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RtI in Math
Learn how to help K–8 students who struggle in math. Now in its second edition, this book
provides a variety of clear, practical strategies that can be implemented right away to boost
student achievement. Discover how to design lessons that work with struggling learners,
implement math intervention recommendations from the Institute of Education Sciences
Practice Guides, the National Center on Intensive Intervention, and CEC, use praise and
self-motivation more effectively, develop number sense and computational fluency, teach
whole numbers and fractions, increase students’ problem-solving abilities, and more! This
edition features an all-new overview of effective instructional practices to support aca-
demic engagement and success, ideas for intensifying instruction within tiered interven-
tions, and a detailed set of recommendations aligned to both CCSSM and CEC/CEEDAR’s
High-Leverage Practices to help support students struggling to meet grade-level expecta-
tions. Extensive, current examples are provided for each strategy, as well as lesson plans,
games, and resources.
Wendy Weber is a Professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning, and Program
Director for the undergraduate Special Education Program at Southern Illinois University
Edwardsville, USA.
Other Eye On Education Books
Available From Routledge (www.routledge.com/k-12)
Shaking Up Special Education: Instructional Moves to
Increase Achievement
Savanna Flakes
The Co-Teacher’s Guide: Intensifying Instruction
Beyond One Teach, One Support
Jennifer L. Goeke
Coding as a Playground: Programming and Computational
Thinking in the Early Childhood Classroom
Marina Umaschi Bers
Implementing Systematic Interventions: A Guide for
Secondary School Teams
Hank Bohanon, Kelly Morrissey, and Lisa Caputo Love
Developing Teacher Leaders in Special Education:
An Administrator’s Guide to Building Inclusive Schools
edited by Daniel M. Maggin and Marie Tejero Hughes
Teaching Adolescents and Young Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder:
Curriculum Planning and Strategies
Dianne Zager and Michael L. Wehmeyer
RtI in Math
Evidence-Based
Interventions
Second Edition
♦ v
8 Operations with Whole Numbers: Addition and Subtraction..................................89
Developing Conceptual Understanding of Addition and Subtraction 89
Developing Computational Fluency with Basic Facts 96
Solving Multi-Digit Addition and Subtraction Problems 96
Intensifying Instruction during Interventions 102
Summary 103
9 Operations with Whole Numbers: Multiplication and Division.............................105
Developing Conceptual Understanding of Multiplication 105
Developing Fluency with Multiplication and Division Facts 109
Multiplication with Rectangular Arrays 110
The Standard Algorithm for Multiplication 112
Multi-Digit Division 115
Intensifying Instruction During Interventions 117
Summary 118
10 Fact Fluency................................................................................................................119
Developing Strategies for Solving Basic Facts 121
Automaticity 137
Summary 144
11 Representing Rational Numbers...............................................................................147
Fractions 147
Decimals 165
Percent 171
Intensifying Instruction 171
Summary 173
12 Problem-Solving.........................................................................................................175
Problem-Solving in the Core Curriculum (Tier 1) 175
Teaching Problem-Solving During Interventions (Tier 2 & Tier 3) 178
Summary 197
13 Conclusion: Using RtI to Improve Achievement in Mathematics...........................199
Selecting Materials for Core Instruction (Tier 1) 199
Selecting Materials for Interventions (Tiers 2 & 3) 202
Intensifying Instruction 204
Summary 206
References�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������207
vi ♦ Contents
Meet the Authors
Dr. Linda Forbringer is a professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Southern
Illinois University Edwardsville (SIUE). She teaches undergraduate and graduate courses
in methods of teaching mathematics, classroom management, and instructional methods
for students with disabilities, and has served as program director for the undergraduate
and graduate programs at SIUE. Before joining SIUE, she served as a special education
classroom teacher, case manager for students with emotional disabilities, and administrator
of a day treatment center serving kindergarten through 12th grade students. She consults
with schools nationally on effective interventions to support students who struggle with
mathematics or who exhibit challenging behavior. She has presented on math interven-
tions, differentiating instruction, motivation, and teacher education in webinars and at a
variety of national and international conferences. Her research interests include methods
of teaching mathematics, effective teaching practices, and strategies to support students in
inclusive settings.
Dr. Wendy Weber, PhD is a professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. She served as the principal investigator of the
IHE Partnership, a multi-year State Personnel Development Grant focused on the integra-
tion of MTSS into educator preparation programs across Illinois. She is the program director
for the Undergraduate Special Education program at SIUE. Dr. Weber has earned the SIUE
Teaching Excellence Award in 2015 and was named one of SIUE’s Phenomenal Women in
2019. In addition to her passion for teaching, Dr. Weber provides professional develop-
ment and educational consulting to school districts in Illinois in the areas of Response to
Intervention/Multi-Tier System of Supports (MTSS), mindfulness practices, and maximizing
student engagement. Dr. Weber authored the book Mindfulness for Students: A Curriculum for
Grades 3-8 and has implemented her mindfulness curriculum, Mynd Time©, in numerous
schools. Her research interests include mindfulness, self-regulation, social-emotional learning,
and school improvement.
The authors wish to thank Melissa Landwehr for her wonderful contributions, and John
Ransom for his technical support.
♦ vii
Introduction
Students in the United States are struggling in mathematics. Results of the 2019 National
Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), often called the “nation’s report card,” show
that only 21 percent of 12th grade students are proficient in mathematics, while 40 percent of
students scored below the basic level (NCES, 2019.). Although the Every Student Succeeds
Act of 2015 states that all children will succeed, clearly many children have not been suc-
cessful in mathematics.
One model for providing early intervention and support for struggling learners is
Response to Intervention (RtI). RtI (also called Multi-Tiered System of Supports or MTSS)
is a multilevel prevention system that integrates data-based decision-making, high-qual-
ity instruction, and intervention matched to student needs in order to maximize student
achievement. The initial focus of RtI was primarily on improving reading achievement, but
schools have now expanded RtI to mathematics. While a multitude of books and articles
have been written about RtI, most of them describe the RtI process, recommendations for
universal screening and progress monitoring, and instruction and interventions for read-
ing. As schools begin to look beyond support in reading, there is a need for resources that
address evidence-based interventions for mathematics.
This book is for teacher educators, classroom teachers, special educators, math spe-
cialists, math coaches, teacher aides, administrators, related service providers, and other
professionals who directly or indirectly support students struggling to master mathemat-
ics. We begin with an overview of the RtI process and discuss how to use assessment to
make instructional decisions in mathematics. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the evi-
dence-based practices for teaching mathematics in the general classroom and the interven-
tions that support students who are struggling with core concepts. Because a large body of
research suggests that careful attention to both lesson design and motivational strategies
can significantly improve struggling learners’ mathematical achievement, we address these
foundational topics in Chapters 4 and 5. In the remaining chapters, we provide a detailed
description of interventions to help struggling learners master concepts and operations
involving whole numbers and rational numbers. Our goal is to clarify how instruction dur-
ing interventions differs from the core instruction provided in the general education class-
room. We include information about locating effective materials to use during interventions,
as well as ideas for adapting and supplementing other available materials to provide the
intensive instruction that is necessary to support students who require mathematical inter-
ventions. The evidence-based interventions discussed in this book follow the recommenda-
tions from the Institute of Education Sciences Practice Guide, Assisting Students Struggling
with M athematics: Response to Intervention (RtI) for Elementary and Middle Schools, the National
Center on Intensive Intervention, the Council for Exceptional Children, and other national
experts. Using these strategies can help prevent difficulties, support struggling learners,
and allow all students to be successful in mathematics.
♦ ix
1
Overview of Response to
Intervention in Mathematics
♦ 1
required states to include frequent monitoring of students’ progress in the general curricu-
lum as part of, or prior to, the special-education referral process. Both laws emphasize the
key principles of RtI/MTSS: progress monitoring; high-quality, research-based instruction;
application of a research-based process of problem-solving, and increased accountability.
While RtI/MTSS includes a process used to determine students’ educational needs, it is not
synonymous with the special-education referral process.
In the past ten years, practitioners across the country have worked to refine the general
principles and guidelines for implementing RtI/MTSS. In 2015, President Obama signed
into law Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA). This reauthorization of the Elementary and
Secondary Education Act (ESEA) focused on closing the achievement gap between students
and providing equal access to high-quality instruction through improved assessment and
accountability. While the details of implementing a multi-tiered model may vary based on
local context, the following critical components are constant: (1) providing evidence-based
instruction to all students, (2) using data to guide instructional decision-making and eval-
uate instructional effectiveness, and (3) using multiple levels of support to provide increas-
ingly intense and targeted interventions for students at risk of academic failure.
Evidence-Based Instruction
A core principle of RtI/MTSS is that all students should receive high-quality instruction
using methods that have been validated through rigorous research. In the past, peda-
gogy was often based on educational theory or educator preferences rather than scientific
research. However, researchers have increasingly focused on identifying effective instruc-
tional practices. As a result, educators have access to a growing list of instructional proce-
dures and programs that have been shown to significantly increase student learning during
rigorous scientific experiments.
Unfortunately, evidence-based pedagogy is sometimes slow to make its way into class-
rooms. Studies document that many evidence-based strategies are not routinely included
in textbooks and teacher guides commonly used in our schools (Bryant et al., 2008;
Hodges, Carly, & Collins, 2008; NMAP, 2008). While most publishers provide research
and testimonials claiming that their products will achieve miraculous results, many of the
studies quoted do not meet the methodological criteria required of high-quality research.
To qualify as “evidence-based” research under Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA), a
study must meet rigorous standards, including the use of systematic observation or
experiment, measurements or observation methods that have been shown to provide
valid and reliable data, and rigorous data analysis. The participants, setting, and meth-
odology must be described in sufficient detail to allow other researchers to replicate the
study and compare results. The study must have a large sample size (350 participants),
a significantly positive effect, and must be implemented in at least two educational sites.
In addition, for an evidence-based practice to be labeled as “evidence-based,” the prac-
tice should be supported not just by a single study, but by multiple studies that meet the
standards of methodological rigor outlined by What Works Clearinghouse, a reliable
source of scientific evidence on educational programs, interventions, instructional prac-
tices. (What Works Clearinghouse, 2020).
While high-quality research evaluating complete math programs is improving, a sig-
nificant body of research describes instructional procedures that have been found to be
effective for teaching mathematics. These methods have produced significant positive
effects in multiple high-quality research studies. The What Works Clearinghouse provides
Data-Driven Instruction
Data-Driven Instruction (DDI) is a cornerstone of RtI. Assessment data are collected and
used to evaluate instructional materials and programs, and to guide instructional decisions
for individual students and groups of students. Within an RtI/MTSS framework, three types
of assessment occur: (1) universal screening, (2) progress monitoring, and (3) diagnostic
assessment.
♦♦ Universal Screening: universal screening is the first step in the data-collection process.
The information obtained allows a district to evaluate the effectiveness of its core instruc-
tional program and identify students who are struggling or at risk for mathematical
difficulty. Universal screening is usually administered two to four times per year. School
personnel may review students’ performance on recent state or district tests or may
administer a math screening test. The results are used to identify students who are not
making adequate progress in mathematics and who need additional support in order to
attain mathematical proficiency. The National Center on Intensive Intervention (https://
intensiveintervention.org/) provides guidelines for selecting assessments and includes
reviews of numerous assessment instruments. The Center on Multi-Tiered System of
Supports (www.mtss4success.org) also provides guidance for selecting assessment
instruments.
♦♦ Progress Monitoring: students who are not making adequate progress, as indicated by
the universal screening results, receive more frequent progress monitoring. Typically,
this involves administering short assessments that can detect small changes in student
learning. Student responses to intervention are used to evaluate the effectiveness of the
current interventions and guide the decision to either increase or decrease the level of
support provided or to maintain or change intervention strategies.
♦♦ Diagnostic Assessment: diagnostic assessments provide more detailed information
about students’ strengths and weaknesses in specific skill areas. This formative assess-
ment helps teachers identify the specific mathematical content to be addressed and select
appropriate instructional strategies and activities.
Tiered Support
In an RtI/MTSS model, tiers are used to provide increasingly intensive support for strug-
gling learners. The term “intervention” is used to describe the instructional procedures
used to support individuals who have not made adequate progress in the core curriculum.
Intervention is “extra help or extra instruction that is targeted specifically to skills that
a student has not acquired” (Pierangelo & Giuliani, 2008, p. 80). Generally, RtI/MTSS is
described as a three-tier model of support, with each tier representing increasingly intense
levels of intervention. The online resources include an overview of the increasing support
provided at each tier.
Models of Implementation
Two approaches to RtI/MTSS are described in the literature: a problem-solving model and
the standard treatment protocol. Both approaches provide evidence-based instruction to all
students, use data to guide instructional decision-making and evaluate instructional effec-
tiveness, and use tiered support to provide increasingly intense interventions for individu-
als experiencing difficulty. The two approaches differ in the way instructional interventions
are selected for use at each tier.
In the problem-solving approach, a team makes instructional decisions based on the
individual student’s strengths and weaknesses, as revealed during universal screening and
progress monitoring. The team identifies areas in which the individual is struggling and
then develops an intervention plan tailored to the student needs. While groups of students
with similar profiles are grouped together for instruction, the details of the intervention vary
depending on the unique needs and performance data of the groups’ members. This approach
has been used in schools for more than 20 years and is generally favored by practitioners.
In the standard protocol, school leaders typically decide on a select group of research-
based interventions that have been proven to increase student outcomes in specific areas.
For example, schools may decide that one particular program that targets basic fact knowl-
edge will be used first for any students needing additional instruction in learning their basic
facts. This approach is favored by researchers because using one standardized format helps
ensure fidelity of implementation.
At the heart of Response to Intervention is early identification of students who are at risk of
academic failure. The problem-solving model provides an efficient and effective framework
to assess students’ academic functioning and to use the assessment data to inform and eval-
uate instructional practices and interventions (Deno & Mirkin, 1977). The five basic steps
in the data-based problem-solving model are the following: 1) problem identification, 2)
problem analysis, 3) intervention planning, 4) plan implementation, and 5) progress moni-
toring and plan evaluation. Figure 2.1 gives a visual representation of these important steps
developed by Rhode Island Department of Elementary and Secondary Education (2010).
The problem-solving model serves many important functions in a school. First and fore-
most, it provides an organizational structure that guides teams in their efforts to maximize
student success. The five steps mentioned above help teams evaluate school-wide data,
prioritize goals, and formulate plans to help all students. The purpose of this chapter is to
provide a general overview of the problem-solving process as it relates to instructional deci-
sions in mathematics. There are numerous, high-quality books that go into much greater
detail about the technical aspects of educational assessment. See the e-resource for a list
of resources containing in-depth information about assessing students’ understanding of
mathematical skills and concepts.
One of the biggest shifts in current educational practice is the shift to using data to inform
instructional decisions in the classroom setting. In the past, providing struggling students
with additional support had been heavily dependent on teacher recommendations. Over the
past five years, greater emphasis has been placed on using objective academic data to guide
instruction and interventions in the classroom. Schools are now using universal screening,
benchmarking, and progress monitoring to assess student outcomes, as well as assess the
effectiveness of classroom curriculum and instruction. While schools are collecting more
data, there is still a gap between collecting data and using data to inform educational deci-
sions. By following the steps of the problem-solving model, educators can ensure that they
are identifying and addressing student academic needs in the most targeted and effective
way. In this chapter, we will discuss the steps of the problem-solving model as a framework
for school-based teams and individual educators to use data to guide their instruction and
supplemental interventions.
♦ 7
Figure 2.1 Problem-Solving Model
Source: Rhode Island Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. (2010). Rhode
Island Criteria and Guidance for the Identification of Specific Learning Disabilities. Providence:
Rhode Island Department of Elementary and Secondary Education. Used with permission.
tudents who are identified as at risk and require supplemental support in mathematics
S
should be monitored monthly to ensure that the interventions and additional support effec-
tively assist them to make adequate progress toward the benchmark. Those students iden-
tified as needing “intensive” support should receive more explicit small-group support in
addition to Tier 2 services; these students should be monitored at least every two weeks
(ideally weekly). The general rule of thumb about how frequently to monitor student pro-
gress is this: the more severe or intensive the need, the more frequently progress should be
monitored. The National Center on Intensive Interventions provides information on select-
ing instruments for universal screening and progress monitoring (https://charts.inten-
siveintervention.org/chart/progress-monitoring). Its website contains reviews of several
assessment measures, which are summarized in an easy-to-read “Tools Chart.” Students
who are identified as struggling will need additional support. For these students, we move
to the next step in the problem-solving process: problem analysis.
In these problems, the student correctly executed the regrouping algorithm but made an
error calculating basic facts. In the first problem, she added 9 + 6 and recorded the sum as
14. In the second problem, she added 7 + 6 and recorded the sum as 15. Since she completed
the regrouping part of the problem correctly, additional instruction in regrouping might be
unnecessary. However, if the student consistently says the sum of 9 + 6 is 14 or the sum of 7 + 6
is 15, she may need additional work to master basic facts. On the other hand, factual errors
also occur when students make careless mistakes because their attention has wandered or
they are rushing through the assignment. Additional investigation may be necessary to dis-
criminate between these two scenarios. If the problem is due to carelessness, the student
can usually fix the error when asked to review the work. A student who struggles when
computing basic facts, needs additional practice to develop computational fluency, while a
student who makes careless errors will benefit more from an intervention that teaches him
to check his work or that rewards computational accuracy. Both students might make errors
on the regrouping portion of the screening measure, but neither of these students needs an
intervention focused on learning how to regroup in addition.
A more serious type of error occurs when students lack conceptual understanding.
Consider how a different student solved the same two problems:
39 87
+ 6 + 36
315 1113
1
87
+ 36
114
Procedural errors sometimes occur because the student lacks conceptual understanding.
In the above example, the student may be confused about place value and so make errors
because he is trying to execute an algorithm he does not truly understand. If that is the case,
an appropriate intervention would focus on developing understanding of place value and
later of the regrouping process. However, the student may have a solid understanding of
place value and the regrouping process, but have problems with reversals. A student who
occasionally tries to read from right to left may have read the above problem as 78 + 63. Such
a student would not need additional instruction in place value or regrouping, but might
benefit if an arrow is placed across the top of the page pointing from left to right in order to
remind him which way to read the problem. Procedural errors can also occur for a variety of
other reasons, such as memory deficits, visual-motor integration problems, and impulsivity.
Additional investigation might be needed to determine the cause of the procedural error in
order to select an appropriate intervention.
Information gleaned through error analysis can be enhanced through observation and
discussion. Interviews provide valuable insight into students’ mathematical reasoning
and are increasingly advocated to improve mathematical instruction (Allsopp et al., 2008;
Buschman, 2001; Crespo & Nicol, 2003; Ginsburg, Jacobs, & Lopez, 1998; Long & Ben-Hur,
1991). One interview technique involves asking the student to “think aloud” while solving
the problem. Watching the student work and hearing her thinking may reveal possible mis-
conceptions. Follow-up questions can provide further information. For example, you can
ask the student why she selected a particular strategy, ask her to explain her reasoning or
suggest alternative approaches, use objects or pictures to demonstrate the solution, or prove
that the answer makes sense. Another interview strategy is to let the student play the role of
teacher and show you how to solve the problem. Interviews provide evidence of students’
mathematical reasoning. They can reveal gaps in learning, provide insight into the thinking
strategies students use, and identify the strengths and weaknesses in their understanding.
All this information can guide intervention planning. Figure 2.3 shows an example of inter-
view questions that can be used to evaluate student understanding.
Problem analysis helps us develop a complete picture of a student’s mathematical under-
standing. Obtaining this level of detailed information about why the student is struggling
allows us to target our instruction or intervention to effectively and efficiently address the
specific skills or concepts a student needs to develop. By pinpointing the deficit area, we
can identify appropriate instructional goals and interventions that will enable the student
to obtain mathematical proficiency.
After the student’s academic needs are identified, the teacher and/or the problem-solv-
ing team determine appropriate goals for the student. Many times, if the area of need is not
severe, the team can work backward from the performance level that is considered adequate
for future success. After determining an appropriate performance level on a given skill or
concept, the team uses local or national norms to identify the level that will enable the stu-
dent to close the gap between her current performance and her average performing peers.
For example, the student may be scoring in the 10th percentile on addition facts. The goal
should not be that the student will perform at the 90th percentile, but rather the 50th per-
centile if that is deemed sufficient performance to progress in the mathematics curriculum
and other formal and informal assessments. See Figure 2.5 for an example of an intervention
plan for a second-grade student.
implements it in the same way that it was used in the research studies—that is, implements
it with fidelity—then their students should obtain similar outcomes. If the intervention is
changed, then similar outcomes cannot be assumed. Therefore, if there is empirical evidence
that a specific strategy or program produces certain student outcomes, it is imperative that
the strategy be used consistently and in the way it was designed. Figure 2.6 provides an
example of a questionnaire that could be used to assess whether an intervention was imple-
mented with fidelity. If a student fails to make progress, the questionnaire can help the team
determine whether the designated intervention plan was followed consistently. If the plan
was followed consistently and the student did not progress, then the team should consider
additional diagnostic assessment and/or a new intervention strategy. On the other hand, if
the original plan was not followed consistently, then it would be appropriate to continue the
intervention but take steps to ensure fidelity of implementation.
Inherent in a plan being implemented with fidelity are the following key aspects: 1) the
implementer has adequate training in the method or program, 2) the implementer has access
to the needed materials, space, and scheduled time to successfully implement the plan as
designed, 3) progress is monitored frequently to assess the student’s level of performance
and the appropriateness of the intervention in addressing the targeted area, and 4) accurate
and consistent documentation of the intervention is maintained throughout the entire plan
or until the team decides to make a change.
*****
*****
Kokous oli kutsuttu kello 7:ksi. Minä olin käskenyt pari pedelliä
ylioppilastalolle ja pysyttelin itse läheisyydessä siltä varalta, että
minun henkilökohtainen asiaan puuttumiseni tulisi tarpeelliseksi. Kun
moneen sataan nouseva joukko ylioppilaita sai tiedon kiellostani ja
näki salin ovien olevan suljettuina, kokoontuivat he ylioppilastalon
portaille ja torille sen ulkopuolelle. He pysyivät rauhallisina, mutta
eivät poistuneet pedellien kehoituksista huolimatta. Mutta myöskin
poliiseja saapui paikalle, ja koska pelkäsin selkkauksia syntyvän
niiden kanssa, menin itse paikalle ja kuljin muutamia kertoja
kansanjoukon läpi, kehoittaen ylioppilaita poistumaan. Osa vetäytyi
syrjään, mutta kokous ei sanottavasti pienentynyt. Vaikka minua ei
millään tavalla häiritty ja vaikka kohtelu olikin sopivaa, huomasin
kuitenkin, että mieliala oli hyvin katkeroitunut. Minä puhelin
muutamien vanhempien ylioppilasten kanssa, jotka ilmoittivat
minulle, että lähetystö oli lähetetty minun luokseni, vaan ei vielä ollut
palannut, sekä että juuri sitä odotettiin. Minä päätin mennä kotiin ja
sovittiin siitä, että lähetystö uudelleen tulisi luokseni. Vanhemmat
ylioppilaat selittivät, että ylioppilaat silloin seuraisivat jäljessä ja että
joukko siten hajaantuisi.
*****
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