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ED 315 883 EA 021 611

AUTHOR Doyle, Walter

TITLE Classroom Management Techniques and Student
Discipline.
SPONS AGENCY Office of Educational Research and Improvement (ED),
Washington, DC.
PUB DATE Dec 86
NOTE 42p.; Paper prepared for the Student Discipline
Strategies project.
PUB TYPE Information Analyses (070)

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DESCRIPTORS *Class Activities; *Classroom Techniques;
*Discipline; Elementary Secondary Education;
Punishment; *Research Needs; *Student Behavior;
Suspension; *Theory Practice Relationship

ABSTRACT
This paper reviews concepts and research findings on
classroom management techniques and explores how these techniques are
related to student discipline strategies. The first section surveys
descriptive and experimental research recently accumulated on
classroom management practice, concentrating on strategies for
monitoring and guiding classroom activity systems. Classroom
activities research confirms the relationship of different activity
types, classroom physical characteristics, and student choice and
mobility to student (mis)behavior and the classroom management
demands made on teachers. Management is a cognitiwe activity based on
a teacher's knowledge of classroom event trajectories and the way
certain actions will affect situations. Specific management skills
are useless without this basic understanding of classrooms. The
second section focuses on classroom rules, procedures, and common
discipline forms, particularly reprimands and other "desists" to keep
order. Research suggests that classroom rules and procedures must be
both announced and enforced, and that rule making involves complex
interaction processes and negotiatiors of meaning. The third section
examines punishment and supension's effectiveness as discipline
strategies for serious classroom disruptions. Also discussed is the
applicability of behavior modification procedures to classroom
settings. The concluding section evaluates the state of classr000m
management and discipline research and identifies implications for
research and practice. (92 references) (MLH)

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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND

STUDENT DISCIPLINE

Walter Doyle

University of Arizona

Running Head: Classroom Management

Paper prepared for the Student Discipline Strategies project sponsored

by the Education and Society Division of the Office of Research, OERI,
U. S. Department of Education.

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 Classroom Management Techniques and

Student Discipline

Walter Doyle

University of Arizona

The purpose of this paper is to review concepts and research

findings on classroom management techniques with special attention to V.

how these techniques are related to student discipline strategies. The

discussion opens with a survey of the descriptive and experimental

research recently accumulated on classroom management processes, with

special attention to strategies for monitoring and guiding classroom

activity systems. The second section focuses on classroom rules and

procedures and on common forms of classroom discipline, particularly

reprimands and other desists teachers use to sustain order. In the

third section punishment and suspension are examined in terms of their

effectiveness as discipline strategies for serious classroom disrup-

tions. In this section the applicabil'ty of behavior modification

procedures to classroom setting is also discussed briefly. In the

le
concluding section, a general evaluation of the state of research on

classroom management and discipline is assessed and implications for

research and practice are identified.

Misbehavior and Order in Classroom Management

Traditionally "misbehavior" has been the dominant theme in discus-

sions of classroom management (see, Johnson 6 Brooks, 1979). This

emphasis is understandable since the need for management and discipline

3
Classroom Management

is most apparent when students are misbehaving. Yet, this preoccupation

with misbehavior tended to narrow the scope of research and training in

classroom management in at least two ways. First, a focus on

misbehavior directed attention to "desists" or actions taken after

misbehavior occurs (e.g., reprimands, reinforcement contingencies, or

counseling) to ; neglect of the orgariizational strategies teachers use

to prevent misbehavior in the first place. Second, misbehavior is a

property of individuals, and, thus, a focus on misbehavior led to models

of management that were largely individualistic. Within this framework,

the structural features of classroom groups were often ignored.

Since Kounin's (1970) classic studies of students' work involve-

ment, however, attention in the field of classroom management has

shifted from misbehavior to order, and the consequences of this shift

have been substantial. Misbehavior is a property of individuals, but

order is a property of a group. The achievement of order requires

models that capture socirl structures and processes in classrooms. From

this latter perspective, it soon becomes apparent that classroom order

is not a consequence of reactions to misbehavior but a condition

established and sustained by the way a teacher organizes and guides a

complex system of classroom activities and academic work. The modern

emphasis, in other words, is clearly on what teachers do to structure

and monitor classroom events before misbehavior occurs. Moreover, the

effectiveness of interventions to restore order when misbehavior does

occur is seen to depend upon the existence of structures of orderliness

in the first place.

 Classroom Management Page 3

The shift from misbehavior to order has changed the language of

classroom management and enriched the field by bringing a large body of

knowledge on classroom social systems to bear on management issues. As

a result, we now understand a great deal about how order is achieved in

classroom environments. In the following section, the major findings

from research on classroom order are summarized (for details, see Doyle,

1986).

Classroom Activities: The Core of Management

Classr.:oms are crowded and busy places in which groups of students

who vary in interests and abilities must be organized and directed in

ways that maximize work involvement and minimize disruptions. Moreover,

these groups assemble regularly for long periods of time to accomplish a

wide variety of goals. Many events occur simultaneously, teachers must

react often and immediately to circumstances, and the course of events

is frequently unpredictege. Teaching in such settings requires a

highly developed ability to monitor events and interpret situations (see

Carter, 1985, 1986). Moreover, the enterprise does not readily lend

itself to general rules and directives.

Despite this complexity, we are beginning to understand more clear-

ly that order is achieved through the management of classroom

"activities."

Classroom Activities

From an organizational perspective, the central unit of classroom

order is the activity. An activity can be defined as a segment of time

in which participants are arranged in a specific fashion and communica-

5
.3,
Classroom Management Page 4

tion follows an identifiable pattern (see Doyle, 1986; Gump, 1969; Ross,

1984; Stodolsky, 1984). A segment of classroom time, such as a spelling

test, writing lesson, or study period, can be described, that is, in

terms of

1. Its temporal boundaries or duration.

2. The physical milieu, that is, the shape of the site in which it

occurs, the number and types of participants, the arrangement of

participants in the rvailable space, and the props or objects

available to participants.

3. The behavior format or program of action for participants.

4. The focal content or concern of the segment.

The concept of "program of action" is key to modern understandings

of classroom management and order. Each activity defines a distinctive

action structure that provides direction for events and "pulls" partici-

pants along a particular path at a given pace (see Merritt, 1982; Gump,

1982). In seatwork, for example, students are usually expected to work

privately and independently at their desks, attend to a single infor-

mation source such as textbook or worksheet, and finish within a

specified time. In whole-class discussion, on the other hand, students

are expected to speak publicly and monitor information from multiple

sources.

To say a classroom is orderly, then, means that students are

coope,:ating in the program of action defined Int the activity a teacher

is attempting. to use. Misbehavior, in turn, is any action by students

that threatens to disrupt the activity flow or null the class toward an
 3.0.P..1G.TrY :
is

Classroom Management Page 5

alternative program of action. If order is not defined in a particular

setting, i.e., if an activity system is not established and running in a

classroom, no amount of discipline will create order.

Major findings from research on classroom activities, most of which

has been conducted in elementary classes, can be summarized as follows

(for details, see Doyle, 1986):

1. Activity types are systematically related to the behavior of

students and thus place different classroom management demands on

teachers. In a study of third-grade classes Gump (1969) found, for

instance, that involvement was highest fcr students in teacher-led small

groups and lowest for pupil presentations. Between these extremes,

engagement was higher in whole-class recitation, tests, and teachers

presentations than in supervised study and independent seatwork.

Similar results in elementary classes have been reported by other

investigators (see Ross, 1984).

2. The physical characteristics of a classroom, including the

density of students, the arrangement of desks, and the design of the

building (open space vs. self-contained) also affect the probability of

inappropriate and disruptive behavior as well as the difficulties a

teacher encounters in preventing or stopping such behavior (Gump, 1982;

Weinstein, 1979).

3. The greater the amount of student choice and mobility and the

greater the complexity of the social scene, the greater the need for

overt managing and controlling actions by the teacher (Kounin & Gump,

1974).

1.4 a ;".
Classroom Management rage 6

4. The type of work students are assigned affects classroom order

(see Carter & Doyle, 1986). When academic work is routinized and

familiar to students (e.g., spelling tests or recurrits worksheet

exercises), the flow of classroom activity is typically smooth and well

ordered. When work is problem-centered, that is, students are required

to interpret situations and make decisions to accomplish tasks (e.g.,

word problems or essays), activity flow is frequently slow and bumpy.

Managing higher-order tasks requires exceptional management skill.

Establishing Classroom Activities

In the early 1900s, Bagley (1907) exhorted teachers that "the only

way absolutely to insure a school against waste is to make the very

first day thoroughly rigorous in all its details" (p. 22). Modern

research has confirmed the validity of Bagley's pronouncement. One of

the central findings of recent classroom studies is that the level of

order created during the first few days of school reliably predicts the

degree of student engagement and disruption for the rest of the year

(see Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980). As a result, effective

teachers at both elementary and junior high school levels expend

considerable energy at the beginning of the school year establishing

activities and hovering over them until they operate automatically (see

Ball, 1980; Doyle, 1984; Smith & Geoffr4y, 1968). Although few "turn-

around" studies have been conducted, the available evidence as well as

common knowledge among experienced teachers indicates that, if this

important step $s missed, it is extremely difficult to create order

later in the year (see Doyle, 1984).

8
 Ti1/47 . 7.

Classroom Management Page 7

Most studies indicate that successful classroom managers rely on

three basic strategies to establish order at the beginning of the year:

simplicity, familiarity, and routinization (for a summary, see Doyle,

1986). Early activities, in other words, have simple organizational

structures which are typically quite familiar to students (e.g., whole-

class presentations and seatwork rather than multiple small groups).

The first assignments, in turn, are easy for the students to accomplish

in relatively short periods of time and have clear specifications.

Moreover, they are often based on work the students can be expected to

have done the previous fear. A significant chunk of the management

task, then, is solved by selecting appropriate activities and assign-

ments for the opening of school. Proper selection is supplemented by

routinizing the activity system for the class (see Yinger, 1980).

Teachers repeat the same activity forms for the first weeks to

familiarize students with standard procedures and provide opportunities

to rehearse them. This routinizing of activities helps sustain class-

room order by making events less susceptible to breakdowns because

participants know the normal sequence of action.

le
Monitoring and Guiding Classroom Events

Kounin's (1970) widely influential studies of group management

processes in classrooms pointed to the key role of monitoring in

establishing and maintaining classroom activities. Kr,unin found that

teachers with high levels of "withitneas" (awareness of what was going

on the classroom) and "overlapping" (ability to attend to two or more

9
Classroom Management Page 8

events at the same time) had high levels of work involvement and low

levels of inappropriate and disruptive behavior.

The content of monitoring--what teachers watch when scanning a

room--includes at least three dimensions. First, teachers watch groups,

that is, they attend to what is happening in the entire room and how

well the total activity system is going. A group focus does not

preclude attention to individual students, but localized attending must

be scheduleti within the broader framework of the group activity (see

Merritt, 1982). Second, teachers watch conduct or behavior, seth

particular attention to discrepancies from the intended program of

action. This ,enables teachers to recognize misbehavior early, stop it

before it spreads, and select the appropriate target for intervention

(Emmer et al., 1980; Kounin, 1970). Third, teachers monitor the pace,

rhythm, and duration of classroom events. Several studies have shown

that pace, momentum, and rhythm are key factors in maintaining an

activity in a classroom (Arlin, 1982; Erickson & Mohatt, 1982; Gump,

1969) Excessive delays in the flow of classroom events or abrupt shifts

in direction are often associated with inappropriate or disruptive

student behavior (see Kounin, 1970).

Obviously, situational factors influence the monitoring and guiding

processes in classroom management. The more complex the arrangement of

students in a class and the greater the demands on the teacher as an

actor in the activity system, the more difficult monitoring and cueing

become and, thus, the greater the probability of a breakdown in order.

This effect was clear in a series of naturalistic and experimental

10
Classroom Management Page 9

studies conducted by Arlin (1982). Arlin found that mastery learning

designs, in which achievement is set at mastery and the time students

need to learn is allowed to vary, magnified the effect of learning rate

differences among students in a class and created delays as teachers

worked with the small number of students who did not achieve mastery.

This disruptions of activity momentum generated serious problems of

management and order for teachers. Arlin's findings suggest that highly

differentiated instructional systems are inherently difficult to manage

in classrooms.

Summary. From the perspective outlined here, teaching in class-

rooms demands a high degree of efficiency in information processing and

an ability to predict the direction of events and make decisions rapid-

ly. For this reason, management is fundamentally a cognitive activity

based on a teacher's knowledge of the likely trajectory of events in

classrooms and the way specific actions affect situations (see Carter,

1985, 1986). Specific management skills are, for all practical

purposes, useless without this basic understanding of classrooms.

Rules and Reprimands: The Core of Classroom Discipline

Because classrooms are populated by groups of students assembled

under crowded conditions for relatively long periods of time to

accomplish specified purposes, life in these settings is governed by a

variety of explicit and implicit rules and procedures (see Blumenfeld,

Hamilton, Wessels, & Falkner, 1979, and Jackson, 1968, on elementary

schools and Hargreaves, Hester, & Mellor, 1975, and Smith & Geoffrey,

1968, on secondary schools). Considerable space have been devoted to

11
 ,

`Management Page 10

The rule making process is especially salient in the present context

because most incidents of misbehavior and discipline involve the viola-

tion of classroom or school rules.

The Importance of Rules.

Classroom rules are usually intended to regulate forms of

individual conduct that are likely to disrupt activities, cause injury,

or damage school property. Thus, there are rules concerning tardiness,

talking during lessons, gum chewing, fighting, bringing materials to

class, and the like (see Hargreaves et al., 1975; Tikunoff & Ward,

1978). In addition, there are a large number of implicit rules (e.g.,

patterns of turn taking in discussions or conventions for social

distance between pupils) that affect social interaction and inter-

personal relationships in classrooms (see Erickson & Shultz, 1981;

McHoul, 1978). Finally, there is typically a set of classroom

procedures, that is, approved ways of taking care of various responsi-

bilities and privileges, such as handing in completed work, sharpening

pencils, getting a drink of water, going to the restroom, or forming

groups for reading or math.

Studies at the Research and Development Center for Teacher Educa-

tion (Emmer, Evertson, & Anderson, 1980; Emmer, Sanford, Evertson,

Clements, & Martin, 1981; Emmer, Sanford, Clements, & Martin, 1982;

Evertson & Earner, 1982) have indicated that effective classroom managers

in elementary and junior high school classes are especially skilled in

establishing rules and procedures at the beginning of the year.

12
 Classroom Management Page 11

In elementary classes, the investigators found that nearly all

teachers introduced rules and procedures on the first day of school. In

classes of effective managers (selected on indicators of management

processes and student achievement), however, rules and procedures were

concrete and explicit and covered matters directly related to work

accomplishment. In addition, effective managers deliberately taught

their operating systems to the students. They clearly explained rules

and procedures to students, established signals to indicate when actions

were to be carried out or stopped, and spent time rehearsing procedures.

In addition, effective managers anticipated possible interruptions or

problems and had procedures readily available to handle these situa-

tions. Finally, effective managers monitored classes closely, stopped

inappropriate behavior promptly, and continued to remind students of the

rules and procedures during the first weeks of school. In contrast,

less effective managers either failed to anticipate the

need for rules

and procedures covering important aspects of class operation or tended

to have vague and unenforceable rules (e.g., "Be in the right place
at

the right time"). Moreover, they neither explained their rules and

procedures clearly to students nor monitored and enforced compliance.

They seemed, rather, to be preoccupied with clerical tasks and

disori,-nted by problems and interruptions.

In junior high school classes, the researchers found that all

teachers presented rules and procedures at the beginning of the year,

and there were few differences across teachers in the

time spent on

these matters. Differences were found, however, in the clarity and

13
Classrocm Management Page 12

thoroughness of presentation and in the monitoring and enforcement of

compliance. Successful managers, in contrast to their less effective

colleagues, anticipated problems, communicated rules and expectations

clearly, watched students losely, intervened promptly, and invoked

consequences for behavior. Those results were consistent with those for

elementary classes, but less time was spent teaching and rehearsing

rules and procedures at the junior high level.

Rule Making and Enactment Processes.

Creating a rule system in a classroom is a difficult task to

accomplish for at least three reasons. First, classroom rules are

situational (see Bremme and Erickson, 1977; Wallet & Green, 1979). As

Hargreaves and his colleagues (1975) have observed, different rules

apply to different phases of lessons. Quiet talk among peers, for

example, is allowed during entry and seatwork but not during teacher

presentations or recitations. Similarly, orderliness in group

activities that involve speaking, listening, and turn-taking differs

substantially from that required for seatwork (see Au, 1980; Cazden,

1986). Second, order is "jointly coustituted" by the participants in

activities (see Buckley & Cooper, 1978; Erickson & Shultz, 1981; Sieber,

1979). That is, order is achieved with students and depends upon their

willingness to follow along with the unfolding of an event. Whether or

not students play an official role in defining or choosing classroom

rules, they shape, through cooperation and resistance, the rules that

are actually established in a particular class. Finally, teachers must

balance activity management with rule enforcement. Time taken to deal

14
ov

Classroom Management Page 13

publicly with rule violations distracts attention away from the main

activity system. And, if rule violations are frequent, misbehavior

rather than academic work can become the operating curriculum in a

class. For this reason, experienced teachers tend to push ahead with

activities and endeavor to make reprimands brief and private (see

Carter, 1985; Doyle, 1984). [This point will be discussed more fully in

the following section on misbehavior and interventions.]

A considerable amount of research has been done on the interaction-

al competence students need to participate successfully in the complex

rule systems of classrooms (see Cook-Gumperz & Gumperz, 1982; Erickson &

Shultz, 1981; Green & Harker, 1982; Mehan, 1980). Although most

students learn classroom rules and procedures readily (LeCompte, 1978),

low ability students and students from minority cultures sometimes have

special problems comprehending the classroom system and recognizing

context cues for appropriate behavior (see Eder, 1982; Florio & Shultz,

1979; Philips, 1972'0. In other words, if a student's preschool or

extraschool experiences do not foster understandings and behaviors

congruent with classroom demands, it is sometimes difficult for him or

her to follow rules and procedures, gain access to lessons, or display

competence. Suggestions for improving such situations include more

explicit teaching of classroom rules and appropriate behavior (Cartledge

& Milburn, 1978; Shultz & Florio, 1979) and the design of classroom

procedures in ways that are congruent with patterns of communicating in

specific cultures (Cazden, 1986; Erickson & Mohatt, 1982).

Classroom Management Page 14

It is curious, however, that rule making appears to be an important

opening ritual for both elementary and secondary classes despite the

fact that most children seem to learn the classroom system during their

first year or so of schooling (see Blumenfeld at al., 1979; LeCompte,

1980; Wallet & Green, 1979). It is unlikely that even third grade

students are learning anything new when they encounter rules on the

first day of school or that junior high students are unaware of the

general expectations for acceptable behavior in classrooms.

Reflection on this situation suggests that by giving explicit

attention to rules and procedures a teacher acknowledges the importance

of order and signals the level of vigilance and accountability that will

prevail in a particular classroom (see Ball, 1980; Doyle, 1979). By

setting rules, a teacher communicates his or her awareness of what can

happen in a classroom and demonstrates a degree of commitment to work.

Students are thus able to acquire valuable information early in the year

about a teacher's approach and expectations. The mu.e explicit the

rules and the more clearly they are communicated, the more likely the

teacher cares about maintaining order and is skilled in handling

inappropriate and disruptive behavior. But simply stating the rules is

not enough. A teacher must also demonstrate a willingness and an

ability to act when rules are broken. For this reason, reprimands and

consequences play an important role in rule making.

In summary, research suggests that rules and procedures in class-

rooms must be both announced and enforced and rule making involves

complex processes of interaction and the negotiation of meaning. The

16
 Classroom Management Page 1.5

'4.

implication here is that rule making cannot be easily captured in a list

of directives or techniques. To be effective participants in the rule

making process, teachers must understand what they are attempting to

orchestrate and how situations shape actions.

Misbehavior and Interventions

The central message of modern research on classroom management id

that misbehavior and actions teachers take to stop it are embedded in

the activity system of a classroom. This viewpoint has implications for

understanding the nature of misbehavior and the character of appropriate

disciplinary strategies for classroom use.

Misbehavior. Despite popular reports of violence and crime in

schools, most problems of misbehavior in classrooms are related to

attention, crowd control, and getting work accomplished (see Duke,

1978). Some student actions, such as tardiness or inappropriate dress,

are usually governed by school-wide policies and rules. But most

misbehavior in classrooms is not that clearly defined. Actions that

would appear to an outside observer to be similar, are often treated

quite differently by a teachers depending upon who performs them at what

time in what context (see Metz, 1978). This differential treatment is

not usually a sign of teacher incompetence or even inconsistency.

Rather, it reflects the context dependency of rules and the differential

consequences of actions in the behavior stream of classrooms.

The key to understanding misbehavior in classrooms is to view what

students do in terms of its consistency with the main program of

activity for the class. From this perspective, misbehavior is any

 ti
s
Classroom Management Page 16

student act that initiates a competing vector or program for the class.

Vectors perceived as misb:ilavior are likely to be public, that is,

visible to a significant portion of the class, and contagious, that is,

capable of spreading rapidly or pulling other members of the class into

them. For classes in which the primary vector is weak (i.e., students

are easily distracted from academic work) and actions outside the

primary vector are frequent, misbehavior is likely to be common (see

Felmlee & Eder, 1983; Metz, 1978).

By this definition, not every infraction of a rule is necessarily

misbehavior. Talking out of turn is not misbehavior if it advances the

lesson at a time when moving forward is essential. Similarly, inatten-

tion during the last few minutes of a class session will often be

tolerated because the activity is coming to an end. On the other hand,

consistent delays in conforming to directives can slow down activity

flow and irritate a teacher (Brooks & Wagenhauser, 1980).

Interventions. McDermott (1976) has documented that students in

both high and low ability groups respond almost immediately to

departures from the primary program of action and begin to signal

through posture and glances their awareness of "disorder." Neverthe-

less, the teacher is the primary custodian of order in a class and must

frequently decide when and how to intervene to repair order.

In a study of third and fifth grade classes, Sieber (1976) found

that interventions to stop misbehavior occurred at a rate of about 16

per hour. Despite their frequency, such interventions are inherently

.;

risky because they call attention to potentially disruptive behavior,

.61-'1'
ti

Classroom Management Page 17

and, as a classroom event, they initiate a program of action that can

pull a class further away from the primary vector and weaken its

function in holding order in place. There is, in other words, a

"ripple" effect for interventions (Kounin 6 Gump, 1958). Because of

these risks, interventions often have a private and fleeting quality

that minimizes their effect on the flow of events. Successful interven-

tions occur early in response to misbehavior, are often quite brief, and

do not invite further comment from the target student or students.

Thus, teachers tend to use a variety of unobtrusive nonverbal signals

(e.g., gestures, direct eye contact, and proximity) to regulate

misbehavior, and the majority of spoken interventions consist of simple

reprimands: "Shh," "Wait," "Stop," or "No" (Humphrey, 1979; Sieber,

1976).

Decisions to intervene are necessarily reactive and problematic.

Most studies indicate that teachers decide to intervene on the basis of

their knowledge of who is misbehaving, what the misbehavior is, and when

it occurs (Cone, 1978; Pittman, 1985). Hargreaves and his colleagues

(1975) noted that early cues of possible misbehavior, (e.g., conceal-

ment) are ambiguous and yet the teacher has little time to form a

judgment and act. To reduce uncertainty, teachers classify students in

terms of such factors as their persistence and their visibility in the

social structure of the group.

School Discipline Strategies

Management effectiveness studies have established that successful

managers plan for and invoke consequences for rule violations (see Emmer
 Classroom Management Page 18
.4'

et al., 1981). In most instances, a simple reprimand or similar

intervention is sufficient to correct a violation, especially in a well

managed class. Indeed, teacher interventions to restore order are

remabaLly soft primarily because most misbehavior in classrooms is not

a serious threat to order or safety and is only weakly motivated. Most

students appear to misbehave to create opportunities for "goofing off"

(Allen, 1983; Cusick, Martin, & Palonsky, 1976), test the boundaries of

a teacher's management system (Doyle, 1979), or negotiate work require-

ments (Doyle & Carter, 1984). In some instances, however, serious and

chronic misbehavior, such as rudeness or aggressiveness toward the

teacher, consistent avoidance of work and ignoring of common rules, or

fighting, occurs in elementary and secondary classrooms. In the face of

these behavior problems, common classroom forms of management--activity

systems and reprimands--are often ineffectual and stronger consequences

are needed.

Several comprehensive discipline models have been proposed that

deal in part with serious behavior problems (see Charles, 1981; Hyman,

Bilus, Dennehy, Feldman, Flanagan, Lovoratano, Maital, & McDowell,

1979). In another paper for this conference, Emmer is examining these

models in considerable depth. In this paper, attention is given to two

forms of discipline: (1) the traditional practices of punishment and

suspension; and (b) behavior modification. There are two significant

features of this discussion. First, serious misbehavior is typical'1

governed by school-level policies and procedures and is, therefore,

necessarily beyond the domain of the individual teacher. Discipline is

20
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Classroom Management Page 19

being examined here primarily from the perspective of the classroom,

i.e., in terms of the appropriateness and effectiveness of practices for

classroom management and order. Second, the focus is on serious rule

violations that occur, albeit only occasionally, in well managed

classes. Serious violations can occur frequently in poorly managed

classes, but consequences in such situations are not the issue. Rather,

correction of the management system is the first order of business.

Indeed, concentrating on strong consequences in poorly managed classes

is likely to make matters worse in the long run.

Punishment and Suspension

Historically, punishment (extra work, detention, paddling) and

suspension or even expulsion have been the most common techniques for

handling serious behavior problems in schools (see Doyle, 1978). It

appears that these practices are still used widely in American schools

today (Rose, 1984). In this section, I attempt to delineate the issues

and research findings related to punishment and suspension as classroom

management strategies.

Af- an immediate level, suspension is "effective" for removing a

threat to order from the classroom. Similarly, punishment can sometimes

inhibit or suppress misbehavior (see O'Leary & O'Leary, 1977), although

it is often difficult to administer during class time. But are suspen-

sion and punishment effective consequences to use in response to serious

rule violations in classrooms? Unfortutately, very little systematic

empirical research exists to answer this question (see Hapkiewicz,

1975). Rather, most of the literature on these techniques addresses

21
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IOCurnos Management Page 20

ti

legal or moral issues and, thus, either ignores or assumes efficacy.

How, then, can the strategies be assessed in light of present knowledge?

Decisions about punishment and suspension need to be based on at

least two considerations: for whom are they effective and what are the

effects 'arious misbehavior is usually exhibited by two types of

students: (a) those who are, for a variety of reasons, strongly

motivated to be disruptive; or (b) those who, because of ability or

inclination, do not readily engage in academic work. The latter type of

students are not necessarily strongly motivated to misbehave, but they

are not easily "caught" by the typical programs of action in classrooms.

Clearly different decisions about the appropriateness of punishment or

suspension are likely to be made depending upon which type of student is

misbehaving. It is important to add that minority students are often

disproportionately represented among students who are targets for

punishment or suspension (see Leonard, 1984; Parents Union for Public

Schools, 1982; Stevens, 1983).

The effects of punishment depend in part upon the type and

consistency of the punishment used. Mild forms, such as loss of

privileges, demerits, or detention can effectively communicate serious-

ness and a concern for civility in classrooms (see Brophy, 1983). Emmer

(1984) reviewed laboratory studies by Parke and associates (Duer &

Parke, 1970; Parke & Duer, 1972; Sawin & Parke, 1979) on the importance

of consistency in the administration of punishment. In these studies it

was found that inconsistency in punishing young boys for hitting a doll

inhibited the behavior in some subjects but increased it to an extremely

22
Classroom Management Fage 21

high level in others. Moreover, once the response to inconsistent

punishment was established, it was very difficult to change by improving

consistency.

Stronger punishment, especially corporal punishment, is more

controversial. Evidence indicates that corporal punishment is widely

used in schools and appears to have considerable "practical" appeal for IT

administrators and teachers (Rose, 1984). Indeed, Hyman (1981) has

documented instances of school punishment that are quite extreme: e.g.,

hitting students with sticks, arrows, belts, and fists; cutting their

hair; confining them to storerooms; withholding food; and throwing them

against walls. Yet most commentators, and especially those who draw

upon behavioral psychology, .argue that: (a) the effects of corporal

punishment are unpredictable, i.e., it can actually be reinforcing

because the student gains attention and status among peers; (b) corporal

punishment creates resentment and hostility in the target student, thus

making it more difficult to establish a working relationship in the

future; and (c) severe punishment inhibits unwanted behavior but does

not itself foster appropriate behavior (Brophy, 1983; Hapkiewicz, 1975;

O'Leary & O'Leary, 1977). Bongiavanni (1979) reviewed evidence that

frequent use of corporal punishmeat is associated with such undesirable

consequences as increased school vandalism. He also reported prelimin-

ary results of a survey indicating that most school districts which had

eliminated corporal punishment did not experience an increase in school

behavior problems.

23
ti

Classroom Management Page 22

A similar argument can be made for suspension from school as a

discipline strategy. Suspension is widely used (see Stevens, 1983), but

there is little evidence tbac suspension is, by itself, educative.

Indeed, suspension denies educative opportunities for precisely those

students who need them the most. Moreover, suspension can be inherently

rewarding, a vacation from a setting the student is likely to find

aversive. Lnder such circumstances, little long-term effectiveness can

be expected from suspension. It is frequently argued that suspension or

expulsion makes a school more orderly and effective for the rfa-t of the

students who suffer from a disruptive environment. Unfors.u.ately,

little systematic research exists to support or refute this hypothesis.

Studies of suspension in Cleveland (Stevens, 1983) and Philadelphia

(Parents Union for Public Schools, 1982) indicate that there is wide

variation across schools in suspension rates. In the Philadelphia study

it was found that schools with low suspension rates had high levels of

community involvement, emphasized instruction rather than control, and

had a student-centered environment. In high-rate schools, suspensions

were used as a means of bringing parents into the school and school

administrators concentrated primarily on standard and control rather

than instruction.

Several schools and school districts have established alternative

Or in-school suspension programs. In many instances these programs

emphasize punishment rather than academic work or remediation of

behavior problems (Bee Garibaldi, 1979; Short & Noblit, 1985). More

elaborate programs, such as the Portland PASS program (see Leonard,

24
Classroom Management Page 23

1984), which include parent and community involvement and student

training in academic survival skills appear to be successful in reducing

suspension rates and improving student behavior. The message of these

programs is clear: for suspension to have a long-term effect on

students' conduct, significant resources must be invested in dealing

with the problems that led to the need for suspending a student.

Analysis of the effects of punishment and suspension suggest that

these strategies are not, by themselves, educative. To be effective,

they must be invoked within a clear system of rules and standards so

that appropriate behavior is the essential focus.

Behavior Modification

Techniques derived from laboratory studies of contingencies of

reinforcement have been researched extensively and advocated widely as

discipline strategies. Controlled studies, often in special settings

have indicated that behavior modification techniques are remarkably

successful. Nevertheless, them has been considerable controversy

surrounding this approach and questions have been raised about 4ts

practicality for classroom teachers.

Several useful studies, reviews, and collections on behavior

modification techniques have appeared recently (see Brophy, 1983;

Elardo, 1978; Emmer, 1984; Lahey & Rubinoff, 1981; McLaughlin, 1976;

O'Leary & O'Leary, 1977; Thompson, Brassell, Persons, Tucker, & Rollins,

1974; Walker & Holland, 1979; Workman & Hector, 1978). The weight of

the evidence suggests that most of the early recommendations for

elaborate and complex systems of token economies, systematic contingency

25
S

Classroom Management Page 24

management, and ignoring undesirable behavior while praising desired

behavior are impractical for individual classroom teachers who lack the

assistance of independent observers and support personnel and who work

with large groups of students in noncustodial settings. Moreover, using

rewards for desired behavior or for academic performance can have

deleterious effects when intrinsic motivation is moderate to high (see

Leeper & Greene, 1978). Moreover, there are problems of generalizing

the effects of behavior modification interventions across settings and

maintaining their effects over time (see Phillips & Ray, 1980).

Attention has recently turned to systems for teaching students

sovial skills (Cartledge & Milburn, 1978), coping strategies (Spaulding,

1983), and participation skills (Cohen, 1979) in which appropriate

behaviors for classroom settings are identified and systematically

taught to students. Along similar lines, some investigators have

advocated that students by taught self-monitoring and self-control

strategies which enable them to guide their own learning its classrooms

(see Anderson & Prawat, 1983; Brophy, 1983). The emphasis, in other

words, is moving toward helping students learn to cope with classroom

processes rather than having teachers implement behavior modification

programs in their classrooms. Such an approach would seem to be

especially useful for students who do not readily participate in

academic activities and are not strongly motivated to be disruptive.

There is less evidence that such an approach will be successful with

students who are strongly motivated to be disruptive in school.

26
 Classroom Management Page 25

Appraisal and Conclusion

The need for management and discipline is most apparent when order

is disrupted. As a result, interventions to stop misbehavior have often

been the primary focus of theory and research in classroom management.

Evidence accumulated in the last two decades suggests, however, that

interventions are best viewed as ways order is repaired rather than

created. The quantity or quality of intervention will not predict the

degree of order in a classroom unless a program of action has already

been established. Moreover, stopping misbehavior involves complex

decisions about the probable consequences of particular actions by

particular students at specific moments in the flow of activity in a

class. And, because misbehavior and a teacher's reaction to misbehavior

are themselves vectors of action in a classroom, successful managers are

able to insert interventions skillfully into the activity flow. They

keep everyone focused, in other words, on the primary vector that

sustains order in classrooms.

The research summarized in this paper clearly indicates that

substantial progress has been made in identifying effective classroom

management practices and delineating the knowledge structures which

underlie the use of these practices in classrooms. Two important

limitations of this work need to be pointed out, however. First, much,

of the research on classroom management has been conducted in elementary

classrooms. Some junior high school and a few senior high school

studies exist, particularly in research on managing academic work.

Nevertheless, more needs to be known about classroom management

27
Classroom Management Page 26

processes and strategies at the secondary level and about differences

between elementary and secondary classrooms on dimensions relevant to

classroom management and order. Second, the vast majority of management

studies have been conducted in relatively "normal" or "plain vanilla"

school settings. I am nut aware of classroom studies that have been

done in schools with serious problems of violence and crime or which

have focused on serious school disruption as a factor in achieving

classroom order. Indeed, there are few studies (e.g., Metz, 1978) that

have given attention to connections between classroom and school level

dimensions.

More field-based research on the effects of school discipline

strategies such as punishment and suspension is clearly needed. In

particular, we need to know more about:

1. The effects of punishment and suspension on the students who

receive them. Which students are most likely to be punished or

suspended? Do these students modify their attitudes or behavior when

they return to the classroom? What is the rate of "repeat" offenders?

2. The effects of punishment and suspension on classrooms and

schools. Does the use of punishment or suspension "improve" classroom

order and school safety? Under what circumstances? How do school

discipline programs affect teanhers and classroom processes?

Before these questions can be answered, however, there is a need to

understand more about school discipline processes themselves. How is

punishment or suspension carried out? What conditions trigger a need

for such actions? Existing evidence suggests that there is considerable

28
Classroom Management Page 27

variability between schools serving similar populations on rates of

punishment and suspension and that individual schools vary across time?

Why is this so? How does it happen? To gain this knowledge we need

more detailed case studies of incidents in which school discipline

practices are applied.

In planning research on school discipline strategies, however, at

least three cautions are in order. First, one wonders how researchable

many questions of school discipline are. Discipline problems are

emutionally charged and surrounded by legal and moral issues. In such a

climate, the disinterested manipulation of variables or passive observa-

tion of behavior is not likely to happen. Second, discipline strategies

such as corporal punishment and suspension are likely to be applied to

cases of serious and strongly motivated misbehavior. In such situa-

tions, the probability of success is necessarily quite low. Thus,

resolving questions concerning the effectiveness of these discipline

strategies is extremely difficult. Finally; one of the clear messages

of modern classroom management research is that the search for specific,

transportable strategies is misdirected. Classroom researchers found

that the answer to management problems lies first in understanding the

problem. The knowledge of most use, then, is that which empowers

teachers to interpret a situation appropriately so that whatever action

is taken, whether in establishing conditions for order at the beginning

of the year or in responding to misbehavior, will address the problem at

hand.
Classroom Management Page 28

In the end what is needed most are more disciplined ways of

thinking about school discipline problems, ways that are consistent with

emerging knowledge of how classrooms and schools work and grounded in a

greater understanding of the contours and texture of school order and

disruption.

30
 Classroom Management Page 29

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