.10 Stokes theorem | 256
4.10.1 The curl of a three-dimensional vector field | 256
4.10.2 Stokes theorem | 258
4.11 Review | 265
VIII | Contents

4.12 Exercises | 268

4.12.1 Line integrals | 268
4.12.2 Surface integrals | 269

5 Introduction to ordinary differential equations | 273

5.1 Introduction | 273
5.2 First-order ODEs | 275
5.2.1 General and particular solutions and direction fields | 275
5.2.2 Separable differential equations | 277
5.2.3 Substitution methods | 279
5.2.4 Exact differential equations | 281
5.2.5 First-order linear differential equations | 283
5.3 Second-order ODEs | 287
5.3.1 Reducible second-order equations | 287
5.3.2 Second-order linear differential equations | 291
5.3.3 Variation of parameters | 307
5.4 Other ways of solving differential equations | 308
5.4.1 Power series method | 309
5.4.2 Numerical approximation: Euler’s method | 310
5.5 Review | 313
5.6 Exercises | 315
5.6.1 Introduction to differential equations | 315
5.6.2 First-order differential equations | 315
5.6.3 Second-order differential equations | 316

Further reading | 319

Index | 321
Introduction
Calculus has been widely applied to an incredible number of disciplines since its
inception in the seventeenth century. In particular, the marvelous Maxwell equa-
tions revealed the laws that govern electric and magnetic fields, which led to the
forecasting of the existence of the electromagnetic waves. The industrial revolution
witnessed the many applications of calculus. The power of calculus never diminishes,
even in today’s scientific world. For this reason, there is no doubt that calculus is one
of the most important courses for undergraduate students at any university in the
world.
On the other hand, during the past century, especially since the 2000s, many Chi-
nese and other non-English speaking people have gone to English speaking countries
to further their studies, and more are on their way. Also, as global cooperations and
communications become important for people to tackle big problems, there are needs
for people to know and understand each other better. Fortunately, Sichuan University
has a long history of global connections. Its summer immersion program is well known
for its size and popularity. Each year, it sends and hosts thousands of students from
different parts of the world. We believe that there are other similar situations where
students come and go to different places or countries without disrupting their studies.
For those students, a suitable textbook is helpful.
However, there are many challenges in developing such a suitable book. First of
all, for most freshmen whose English is not their first language, the textbook should
employ English as plain as possible. Second, the textbook should take into account
what students have learned in high school and what they need in a calculus course.
Third, there must be a smooth transition from the local standards to those globally
accepted. Furthermore, such a book must have some new insights to inject new energy
into the many already existing texts. This includes, but is not limited to, addressing
discovery over rote learning; being as concise as possible while covering the essential
content required by most local and global universities; and being printed in color as
most texts in English are. The book Single Variable Calculus: A First Step, which was
the first such calculus text in China, has provided a response to these challenges since
it was published by the World Publishing Company in 2015 and by De Gruyter in 2018.
The present book, Multivariable calculus: a first step, makes sure that these efforts
continue.
With more than 10 years in teaching calculus courses to students at the Wu Yu-
zhang honors college at Sichuan University, I have had the chance to work with local
students using books and resource materials in English. We adopted or referred stu-
dents to many calculus books, for example Thomas’ Calculus, 10th edition, by Finney,
Weir, and Giordano; Calculus, 5th edition, by Stewart; Calculus, by Larson, Edwards,
and Hosteltle; Calculus: Ideas and Applications, by Himonnas and Howard; Calculus:
Early Transcendentals, 2nd edition, by Briggs, Cochran, and Gillett; and other books in

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110674378-201
X | Introduction

Chinese, including the calculus books published by the Mathematics departments at

Sichuan University and Tongji University. They are all good textbooks, and I acknowl-
edge that I was inspired much by them, not only by their structure that builds the
contents, but also by the nice problems that enhance understanding. Most of the ex-
ercises in this text were developed over the past decade. My many teaching assistants
contributed a lot by helping create or collecting resources in the past years. Among
them are Zengbao Wu, Liang Li, Mengxin Li, Bo Qian, Xi Zhu, and Yang Yang. Most of
the exercises were inspired by the books mentioned before. Some are original, while
others we think original may be similar to those found in existing books or other re-
sources. Those are usually classic problems and can be found in many places.
My thanks also go to students in the years of 2015, 2016, 2017, and 2018 at Wu
Yuzhang College who helped proofread the manuscript or notes and provided use-
ful feedback. I also appreciate my wonderful colleagues Wengui Hu, Li Ren, and Hao
Wang, who worked with me teaching calculus using the early versions of this book. In
particular, Wengui contributed many good problems. I received valuable suggestions
from my dear friend Dr. Harold Reiter at UNCC and Dr. Wenyuan Liao at the University
of Calgary, who always lends me a hand in solving problems arising in using LaTeX or
MATLAB. Professor Xiaozhan Xu provided me with many excellent PPTs and anima-
tions for teaching the course.
My special thanks go to my dear friend Dr. Jonathan Kane, whose talents in math-
ematics and English improved the manuscript a lot, with thorough and professional
edits. Also the ideas of adding contents such as moment of inertia, the torus problem,
and solving simple PDEs were due to Jon.
I enjoyed very much working with the wonderful people mentioned above. I am
sure that without them this book would not have achieved this level. The following
list is in alphabetical order.

1. Dr. Wengui Hu, Associate Professor of Mathematics

Sichuan University, China
2. Dr. Jonathan Kane, Emeritus Professor of Mathematics
University of Wisconsin, Whitewalter, USA
3. Dr. Wenyuan Liao, Associate Professor of Mathematics
University of Calgary, Canada
4. Dr. Harold Reiter, Professor of Mathematics,
University of North Carolina at Charlotte, USA
5. Dr. Li Ren, Associate Professor of Mathematics
Sichuan University, China
6. Dr. Hao Wang, Associate Professor of Mathematics
Sichuan University, China
7. Mr. Xiaozhan Xu, Professor of Mathematics
Sichuan University, China
 Introduction | XI

8. Mr. Zengbao Wu, Mr. Liang Li, Ms. Mengxin Li, Mr. Bo Qian, Mr. Xi Zhu, Mr. Yang
Yang, and Mr. Yi Guo
Graduate students working as teacher assistants

I also would like to thank my Mathematics department and the academic affairs of-
fice at Sichuan University. I always have their encouragement and generous support,
which make me happy to devote time and energy in writing this book and make the
publication of the work possible.
We have been working hard on this version; however, there might still be typos
and even mistakes. The responsibility for those errors in this book lie entirely with
me. I will be happy to receive comments and feedback anytime whenever they arise.
I can be reached via [email protected].

Sincerely,
Yunzhi Zou
Professor of Mathematics
Sichuan University
Chengdu, P.R. China
[email protected]
610065
1 Vectors and the geometry of space
In this chapter we introduce vectors and coordinate systems for three-dimensional
space. They are very helpful in our study of multivariable calculus. In particular, vec-
tors provide simple descriptions and insight concerning curves and planes. We also
introduce some surfaces in space. The graph of a function of two variables is a surface
in space which gives additional insight into the properties of the function.

1.1 Vectors
1.1.1 Concepts of vectors

The term vector is used to indicate a quantity that has both a magnitude and a di-
rection, for instance, displacement, acceleration, velocity, and force. Scientists often
represent a vector geometrically by an arrow (a directed line segment). The arrow of
the directed line segment points in the direction of the vector, while the length of the
arrow represents the magnitude of the vector. We denote vectors by letters that have
→󳨀 →󳨀 → 󳨀 󳨀
an arrow overbar, such as → 󳨀a , b , i , k ,→
v . For example, suppose an object moves along
a straight line from point A to point B. The vector s⃗ representing this displacement geo-
metrically has initial point A (the tail) and terminal point B (the head), and we indicate
󳨀󳨀→
this by writing s⃗ = AB (as shown in Figure 1.1(a)). We also denote vectors by printing
the letters in boldface, such as a, b, i, k, v. In this book, we use both notations. We de-
note the magnitude (also called the length) of a vector a⃗ (or a) by |a|⃗ (or |a|). If |a|⃗ = 1,
then we say that a⃗ is a unit vector.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.1: Vectors, addition, scalar multiplication, and subtraction.

We say that two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ are equivalent (or equal) if they have the same length
and the same direction, and we write a⃗ = b.⃗ Note that two vectors with the same length
and direction are considered equal even when the vectors are in two different loca-
tions. The zero vector, denoted by 0⃗ or 0, has length 0, and, consequently, it is the

https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110674378-001
2 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

only vector with no specific direction. If nonzero vectors a⃗ and b⃗ have the same direc-
tion or if a⃗ has exactly the opposite direction to that of b,⃗ then we say that they are
parallel, and we write a⃗ ‖ b.⃗

1.1.2 Linear operations involving vectors

We assume that vectors considered here can be represented by directed line segments
or arrows in two-dimensional space, ℝ2 , or three-dimensional space, ℝ3 . However,
vectors can be defined much more generally without reference to the directed line seg-
ments.

Definition 1.1.1 (Vector addition). If a⃗ and b⃗ are vectors positioned so the initial point of b⃗ is at the
terminal point of a,⃗ then the sum a⃗ + b⃗ is the vector from the initial point of a⃗ to the terminal point of b.⃗

This definition of vector addition is illustrated in Figure 1.1(b), and you can see why
this definition is sometimes called the triangle law or parallelogram law.

Note. If the initial point of b⃗ is not at the terminal point of a,⃗ then a copy of b⃗ (same
length and direction) can be made with its initial point at the terminal point of a,⃗ and
the sum can be created using a⃗ and this copy of b.⃗

Vector addition satisfies the following laws for any three vectors a,⃗ b,⃗ c:⃗
(1) Commutative law: a⃗ + b⃗ = b⃗ + a.⃗
(2) Associative law: (a⃗ + b)⃗ + c⃗ = a⃗ + (b⃗ + c).
⃗

Definition 1.1.2 (Scalar multiplication, negative of a vector). If λ is a scalar (a number) and a⃗ is a vec-
tor, then the scalar multiple λa⃗ is also a vector. If λ > 0, then λa⃗ has the same direction as the vector
a⃗ and has length λ times the length of → 󳨀a . If λ < 0, then λa⃗ has the reverse direction to the direction
of a⃗ and has length that is |λ| times the length of → a . If λ = 0 or a⃗ = 0⃗ (zero vector), then λa⃗ = 0.⃗
󳨀
In particular, the vector −a⃗ is called the negative of a,⃗ and it means the scalar multiple (−1)a⃗ has the
same length as a⃗ but points in the opposite direction.

Scalar multiplication satisfies the following laws for any two vectors a,⃗ b⃗ and any
two scalars λ, μ:
(3) Associative law: λ(μa)⃗ = (λμ)a⃗ = μ(λa).⃗
(4) Distributive laws: (λ + μ)a⃗ = λa⃗ + μa⃗ and λ(a⃗ + b)⃗ = λa⃗ + λb.⃗

By the distributive law (4) b⃗ + (−b)⃗ = 1b⃗ + (−1)b⃗ = (1 − 1)b⃗ = 0,⃗ so b⃗ and −b⃗ act as
negatives of each other. Also, we can see that two nonzero vectors are parallel to each
other if they are scalar multiples of one another. The zero vector is considered to be
parallel to all other vectors. It is easy to establish the following theorem.
 1.1 Vectors | 3

Theorem 1.1.1. Suppose a⃗ and b⃗ are two nonzero vectors. Then a⃗ ‖ b⃗ if and only if there exists a number
λ ≠ 0 such that a⃗ = λb.⃗

The difference or subtraction a⃗ − b⃗ of two vectors is defined in terms of a vector sum as

a⃗ − b⃗ = a⃗ + (−b).
⃗

Hence, we can construct a⃗ − b⃗ geometrically by first drawing the negative −b⃗ of b,⃗
and then adding −b⃗ to a⃗ using the parallelogram law as in Figure 1.1(d). This shows
that the vector a⃗ − b⃗ is the vector from the head of b⃗ to the head of a.⃗ The operation
of subtracting two vectors does not satisfy the commutative law (1) or the associative
law (2), but it does satisfy the distributive law (4), λ(a⃗ − b)⃗ = λa⃗ − λb.⃗

1.1.3 Coordinate systems in three-dimensional space

To locate a point in a plane in a two-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system with

perpendicular x- and y-axes, two numbers or coordinates are necessary, and this is
why a plane is called two-dimensional. That is, the point can be represented as an
ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers where the x-coordinate, a, is the directed distance
from the y-axis to the point, and the y-coordinate, b, is the directed distance from the
x-axis to the point.
To locate a point in three-dimensional space, three coordinates are required. We
start with a fixed point, O, called the origin. We then draw three number lines that
all pass through O and are perpendicular to each other. Usually, we put two number
lines: one horizontal and one vertical. We call the three number lines the coordinate
axes and label them as the x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis in a way that satisfies the
right-hand rule. This rule helps determine the direction of the z-axis. If you curl your
right-hand fingers naturally in a 90° rotation from the positive x-axis to the positive
y-axis, then the direction that your thumb points is the positive direction of the z-axis,
as shown in Figure 1.2(a). The three axes determine three coordinate planes called
the xy-plane, the xz-plane, and the yz-plane, as shown in Figure 1.2(b). Therefore, the

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.2: Three-dimensional coordinate system, axes, coordinate planes, and octants.
4 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

space is divided into eight octants. We label them the first octant, the second octant,
the third octant, the fourth octant, the fifth octant, the six octant, the seventh octant,
and the eighth octant in a way that is shown in Figure 1.2(c).
To locate a point P in space, we project the point onto the three coordinate planes.
If the directed distance from the yz-plane to the point P is a, the directed distance
from the xz-plane to the point P is b, and the directed distance from the xy-plane to
the point P is c, then we say that the point P has x-coordinate a, y-coordinate b, and
z-coordinate c, and we use the ordered triple (a, b, c) to represent these coordinates.
This can be seen by drawing a rectangular box where O and P are two end points of the
main diagonal, as shown in Figure 1.3(a). This coordinate system is called the three-
dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. For example, to locate the point with coor-
dinates (1, 2, −1), we start from the origin and go along the x-axis for 1 unit; then turn
left and go parallel to the y-axis for 2 units; then go downward for 1 unit arriving at
(1, 2, −1), which is in the fifth octant as shown in Figure 1.3(b).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.3: Three-dimensional coordinate system, coordinates, points, distance between two points.

Note that there is a one-to-one correspondence between points in the space and the
set of all ordered triples (a, b, c). Sometimes, we use ℝ3 to denote the Cartesian product
ℝ × ℝ × ℝ = {(x, y, z)|x, y, z ∈ ℝ}.

Distance between two points in space

In a two-dimensional plane, by using the Pythagorean theorem, we have the following
formula for the distance between two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in the plane:

distance between two points d = √(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 .

In three-dimensional space, for any two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ), we have a
rectangular box with P and Q as the two endpoints of a main diagonal, as shown in
Figure 1.3(c). Then we apply the Pythagorean theorem twice to get

distance between P and Q = √(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 . (1.1)

 1.1 Vectors | 5

1.1.4 Representing vectors using coordinates

It is extremely useful to represent vectors using coordinates. First, we have three stan-
dard basis vectors called i,⃗ j,⃗ and k,⃗ which are three unit vectors in the positive direc-
tions of the x-, y-, and z-axes, respectively. If those vectors have their tails at the origin
O, then their heads will be the points (1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1), respectively, as shown
in Figure 1.4(a).

(a) (b)

Figure 1.4: Three-dimensional coordinate system, basis vectors, position vectors.

󳨀→
Definition 1.1.3. A vector OP with initial point O, the origin, and terminal point P(x, y, z) is called the
position vector of the point P(x, y, z).

󳨀󳨀→
By the definition of vector addition, we must have OP = x i ⃗ + y j ⃗ + z k.⃗ This follows from
󳨀󳨀→
the box determined by the vector OP (see Figure 1.4(b)), because the parallelogram
rule for addition gives

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→

OP = OQ + QP
󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
= OT + TQ + QP,

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
where OT is along the x-axis with length x and is x i,⃗ TQ is parallel to the y-axis with
󳨀
󳨀→
length y and is y j,⃗ and QP is parallel to the z-axis with length z and is z k.⃗ The numbers
󳨀󳨀→
x, y, and z are referred to as the components of the vector OP.
If we add two vectors expressed in the i,⃗ j,⃗ k⃗ format, then the commutative and as-
sociative laws of vector addition show that adding two vectors can be done by adding
their components, i. e.,

(x1 i ⃗ + y1 j ⃗ + z1 k)⃗ + (x2 i ⃗ + y2 j ⃗ + z2 k)⃗ = (x1 + x2 )i ⃗ + (y1 + y2 )j ⃗ + (z1 + z2 )k.⃗ (1.2)

6 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

By the distributive law one can see that multiplying a vector by a scalar λ is the same
as multiplying each component by λ, i. e.,

λ(xi ⃗ + yj ⃗ + z k)⃗ = λxi ⃗ + λyj ⃗ + λz k.⃗ (1.3)

Example 1.1.1. If a⃗ = 5i ⃗ + 2j ⃗ − 3k⃗ and b⃗ = 4i ⃗ − 9k,⃗ express the vector 2a⃗ + 3b⃗ in terms of i,⃗ j,⃗ and k.⃗

Solution. Using properties of vectors, we have

2a⃗ + 3b⃗ = 2(5i ⃗ + 2j ⃗ − 3k)⃗ + 3(4i ⃗ − 9k)⃗

= 10i ⃗ + 4j ⃗ − 6k⃗ + 12i ⃗ − 27k⃗
= 22i ⃗ + 4j ⃗ − 33k.⃗

Now we use the notation ⟨x, y, z⟩ to denote a position vector with its head at the
point (x, y, z), and this is the coordinate representation of this position vector. Since
any vector in space can be translated so that its initial point is the origin, any vector
in space can be represented in the form ⟨x, y, z⟩. We now give definitions for vector
operations using its coordinates representation as follows.

Definition 1.1.4. If a⃗ = ⟨x1 , y1 , z1 ⟩ and b⃗ = ⟨x2 , y2 , z2 ⟩ are two position vectors and λ is a real number,
then

a⃗ + b⃗ = ⟨x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ⟩,
a⃗ − b⃗ = ⟨x − x , y − y , z − z ⟩,
1 2 1 2 1 2

λa⃗ = ⟨λx1 , λy1 , λz1 ⟩.

Note that those operations also work for two-dimensional vectors; the only difference
is that there is no z-component (or the z-component is always 0). Also, from the defi-
nition, we know that

a⃗ = b⃗ ⇐⇒ x1 = x2 , y1 = y2 , and z1 = z2 , (1.4)

that is, their corresponding components are identical.

󳨀→
Example 1.1.2. Consider any vector PQ, where the initial point is P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and the terminal point is
Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ). Then find coordinates of the midpoint of the line segment PQ.

Solution. Since

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→

PQ = OQ − OP = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩,
 1.1 Vectors | 7

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
if M(x, y, z) is the midpoint of the line segment PQ, then 2PM = PQ, so we have

⟨2(x − x1 ), 2(y − y1 ), 2(z − z1 )⟩ = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩.

This means

2⟨x, y, z⟩ = ⟨x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 ⟩ + 2⟨x1 , y1 , z1 ⟩

= ⟨x2 + x1 , y2 + y1 , z2 + z1 ⟩.

Hence, we can deduce that the formula for the midpoint M is

x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z2
M( , , ). (1.5)
2 2 2

1.1.5 Lengths, direction angles

Length and distance formula

The length of a vector is the length of the line segment whose endpoints are the head
and tail of the vector. By using the Pythagorean theorem, we have the following theo-
rem.

Theorem 1.1.2. If a vector is represented by a⃗ = ⟨x, y, z⟩, then

|a|⃗ = √x 2 + y 2 + z 2 .

1
If |a|⃗ = 1, then a⃗ is a unit vector. If a⃗ is not the zero vector, |a|⃗
a⃗ is the unit vector in the
direction of a.⃗

Example 1.1.3. Find the unit vector in the direction of

(1)a⃗ = ⟨1, 2, −1⟩ and (2)b = 4i − j − 8k.

Solution.
1. The length of a⃗ is |a|⃗ = √12 + 22 + (−1)2 = √6. So the unit vector e⃗ in the direction
of a⃗ is
1 1 1 2 1
e⃗ = a⃗ = ⟨1, 2, −1⟩ = ⟨ , ,− ⟩.
|a|⃗ √6 √6 √6 √6
2. The given vector has length

|4i − j − 8k| = √42 + (−1)2 + (−8)2 = √81 = 9.

So the unit vector with the same direction is

1 4 1 8
(4i − j − 8k) = i − j − k.
9 9 9 9
8 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

We have seen the distance formula before. Now we can derive it from the length
of a vector as well. The distance between the two points P(x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 , z2 ) is,
󳨀󳨀→
therefore, the length of the vector PQ, so it is
󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
|PQ| = |OQ − OP| = √(x1 − x2 )2 + (y1 − y2 )2 + (z1 − z2 )2 . (1.6)

Example 1.1.4. Find a point P on the y-axis such that |PA| = |PB|, where A(−4, 1, 7) and B(3, 5, 2) are
two points.

Solution. We assume the point P has the coordinates (0, y, 0). From the distance for-
mula, we have

√(−4 − 0)2 + (1 − y)2 + (7 − 0)2 = √(3 − 0)2 + (5 − y)2 + (2 − 0)2 .

Solving for y, we obtain y = −7

2
. Therefore, the point P has coordinates (0, − 72 , 0).

Direction angles and direction cosines

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
Let a⃗ = OA and b⃗ = OB be two vectors in a plane or space as in Figure 1.5(a) and (b).

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 1.5: Angle between two vectors, perpendicular vectors, and direction angles.

Definition 1.1.5 (Angle between two vectors, direction angle, and direction cosines). If a⃗ and b⃗ are
two vectors with a common tail, then:
1. The angle between the vectors a⃗ and b⃗ is the angle θ between 0 and π formed using the two
vectors as sides.
2. The two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ are called perpendicular (orthogonal) if and only if the angle between
them is π2 .
3. The angle between a vector a⃗ and the x-axis is the angle between a⃗ and the unit base vector i.⃗
4. The angle between a vector a⃗ and the y-axis is the angle between a⃗ and the unit base vector j.⃗
5. The angle between a vector a⃗ and the z-axis is the angle between a⃗ and the unit base vector k.⃗
6. The direction angles α, β, and γ of a vector a⃗ are the angles between a⃗ and the x-, y-, and z-axes,
respectively; cos α, cos β, and cos γ are called direction cosines of a.⃗
 1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product | 9

From Figure 1.5(d), if the vector a⃗ = ⟨x, y, z⟩ has direction angles α, β, γ, then we have
x y z
cos α = , cos β = , and cos γ = . (1.7)
|a|⃗ |a|⃗ |a|⃗
Since
x2 y2 z2
cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 2
+ 2 + 2
|a|⃗ |a|⃗ |a|⃗
x2 + y2 + z 2
=
|a|⃗ 2
= 1,

it follows that
⟨x, y, z⟩
⟨cos α, cos β, cos γ⟩ = (1.8)
|a|⃗
is the unit vector in the direction of a.⃗

Example 1.1.5. If A(2, 2, √2) and B(1, 3, 0) are two points, find the length, direction cosines, and direc-
󳨀→
tion angles of the vector AB.

󳨀󳨀→
Solution. Because AB = ⟨1 − 2, 3 − 2, 0 − √2⟩ = ⟨−1, 1, −√2⟩, we have
󳨀󳨀→
|AB| = √(−1)2 + 12 + (−√2)2 = 2.
󳨀󳨀→
The unit vector in the direction of AB is
1 −1 1 √2
⟨−1, 1, −√2⟩ = ⟨ , , − ⟩.
2 2 2 2
Hence,
1 1 √2
cos α = − , cos β = , and cos γ = −
2 2 2
are the three direction cosines, and
2π π 3π
α= , β= , and γ=
3 3 4
are the three direction angles with the positive x-, y- and z-axes, respectively.

1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product

1.2.1 The dot product

So far we have introduced the two operations on vectors: addition and multiplica-
tion by a scalar. Now the following questions arise: How about multiplication? Can
10 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

Figure 1.6: Work done by a force, dot product.

we multiply two vectors to obtain a useful quantity? In fact, there are two commonly
used useful products of vectors called the dot product and the cross product.
As shown in Figure 1.6, you may already know from physics that the work done,
W, by a force F applied during a displacement along the vector s is

W = |F||s| cos θ,

where θ is the angle between the two vectors F and s. It is, therefore, useful to define
a product of two vectors in this way.

Definition 1.2.1 (Dot/scalar/inner product). The dot product a ⋅ b of the two vectors a and b is defined
by

a ⋅ b = |a||b| cos θ,

where θ is the angle between vectors a and b.

Example 1.2.1. If the two vectors a and b have length 3 and 4, and the angle between them is π/3, find
a ⋅ b.

Solution. Using the definition, we have

1
a ⋅ b = |a||b| cos(π/3) = 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ = 6.
2

Well, this definition looks good as it has a physical basis. However, mathemati-
cally, it is not easy to find the dot product directly as we first need to know the angle
between the vectors. Using the coordinate representation of a vector, it turns out that
there is a remarkable way to compute the dot product, as we will see in the following
theorem.

Theorem 1.2.1. If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, then

a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .
 1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product | 11

Proof. Suppose the angle between a and b is θ. Note that the three vectors, a, b, and
c = b − a form the three sides of a triangle. By the cosine law, we have

|c|2 = |a|2 + |b|2 − 2|a||b| cos θ.

Since

|c|2 = |b − a|2 = (b1 − a1 )2 + (b2 − a2 )2 + (b3 − a3 )2

= b21 − 2b1 a1 + a21 + b22 − 2b2 a2 + a22 + b23 − 2b3 a3 + a23 ,
|a|2 = a21 + a22 + a23 , and
2
|b| = b21 + b22 + b23 ,

substituting these values into the cosine law equation and canceling out all the
squares gives

−2b1 a1 − 2b2 a2 − 2b3 a3 = −2|a||b| cos θ.

Therefore, we have

a ⋅ b = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

In view of this theorem, we give the following alternative definition of the dot
product.

Definition 1.2.2 (Alternative definition of the dot product). If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, and θ is
the angle between the two vectors, then the dot product is defined by

a ⋅ b = |a||b| cos θ = a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 .

Finding the dot product of a and b is incredibly easy by using coordinates. We just
multiply corresponding components and add. Using this definition, we can deduce
the following properties of the dot product.

Theorem 1.2.2 (Properties of the dot product). If a, b, and c are any three vectors and λ is any scalar,
then the dot product satisfies:
1. a ⋅ a = |a|2 ,
2. a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a,
3. if a and b are two nonzero vectors, then a ⋅ b = 0 means that a and b are perpendicular to each
other,
4. (a + b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ c + b ⋅ c,
5. (λa) ⋅ b = λ(a ⋅ b) = a ⋅ (λb),
6. 0 ⋅ a = 0.
12 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

These properties are similar to the rules for real numbers and can be easily proved
by using either of the two definitions of the dot product. However, some properties of
real number multiplication do not apply to the dot product. For example, if two real
numbers satisfy ab = 0, then either a = 0 or b = 0 or both. This is not true for the dot
product. If a and b are two nonzero vectors, then a ⋅ b = 0 indicates the two vectors
are perpendicular to each other, and it is not necessary that either a = 0 or b = 0.
By using the dot product, we can find the angle between two vectors, as shown in
the following example.

Example 1.2.2. Find the angle between the two vectors i + 2j − k and 2j − k.

u⋅v
Solution. By the definition of the dot product, u ⋅ v = |u| ⋅ |v| cos θ, so cos θ = |u|⋅|v|
.
Thus,
(i + 2j − k) ⋅ (2j − k) 1 ⋅ 0 + 2 ⋅ 2 + (−1) ⋅ (−1)
cos θ = = ≈ 0.913.
|i + 2j − k||2j − k| √12 + 22 + (−1)2 √22 + (−1)2

So the angle θ ≈ cos−1 (0.913) ≈ 0.42 radians (about 24°).

1.2.2 Projections

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
Suppose that a = OA and b = OB are two vectors with the same tail O. If S is the foot
󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀→
of the perpendicular from B to the line containing OA, then the vector OS is called the
a
vector projection of the vector b onto the vector a, written as Proja b. If e = |a| is the
󳨀󳨀→
unit vector in the direction of OA, then the vector projection is λe, where λ = |b| cos θ
is the size (positive or negative) of the projection vector and θ is the angle between the
two vectors, as shown in Figure 1.7. Hence, the projection of vector b onto vector a is
|b| cos θ
Proja b = a.
|a|
The scalar projection of vector b onto vector a is defined as

ProjScala b = |b| cos θ.

Figure 1.7: Vector projections.

 1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product | 13

By using the dot product a ⋅ b = |a||b| cos θ, we have

a⋅b a⋅b
Proja b = a and ProjScala b = .
|a|2 |a|

Example 1.2.3. Show that any vector r = ⟨x, y, z⟩ can be written as

r = Proji r + Projj r + Projk r.

Solution. For Proji r, since |i| = 1, we have

r⋅i
Proji r = i = (r ⋅ i)i = ⟨x, y, z⟩ ⋅ ⟨1, 0, 0⟩i = xi.
|i|2
Similarly, Projj r = yj and Projk r = zk. Therefore,

r = Proji r + Projj r + Projk r.

1.2.3 The cross product

󳨀󳨀→
In mechanics, the moment of a force F⃗ acting on a rod OP is the vector with magnitude
⃗ 󳨀
|F||
󳨀→ 󳨀󳨀→
OP| sin θ, where θ is the angle between the vectors F⃗ and OP. The direction of the
󳨀
󳨀→
moment vector is perpendicular to F⃗ and OP (see Figure 1.8(a)) and satisfies the right-
󳨀󳨀→
hand rule: if you curl your right fingers naturally from vector F⃗ to vector OP, then your
thumbs points in the direction of the moment vector, as shown in Figure 1.8(b) and (c).
Therefore, it makes sense to define a product of two vectors a⃗ and b⃗ as follows.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 1.8: Cross product, moment/torque.

Definition 1.2.3 (Cross/vector/outer product). The cross product denoted by a × b of vector a and vec-
tor b in ℝ3 is a new vector which is perpendicular to both vector a and vector b. The length of a × b
is

|a × b| = |a||b| sin θ

and a, b, a × b, in that order, satisfy the right-hand rule.

14 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

According to the above definition and using Figure 1.4(a), we can see that

i × i = 0, i × j = k, i × k = −j, j × j = 0, j × i = −k,
j × k = i, k × i = j, k × j = −i, and k × k = 0.

But in general, how can we compute the cross product? If we try to compute

a × b = (a1 i + a2 j + a3 k) × (b1 i + b2 j + b3 k)

by using the normal rules for numbers, such as the commutative, associative, and
distributive rules, we may find an interesting vector

c = ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − b3 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩.

This vector, in fact, satisfies conditions that we have set for a cross product, as we will
see in the following theorem.

Theorem 1.2.3. If a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩, b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩, and

c = ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − b3 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩,

then:
1. c is perpendicular to both a and b.
2. |c| = |a||b| sin θ, where θ is the angle between a and b.

Proof. We compute the dot product to show they are perpendicular. We have

a ⋅ c = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ ⋅ ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − b3 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩
= a1 a2 b3 − a1 a3 b2 + a2 a3 b1 − a2 b3 a1 + a3 a1 b2 − a3 a2 b1
= 0.

Similarly b ⋅ c = 0. Therefore, we claim that c is perpendicular to both a and b.

Furthermore,

|c|2 = (a2 b3 − a3 b2 )2 + (a3 b1 − b3 a1 )2 + (a1 b2 − a2 b1 )2

= a22 b23 + a23 b22 − 2a2 b3 a3 b2 +
a23 b21 + b23 a21 − 2a3 b1 b3 a1 + a21 b22 + a22 b21 − 2a1 b2 a2 b1
= (a21 + a22 + a23 )(b21 + b22 + b23 ) − (a1 b1 + a2 b2 + a3 b3 )2
= |a|2 |b|2 − (a ⋅ b)2
= |a|2 |b|2 (1 − cos2 θ) = |a|2 |b|2 sin2 θ.

So |c| = |a||b| ⋅ sin θ.

 1.2 Dot product, cross product, and triple product | 15

Now the only issue that remains is whether a, b, and c, in that order, satisfy the
right-hand rule. This can be seen in a simple case where a and b are in the first quad-
rant of the xy-plane with tails at the origin. Then the sign of the term aa2 − bb2 determines
1 1
the relative positions of a and b, and the sign of the z-component of c, a1 b2 − a2 b1 , de-
termines whether c points upward or downward. This is exactly the right-hand rule:
when you curl your right fingers from a to b, then your thumb points in the direction
of c.
In light of the above discussion, we now give an alternative definition of the cross
product.

Definition 1.2.4 (Alternative definition of the cross product). Let a = ⟨a1 , a2 , a3 ⟩ and b = ⟨b1 , b2 , b3 ⟩.
Then the cross product (also vector product) a × b is defined by
a × b = ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − b3 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩.

Using the knowledge of determinants, we have

a × b = ⟨a2 b3 − a3 b2 , a3 b1 − b3 a1 , a1 b2 − a2 b1 ⟩
󵄨󵄨 i j k 󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨󵄨 a2 a3 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨󵄨 a1 a3 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨󵄨 a1 a2 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨
= ⟨󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨 , − 󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨 , 󵄨󵄨 󵄨
󵄨󵄨⟩ = 󵄨󵄨 a a a 󵄨󵄨󵄨 , (1.9)
󵄨󵄨 1 2 3 󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨 b2 b3 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨󵄨 b1 b3 󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨󵄨 b1 b2 󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨 󵄨
󵄨󵄨 󵄨
󵄨󵄨 b1 b2 b3 󵄨󵄨󵄨

where 󵄨󵄨󵄨 ac db 󵄨󵄨󵄨 = ad − bc. This is much better for remembering the cross product.
󵄨 󵄨
Using the definition of the vector product, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.2.4 (Properties of the cross product for three-dimensional vectors). For any three vectors
a, b, and c in ℝ3 and a scalar λ, we have:
1. a × a = 0,
2. if a and b are nonzero vectors, then a × b = 0 if and only if a ‖ b,
3. b × a = −(a × b),
4. a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c,
5. (a + b) × c = a × c + b × c,
6. (λa) × b = λ(a × b) = a × (λb),
7. a ⋅ (b × c) = (a × b) ⋅ c,
8. a × (b × c) = (a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b)c.

Using one of the definitions of the cross product, we can prove these properties by
writing the vectors in their components form. Note that the cross product fails to obey
most of the laws satisfied by real number multiplication, such as the commutative and
associative laws. Check for yourself that a × (b × c) ≠ (a × b) × c for most vectors a, b,
and c.

Example 1.2.4. Find a vector that is perpendicular to the plane containing the three points P(1, 0, 6),
Q(2, 5, −1), and R(−1, 3, 7).
16 | 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀→
Solution. The cross product of the two vectors PQ and PR is such a vector. This is be-
󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀→
cause the cross product is perpendicular to both PQ and PR and is, thus, perpendicular
to the plane through the three points P, Q, and R. Since
󳨀󳨀→
PQ = (2 − 1)i ⃗ + (5 − 0)j ⃗ + (−1 − 6)k⃗ = i ⃗ + 5j ⃗ − 7k,⃗
󳨀→
PR = (−1 − 1)i ⃗ + (3 − 0)j ⃗ + (7 − 6)k⃗ = −2i ⃗ + 3j ⃗ + k,⃗

we evaluate the cross product of these two vectors using the determinant approach,
i. e.,
󵄨󵄨 ⃗ 󵄨󵄨
󵄨 i j⃗ k⃗ 󵄨󵄨
󳨀󳨀→ 󳨀→ 󵄨󵄨󵄨󵄨 󵄨󵄨
PQ × PR = 󵄨󵄨 1 5 −7 󵄨󵄨 = (5 + 21)i ⃗ − (1 − 14)j ⃗ + (3 + 10)k⃗
󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨
󵄨󵄨 −2 3 1 󵄨󵄨󵄨
󵄨 󵄨
= 26i ⃗ + 13j ⃗ + 13k.⃗

So the vector ⟨26, 13, 13⟩ is perpendicular to the plane passing through the three points
P, Q, and R. In fact, any nonzero scalar multiple of this vector, such as ⟨2, 1, 1⟩, is also
perpendicular to the plane. Figure 1.9 illustrates the vector perpendicular to the plane.

Figure 1.9: Cross product, Example 1.2.4.

Note that the length of the vector |a × b| = |a||b| sin θ is equal to the area of the paral-
lelogram determined by a and b, assuming they have the same initial point, as shown
in Figure 1.8(d). Therefore, we have the following theorem.

Theorem 1.2.5. Given two nonzero vectors a and b with a common tail, we have

area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b = |a × b|,

1
area of a triangle with adjacent sides a and b = |a × b|.
2
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Das Herz stellt einen langen, unter dem Rücken liegenden Schlauch
dar, an dessen Seiten das Blut durch paarige Öffnungen eintritt, um
bei einer Kontraktion nach vorn durch eine Aorta wieder in die
Leibeshöhle getrieben zu werden. Die Geschlechtsorgane sind
paarig angelegt und münden beim Weibchen am fünften, beim
Männchen am letzten Brustring nach aussen. Das Nervensystem
des Vorderleibes bildet einen Strang, welcher in jedem Segment zu
Ganglien anschwillt; im Hinterleib sind alle diese Ganglien
zusammengerückt und bilden einen grossen Nervenknoten. Das
Sehorgan ist durch zwei Gruppen von Punktaugen von ähnlichem
Bau wie bei Cyclops, welche an den Seiten des Kopfes liegen,
gebildet. An den Antennen sitzen grosse blasse Riechkolben.

Fig. 78.
Asellus aquaticus L. a′ u. a″
Antennen — Au Auge — B
Brustbeine — H
Hinterleibsbeine — K
Kieferfüsse.
Die Asseln ernähren sich von pflanzlichen und tierischen Stoffen.
Sie leben gern zwischen modernden Blättern und grünen Algen. Die
Eier und die ausgeschlüpften Jungen werden in dem durch die oben
geschilderten Brutplatten erzeugten Raume umhergetragen. Die
Männchen sind gewöhnlich grösser als die Weibchen.
An feuchten Orten leben auf dem Lande unter Steinen, in Kellern
u. s. w. verschiedene Verwandte unserer Wasserassel, von denen
die Mauerassel (Oniscus), die Körnerassel (Porcellio) und die
Rollassel (Armadillidium) sehr häufig angetroffen werden. Eine
blinde Wasserassel bewohnt tiefe Seen, Brunnen oder die Gewässer
von Höhlen. Sehr nahe mit den Isopoden verwandt sind die

Flohkrebse (Amphipoden).

Der Körper dieser besonders in klaren Gebirgsbächen und

Quellen ungemein häufigen Tiere ist seitlich zusammengedrückt und
wohl gegliedert. Kopf und erstes Brustsegment sind mit einander
verwachsen. Die beiden Fühlerpaare haben annähernd gleiche
Länge; am ersten entspringt ein kleiner Nebenast. Mundwerkzeuge
und Beinpaare sind in gleicher Anzahl wie bei den Asseln
vorhanden. Die Endglieder der ersten zwei Brustbeinpaare sind zu
kleinen Greifhänden umgestaltet. An der Innenseite der meisten
Brustbeine sitzen als Kiemen funktionierende blasige Gebilde, beim
Weibchen ausserdem Brutplatten. Die Beine des Hinterleibes sind in
zwei gleichartige Äste gespalten. Die drei ersten Paare der
Hinterleibsbeine unterscheiden sich in der Form von den folgenden
und dienen zum Schwimmen und zur Erzeugung stetigen
Wasserwechsels an den Kiemen, weshalb sie auch in der Ruhe
immerwährend schwingen. Während der Darm dem der
Wasserassel sehr ähnlich und ebenfalls mit zwei Paaren von
Leberschläuchen versehen ist, lässt sich am Herzen insofern eine
höhere Entwickelungsstufe erkennen, als es weiter vorn im Körper
seinen Platz hat und sowohl gegen den Kopf zu als auch nach
hinten Gefässe entsendet. Die Gliederung des Nervensystems
entspricht der Segmentierung des Körpers. Die beiden rundlichen
Augen sind ähnlich zusammengesetzt wie bei den höheren Kerfen.
Die Antennen tragen blasse Riechkolben. Die Geschlechtsorgane
mit ihren Ausmündungen verhalten sich wie bei den Isopoden. Die
Eier und Jungen werden ebenfalls zwischen den Brustbeinen von
den Brutplatten bedeckt getragen. Die Art, wie die bei uns gemeinste
Gattung Gammarus (Fig. 79) sich im Wasser bewegt, wurde
eingangs geschildert. Man findet diesen Flohkrebs am sichersten
unter Steinen, in deren Nähe faules Laub sich vorfindet. Oft
schimmert ein kleiner roter Körper durch die Leibeswand. Es ist dies
ein Echinorhynchus, ein häufiger Parasit. Eine blinde Abart des
Gammarus lebt, ebenso wie die blinde Assel, in tiefen Brunnen oder
Höhlen.

Fig. 79.
Gammarus pulex L. a′ Erste
Antenne — a″ Zweite Antenne
— Au Auge — H
Hinterleibsbeine — N Nebenast.
Die Ordnung der

Zehnfüsser (Decapoden)

ist bei uns nur durch den Flusskrebs vertreten, dessen Geschlecht
durch die schon seit einer Reihe von Jahren wütende Krebspest so
sehr dezimiert wurde, dass manche Flussläufe von diesen in Form
und Gebahren gleich originellen Scherenträgern ganz entvölkert
sind. Der Kopf unseres Flusskrebses ist mit den Brustringen und
diese unter sich zu dem Kopfbruststück verwachsen, welches an der
Stirn in einen Stachel ausläuft. Einige vertiefte Linien auf dem
Cephalothorax deuten noch die einst vorhanden gewesene
Trennung in einzelne Segmente an. Der gegliederte Hinterleib dient
als Ruder zum Schwimmen und ist beim Weibchen breiter als beim
Männchen. Die ersten kurzen zweiästigen Antennen werden von den
zweiten weit überragt. Ausser einem Paar Ober- und zwei Paaren
Unterkiefern dienen als Mundwerkzeuge noch drei Paar Kieferfüsse.
Auf diese folgen die grossen Brustbeine, deren Anzahl zu der
Bezeichnung „Zehnfüsser“ Veranlassung gab. Die ersten drei
Beinpaare tragen am Ende Scheren, welche am ersten sehr stark
entwickelt sind und eine kräftige Waffe gegen Feinde bilden, deren
Wirkung manchem Leser bekannt sein dürfte. Die sechs Beinpaare
des Hinterleibes sind zweiästig: Das erste bildet beim Männchen ein
Begattungsglied, das letzte ist bei beiden Geschlechtern verbreitert
und giebt mit dem hintersten Körpersegment zusammen die
sogenannte Schwanzflosse ab. An den Hinterleibsbeinen tragen die
Weibchen die Eier. Die Ganglien des Bauchstranges sind in der
Brustgegend nahe zusammengerückt. Die zwei grossen Augen
sitzen auf beweglichen Stielen. Zum ersten Mal unter den
Krebstieren treffen wir ein deutliches Hörorgan an, welches im
ersten Glied der kleinen Antennen liegt. Es stellt ein kleines nach
aussen sich öffnendes Bläschen dar, welches im Innern mit feinen
Härchen ausgekleidet ist und vom Krebs selbst mit Sandkörnchen
erfüllt wird. Diese dienen als Hörsteine und müssen nach jeder
Häutung, da die ganze Auskleidung des Bläschens entfernt wird,
erneuert werden; so lange dies nicht geschehen ist, ist der Krebs
taub. Mehrere Male wirft das Tier seinen Hautpanzer, welcher ihm
bei reichlicher Nahrung bald zu enge wird, ab und erscheint dann,
ehe genügend Kalk in der jungen Haut abgelagert ist, weich und
gewöhnlich rötlich gefärbt als sogenannter „Butterkrebs“. Da dieser
äusserst hilf- und wehrlos ist, kann es ihm passieren, dass er von
seinen eigenen Kameraden gefressen wird, wenn er in der Wahl
eines guten Versteckes nicht vorsichtig genug war. Im hintern Teile
des Cephalothorax liegt das (von oben gesehen) etwa fünfeckige
Herz, von dem aus ein reichverzweigtes Gefässsystem das Blut
nach allen Körperteilen leitet. Zum Atmen dienen verästelte Kiemen,
welche am Grunde der Kieferfüsse und Brustbeine entspringen und
unter den nach den Seiten heruntergebogenen Rändern des
Cephalothorax verborgen sind. Der Darm macht keine Windungen,
ist aber am Anfang zu einem mit starken Chitinzähnen
ausgerüsteten Kaumagen erweitert, an dessen vorderer Wand der
zur Verstärkung der Haut nötige Kalk in Form von sogenannten
„Krebsaugen“ vorrätig gehalten wird. Die gelbliche, aus kleinen
Schläuchen bestehende Leber erfüllt einen grossen Teil des
Vorderleibs. Die eigentlich paarigen Geschlechtsschläuche
verwachsen auf eine kurze Strecke mit einander und münden beim
Weibchen am Grunde des dritten, beim Männchen am fünften
Beinpaare nach aussen. Wie schon gesagt entwickeln sich die
Jungen unter dem Schutz des mütterlichen Schwanzes und
verlassen das Ei in einer dem erwachsenen Tiere sehr ähnlichen
Gestalt. Eiertragende Weibchen findet man bis in den Juni hinein,
und so lange sollten die Tiere eigentlich geschont werden und nicht
nur während der Monate, deren Name ein R enthält. Im September
und in der ersten Hälfte des Oktober ist das Fleisch der Krebse viel
fester und wohlschmeckender als im Mai, wo recht häufig die Tiere
sich vom Winter her noch nicht gehörig erholt haben.
Der Krebs kommt in allen unseren Gewässern, selbst in ganz
kleinen Bergbächen vor. Am liebsten hält er sich unter Steinen und
in selbstgegrabenen Löchern am Ufer während des Tages versteckt
und geht erst mit Einbruch der Dämmerung auf die Suche nach
Nahrung. Diese besteht hauptsächlich aus Aas und wenigen
lebenden wirbellosen Tieren. Dass er Fische und Frösche fange,
mag sich zufällig hie und da beobachten lassen; ich selbst war nie in
der Lage, dies bestätigen zu können. Trotzdem dass ich lange in
grossen Aquarien kleine und grosse Fische mit Krebsen zusammen
hielt, konnte nie eine Verminderung der Zahl der ersteren
wahrgenommen werden. Der Krebs ist auch mit seinen Scheren viel
zu langsam, um rasch bewegliche Tiere erhaschen zu können. Auf
weite Entfernung wittert der Krebs im Wasser liegendes Aas und
seine Vorliebe für dieses wird beim Fange benutzt. Bekannt ist an
ihm das Vermögen, verlorengegangene Gliedmassen zu ersetzen.
Wird der Krebs an der einen oder andern Schere erhascht, so sucht
er unter Darangabe dieser oder unter Umständen beider zugleich zu
entfliehen. Schon bei der nächsten Häutung beginnt der Verlust sich
zu ersetzen. Die neue Schere erreicht aber nie wieder die Grösse
der ersten. Auch im Kampfe unter einander, welcher sehr
ausdauernd und erbittert geführt wird, verlieren die Krebse nicht
selten ihre Hauptwaffe. Um eine ordentliche Grösse zu erreichen
und fortpflanzungsfähig zu werden, braucht der Krebs 4–5 Jahre. In
raschfliessenden Waldbächen bleibt er gewöhnlich kleiner, als in
Seen und Flüssen. Nützlich werden die höheren Krebse dadurch,
dass sie durch die Vertilgung von allerhand faulenden Stoffen eine
Art Reinlichkeitspolizei in unseren Gewässern bilden. Ausserdem
wird der Flusskrebs — allerdings nicht von jedermann — als Speise
hochgeschätzt.
Wir beschliessen hiermit unsere Betrachtungen über die
Krebstiere. Der Zweck derselben ist erreicht, wenn sie auch in
weiteren Kreisen Kenntnisse über den Bau und die Lebensweise der
wesentlichsten bei uns vorkommenden Krustaceenformen
verbreiten.
 Litteratur.
[Bei einigen Literaturstellen handelt es sich um allgemeine Nachschlagewerke,
denen im Text keine direkten Verweise gegenüberstehen. Diese werden im
Folgenden mit Zahlen gefolgt von runden Klammern dargestellt. (Anmerkung des
Bearbeiters)]
1) W. Baird, Natural History of the British Entomostraca. London
1850.]
2) C. Claus, Über Bau und Entwicklung parasitischer
Krustaceen. Marburg 1855.]
3) S. Fischer, Über das Genus Cypris und dessen bei
Petersburg und Reval vorkommende Arten. Petersburg 1851.]
4) A. Friç, Die Krustenthiere Böhmens. Prag 1871.]
5) T. H. Huxley, The crayfish. London 1889.]
6) W. Lilljeborg, De crustaceis ex ordinibus tribus: Cladocera,
Ostracoda et Copepoda in Scania occurrentibus. Lund 1843.]
7) J. Lubbock, On some freshwater Entomostraca. Transact.
Linn. Soc. Vol. 24.]
8) W. Migula, Biolog. Centralblatt Nr. 17. 1888.]
9) O. Fr. Müller, Entomostraca seu Insecta testacea. Francfurt
1792.]
10) F. Plateau, Recherches sur les crustacées d’eau douce de
Belgique. Mém. couronnée et des savants étrang. 1867.]
11) S. A. Poppe, Notizen zur Fauna der Süsswasserbecken des
nordwestl. Deutschlands mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der
Krustaceen. Abhandl. naturwiss. Verein Bremen Bd. X. 1889.]
12) J. Richard, Entomostracés nouveaux ou peu connus. Bull. d.
l. soc. zoolog. de France. Tome XIII. 1888.]
13) G. O. Sars, Norges Ferskvandskrebsdyr. Cladocera.
Christiania 1865.]
 14) E. G. Zaddach, De apodis cancriformis anatomia et historia
evolutionis. Bonn 1841.]
[108] S. Fischer, Beiträge zur Kenntniss der in der Umgegend
von Petersburg sich findenden Cyklopiden. Bull. d. l. soc. impér.
des Naturalistes de Moscou. Bd. 24 (1851). Bd. 26 (1853).
[109] G. S. Brady, Monograph of the free and semiparasitic
Copepoda of the British Islands. London 1880.
[110] C. Claus, Die freilebenden Copepoden. Leipzig 1863.
[111] C. Claus, Copepodenfauna von Nizza. Marburg und Leipzig
1866.
[112] O. E. Imhof, Zoolog. Anzeiger 1885.
[113] a) O. Schmeil, Beiträge zur Kenntnis der Süsswasser-
Copepoden Deutschlands. Inauguraldissertation. Halle 1891.
b) J. Vosseler, Die freilebenden Copepoden Württembergs und
angrenzender Gegenden. Jahreshefte d. Ver. f. vaterländische
Naturkunde in Württemberg. 1886.
[114] L. Jurine, Histoire des monocles. Genf 1820.
[115] J. Vosseler, Copepodenfauna der Eifelmaare. Archiv f.
Naturgeschichte. 1889.
[116] Jules de Guerne et Jules Richard, Révision des Calanides
d’eau douce. Mém. d. l. soc. zool. de France. T. II. 1889.
[117] Otto Zacharias, Studien über die Fauna des Grossen und
Kleinen Teiches im Riesengebirge. Zeitschr. f. wissensch.
Zoologie. Bd. 41. 1885.
[118] O. E. Imhof, Zoolog. Anzeiger 1887.
[119] Otto Zacharias, Biolog. Centralblatt. Bd. X. 1890.
[120] A. v. Nordmann, Mikrograph. Beiträge H. 6. Berlin 1832.
[121] F. Leydig, Über Argulus foliaceus. Zeitschr. f. wissensch.
Zoologie 1850.
[122] Aug. Weismann, Beiträge zur Naturgeschichte der
Daphnoiden. Leipzig 1876–79.
[123] F. Leydig, Naturgeschichte der Daphniden. Tübingen 1860.
Druck von J. J. Weber in Leipzig.
 Webers
Naturwissenschaftliche
Bibliothek.
Unter obigem Titel erscheint in unterzeichnetem Verlage
eine Reihe von naturwissenschaftlichen Werken, wovon
zurzeit d r e i Bände vorliegen.
Jeder Band wird ein in sich abgeschlossenes Ganzes
bilden und von einer Autorität auf dem Gebiete, von welchem
er handelt, in klarer, leichtfasslicher Form, aber doch unter
vollständiger Wahrung des wissenschaftlichen Standpunktes,
verfasst werden. Soweit es der Inhalt erfordert, werden
A b b i l d u n g e n , welche den Text ergänzen und zum bessern
Verständnis desselben dienen, beigegeben werden.
In der Reihe selbst werden Originalarbeiten deutscher
Gelehrten und Forscher mit Übersetzungen von Werken
hervorragender ausländischer Autoren abwechseln.
In Vorbereitung sind folgende Bände:
E. Gerland: Geschichte der Physik.
E. L. Trouessart: Die geographische Verbreitung der
Tiere.
W. Marshall: Der Bau der Vögel.
H. Gadeau de Kerville: Leuchtende Pflanzen und
Tiere.
W. Marshall: Das Leben der Vögel.
C. Chun: Das Tierleben auf der Oberfläche des Meeres.
 Die Bände erscheinen in Zwischenräumen von mehreren
Monaten und sind einzeln käuflich.

Verlagsbuchhandlung von J. J. Weber in

Leipzig.
 Webers
Naturwissenschaftliche
Bibliothek.
Dritter Band:

Die

Sinne und Sinnesorgane

der

niederen Tiere.

Von

E. Jourdan.

Aus dem Französischen übersetzt

von

William Marshall.
Mit 48 in den Text gedruckten Abbildungen.
Preis in Original-Leinenband 3 Mark.
 Inhalt:
Erstes Hauptstück.
Kurze Übersicht über den allgemeinen Bau der Organismen.
Zweites Hauptstück.
Irritabilität, Sensibilität, Sinnesorgane.
Drittes Hauptstück.
Das Gefühl.
Viertes Hauptstück.
Der Geschmack.
Fünftes Hauptstück.
Der Geruch.
Sechstes Hauptstück.
Das Gehör.
Siebentes Hauptstück.
Das Gesicht.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DIE TIER- UND
PFLANZENWELT DES SÜSSWASSERS. ERSTER BAND ***

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