ELECTRIC MACHINE

BY SOURAV CHAKRABARTI

https://souravchakrabarti.graphy.com/
https://www.youtube.com/@souravchakrabarti/featured
 CHAPTER-1
SYLLABUS
Fundamentals of AC machine windings: Physical arrangement
of windings in stator and cylindrical rotor; slots for windings;
single-turn coil - active portion and overhang; full-pitch coils,
concentrated winding, distributed winding, winding axis, 3D
visualization of the above winding types, Air-gap MMF
distribution with fixed current through winding-concentrated
and distributed, Sinusoidally distributed winding, winding
distribution factor

Physical arrangement of windings in stator and

cylindrical rotor
The physical arrangement of windings in the stator and
cylindrical rotor is crucial for the functioning of electric
machines, particularly synchronous machines and induction
machines. Let's discuss the arrangement in detail for both
stator and cylindrical rotor.

Stator Windings
The stator is the stationary part of an electric machine and
contains the windings where the main magnetic field is
produced. Here’s a detailed look at the stator windings:
1. Core Construction
• Laminations: The stator core is built from thin laminated
sheets of electrical steel to reduce eddy current losses.
• Slots: The laminations are stacked together, forming slots
where the windings are placed.

2. Winding Arrangement
• Three-Phase Windings: The stator usually has a three-
phase winding system, distributed in slots around the
periphery of the stator.
 • Distributed Windings: Windings are spread over several
slots per pole per phase to form a distributed winding. This
distribution helps in producing a nearly sinusoidal
magnetic field in the air gap.
• Concentrated Windings: In some designs, windings are
concentrated in a single slot per pole per phase. These are
simpler but may produce a less sinusoidal field.
• Winding Pitch: The coil span or pitch is the distance (in
slots) between the sides of a coil. It can be full-pitched
(span equals pole pitch) or short-pitched (span less than
pole pitch), the latter reduces harmonic content.

3. Types of Windings
• Lap Winding: Common in DC machines, where the end of
one coil is connected to the beginning of the next.
• Wave Winding: Used in some special applications, where
coils wave back and forth across the armature.
• Double Layer Windings: Each slot holds two layers of
windings, one on top of the other.

Cylindrical Rotor Windings

Cylindrical rotors, also known as non-salient pole rotors, are
typically used in high-speed synchronous machines like turbo-
generators. Here’s how the windings are arranged:
1. Core Construction
• Solid or Laminated Steel: The rotor core can be solid or
made of laminated steel to reduce eddy current losses.
2. Winding Arrangement
• Field Windings: The rotor has field windings, which are
wound in slots cut into the rotor’s surface.
• Distributed Windings: Windings are distributed
symmetrically around the rotor to produce a uniform
magnetic field.

3. Field Windings
• Poles: The cylindrical rotor typically has 2 or 4 poles to
maintain mechanical balance and minimize centrifugal
forces at high speeds.
 • Field Coils: The field coils are wound in such a way that
they produce the required number of poles when
energized with DC supply.
• Winding Slots: The slots are milled into the rotor
periphery, and the windings are placed inside these slots.

4. Excitation System
• Slip Rings and Brushes: In some designs, slip rings and
brushes are used to supply DC current to the rotor
windings.
• Brushless Excitation: Modern machines often use
brushless excitation systems, where a small auxiliary
alternator (exciter) mounted on the same shaft provides
the field current.
Slots for windings
Slots for windings in electric machines play a critical role in
housing the conductors that form the windings and in
influencing the machine's performance characteristics.
Here's a detailed discussion on slots for windings in both
stator and rotor constructions.

Stator Slots for Windings

1. Purpose of Slots
• Housing Conductors: Slots provide the space for placing
the stator windings.
• Magnetic Circuit: Slots affect the magnetic circuit of the
machine, influencing factors like leakage reactance and
flux distribution.

2. Types of Slots
• Open Slots: Easier for winding placement but may have
higher leakage reactance and noise.
• Semi-Closed Slots: Compromise between open and closed
slots, balancing ease of winding and performance.
• Closed Slots: Better magnetic performance and lower
leakage reactance, but more challenging to wind.
3. Slot Shape
• Rectangular Slots: Simplest shape, easier to manufacture
and wind but may result in higher eddy current losses.
• Trapezoidal Slots: Help in reducing the end winding length
and improving the winding factor.
• Round or Circular Slots: Rare, used in specific applications
for minimizing losses and improving performance.

4. Slot Liner and Insulation

• Slot Liner: Insulating material placed inside the slots to
prevent electrical contact between the core and windings.
• Insulation: Additional insulation is used around the
conductors to ensure electrical isolation.
Rotor Slots for Windings (Induction Motors)
1. Types of Rotors
• Squirrel Cage Rotor: Slots are used to hold the conductive
bars which are short-circuited at the ends by end rings.
• Wound Rotor: Slots contain the windings connected to slip
rings for external resistance control.

2. Slot Design
• Deep Bar Slots: Used in squirrel cage rotors to improve
starting torque and reduce starting current.
• Double Cage Slots: Consist of two sets of slots, with the
outer cage for better starting performance and the inner
cage for running performance.

Slot Design Considerations

1. Slot Pitch
• Definition: The distance between the centers of two
adjacent slots.
• Impact: Influences the distribution of the magnetic field
and the harmonic content of the generated EMF.
 2. Slot Depth and Width
• Depth: Must accommodate the required number of
conductors and insulation while maintaining structural
integrity.
• Width: Should provide enough space for windings and
insulation while minimizing leakage reactance.
3. Ventilation and Cooling
• Ventilation Ducts: Some designs incorporate ducts within
the slots for improved cooling.
• Cooling Effect: Proper slot design aids in effective heat
dissipation from the windings.

Single-turn coil - active portion and overhang

In electric machines, a single-turn coil consists of one complete
loop of conductor that forms part of the winding. The coil has
two main parts: the active portion and the overhang (also
known as the end-winding or coil ends).
1. Active Portion
The active portion of the coil is the segment of the conductor
that lies within the slots of the stator or rotor. This part of the
coil is responsible for interacting with the magnetic field and is
where the electromotive force (EMF) is induced or where the
Lorentz force acts to produce torque.
Key Characteristics:
• Location: Placed within the slots of the stator or rotor.
• Interaction with Magnetic Field: The active portion is subject
to the magnetic flux generated by the machine’s magnetic
circuit.
• Contribution to EMF and Torque: The voltage induced in the
coil and the torque produced in a motor are primarily due to
the active portion of the windings.

2. Overhang (End-Winding or Coil Ends)

The overhang refers to the parts of the coil that extend beyond
the slots at the ends of the stator or rotor. These portions do
not contribute directly to the electromagnetic energy
conversion process but are necessary to connect the active
portions of the coil.
Key Characteristics:
• Location: Located outside the slots, forming connections
between the active portions.
• Function: Provides the electrical continuity needed to
complete the coil and connect it to other coils in the
winding.
• Design Considerations: Must be designed to minimize
resistance, reduce space, and handle thermal and
mechanical stresses.
• Cooling and Insulation: Overhangs need adequate
insulation and cooling to manage the heat generated due
to the current flow and to prevent electrical breakdown.
Active Portion:
• Placement: The conductors of the active portion are
placed within the slots of the stator or rotor core. The
precise placement ensures maximum interaction with the
magnetic field.
• Magnetic Interaction: As current flows through the active
portion, it interacts with the magnetic field, generating a
force in motors or inducing an EMF in generators.

Overhang:
• Connection: The overhang connects the active portions of
the coils, allowing for the formation of continuous
windings.
• Space and Design: Though they do not contribute to
energy conversion, the design of the overhang is critical to
ensure efficient use of space, reduce resistance, and
manage heat dissipation.
• Mechanical Stability: Proper support and insulation are
needed to prevent mechanical damage and ensure
electrical integrity.

Full-Pitch Coils and Concentrated Windings

In electric machines, the design of the windings plays a
crucial role in determining the performance characteristics.
Two important concepts in winding design are full-pitch coils
and concentrated windings.

Full-Pitch Coils
Definition: A full-pitch coil spans a distance equal to the pole
pitch, which is the distance between the centers of two
adjacent poles of the same polarity. In other words, the coil
sides are placed such that they are spaced 180 electrical
degrees apart.

Characteristics:
• Pole Pitch: The pole pitch is the distance between the
centers of two consecutive poles of the same polarity,
typically measured in terms of slot positions.
• Coil Span: For a full-pitch coil, the coil span (or coil pitch)
equals the pole pitch. This ensures that the EMFs induced
 in the two sides of the coil are in phase, resulting in
maximum voltage.
• Induced EMF: The induced EMF in a full-pitch coil is
maximized because the two sides of the coil experience
the maximum possible difference in magnetic flux.
Example:
In a 4-pole machine with 12 slots, the pole pitch is 12/4 = 3
slots. For a full-pitch coil, the coil sides are placed 3 slots
apart.

Concentrated Windings
Definition: In a concentrated winding, all the winding turns
for a phase are concentrated in a single slot or a group of
slots that are spatially close to each other. This is in contrast
to distributed windings, where the winding turns are spread
out over multiple slots.

Characteristics:
• Slot Concentration: Windings are concentrated in fewer
slots, often just one slot per pole per phase.
• Ease of Manufacturing: Concentrated windings are
simpler and cheaper to manufacture because they require
less intricate winding patterns.
• Performance: They generally produce higher harmonic
content in the magnetic field, which can lead to increased
losses and reduced efficiency. However, they are often
used in applications where simplicity and cost are more
critical than performance.

Comparison and Applications

Full-Pitch Coils:
• Advantages: Maximum induced EMF, efficient use of the
magnetic field, reduced harmonic content.
• Disadvantages: More complex to wind, requiring more
precise placement of coils.
• Applications: Commonly used in synchronous machines
and high-performance AC motors where efficiency and
smooth operation are critical.

Concentrated Windings:
• Advantages: Simpler and cheaper to manufacture, suitable
for mass production, compact design.
• Disadvantages: Higher harmonic content, potentially
lower efficiency and increased losses.
• Applications: Often used in small motors, low-cost
applications, and specific designs like brushless DC motors
(BLDC) and stepper motors.

The placement of coils in the slots illustrates the difference

between full-pitch coils and concentrated windings. The full-
pitch coil spans multiple slots to cover the pole pitch, while
the concentrated winding places all turns for a phase in a
single slot or a small group of adjacent slots.

Distributed Winding
Definition: Distributed winding refers to the arrangement of
coil turns such that they are spread out over several slots per
pole per phase, rather than being concentrated in a single
slot. This distribution helps produce a more sinusoidal
magnetic field, reducing harmonic content and improving the
performance of the machine.

Key Characteristics:
1. Winding Spread: The windings are spread across multiple
slots, typically spaced to form a symmetrical pattern
around the stator or rotor.
2. Sinusoidal MMF: Distributed windings help achieve a
more sinusoidal magnetomotive force (MMF) distribution,
 which improves the quality of the generated voltage and
reduces harmonics.
3. Winding Factor: The effective winding factor (or
distribution factor) is improved compared to concentrated
windings, leading to better utilization of the machine’s
magnetic field.
4. Complexity: The design and manufacturing of distributed
windings are more complex than concentrated windings,
but they offer better performance in terms of efficiency
and smooth operation.

Types of Distributed Windings

1. Full-Pitch Distributed Windings: Each coil spans a distance
equal to the pole pitch.
2. Short-Pitch Distributed Windings: The coil pitch is slightly
less than the pole pitch, which helps reduce certain
harmonics and improves the winding factor.

Advantages of Distributed Windings

• Reduced Harmonics: By spreading the winding over
several slots, the harmonic content of the magnetic field
and induced EMF is significantly reduced.
• Improved Efficiency: A more sinusoidal field leads to
reduced core losses and improved efficiency.
• Better Utilization of Space: The windings occupy the slots
more evenly, leading to better thermal management and
reduced hotspots.

Example of Distributed Winding

Consider a 3-phase, 4-pole machine with 12 slots.
Slot Assignment
For simplicity, let’s assume a single-layer distributed winding
where each phase is distributed over multiple slots. In a
double-layer winding, each slot would have two layers of
windings.
 Phase A:
• Coil Side 1: Slot 1
• Coil Side 2: Slot 4
Phase B:
• Coil Side 1: Slot 3
• Coil Side 2: Slot 6
Phase C:
• Coil Side 1: Slot 5
• Coil Side 2: Slot 8

1. Assign Coil Sides to Slots:

o Assign the coil sides of each phase to the slots based on
the slots per pole per phase.
o Ensure the coil sides for each phase are symmetrically
placed to maintain balance.
2. Calculate Winding Factor:
o Calculate the pitch factor (kp) and distribution factor (kd)
to determine the overall winding factor (kw).

Example Calculation

• Phase A:
o Coil Side 1: Slot 1
o Coil Side 2: Slot 4
 • Phase B:
o Coil Side 1: Slot 3
o Coil Side 2: Slot 6
• Phase C:
o Coil Side 1: Slot 5
o Coil Side 2: Slot 8

This is a basic illustration. In practice, the number of slots per

pole per phase is usually more than 1 to ensure a good
distribution and lower harmonic content.
The active portions of the windings are placed in different
slots to achieve the distributed winding configuration. This
helps in producing a more sinusoidal waveform and
improving the machine's overall performance.

Winding Axis in Electric Machines

Definition: The winding axis is an imaginary line that runs
through the center of the coils of a winding, around which the
magnetic field generated by the winding is symmetrically
distributed. It is a crucial concept in understanding the
magnetic field distribution and the operation of electric
machines.
 v
Key Concepts
1. Magnetic Axis:
o The magnetic axis of a winding is the line along which
the magnetic field produced by the winding is the
strongest.
o It is perpendicular to the plane of the coil and aligns
with the direction of the magnetic field generated by
the winding.
2. Electrical Axis:
o The electrical axis is similar to the magnetic axis and
often used interchangeably, though it specifically
refers to the direction along which the electromotive
force (EMF) or magnetic flux is most effectively
aligned.

3. Stator Winding Axis:

o For a three-phase stator, there are three winding
axes, each separated by 120 electrical degrees.
o Each phase winding (A, B, and C) has its own axis,
oriented in such a way that the combined magnetic
fields produce a rotating magnetic field.

• A Phase: The winding axis for phase A runs vertically from

the center of the north pole (N) to the center of the south
pole (S).
• B Phase: The winding axis for phase B is oriented at an
angle (typically 120 degrees electrical) from the A phase
axis.
• C Phase: Similarly, the winding axis for phase C is oriented
at an angle (typically 120 degrees electrical) from both the
A and B phase axes.
Importance of Winding Axis
1. Magnetic Field Orientation:
o The winding axis determines the direction of the magnetic
field produced by the windings.
o Proper orientation of the winding axes ensures that the
magnetic fields of different phases combine to form a
rotating magnetic field in the case of AC machines.

2. Torque Production:
o In motors, the interaction between the rotor and stator
magnetic fields, aligned along their respective axes,
produces torque.
 o The alignment and timing of the winding axes are crucial
for efficient torque production.

3. Induced EMF:
o In generators, the movement of the rotor relative to the
stator windings induces an EMF.
o The induced EMF is maximized when the magnetic field
axis of the rotor and the winding axis of the stator are
properly aligned.
Example: Three-Phase Winding Axis
In a three-phase machine, the three winding axes are spaced
120 electrical degrees apart. This arrangement creates a
balanced three-phase system that produces a rotating magnetic
field.
• The vectors represent the winding axes of the three
phases.
• They are separated by 120 electrical degrees, ensuring the
creation of a rotating magnetic field when the phases are
energized with a three-phase AC supply.

Air-Gap MMF Distribution with Fixed Current through

Winding: Concentrated vs. Distributed
The air-gap magneto motive force (MMF) distribution is crucial
for understanding the performance and efficiency of electric
machines. The type of winding (concentrated or distributed)
affects the shape and quality of the MMF waveform in the air
gap.

Concentrated Winding MMF Distribution

Description: In concentrated windings, all turns of a coil are
concentrated in a single slot or a few adjacent slots. This leads
to a more localized and peaked MMF distribution.
MMF Distribution Characteristics:
1. Peaked Distribution: The MMF is highly concentrated at
specific locations corresponding to the slot positions.
2. Harmonics: The concentrated nature of the winding
results in higher harmonic content in the MMF waveform,
which can lead to increased losses and reduced efficiency.
3. Non-Sinusoidal: The MMF distribution is far from
sinusoidal, showing significant variations and sharp peaks.

Distributed Winding MMF Distribution

Description: In distributed windings, the coil turns are spread
out over multiple slots, creating a more even and smoother
MMF distribution.
MMF Distribution Characteristics:
1. Smoother Distribution: The MMF is spread out more
evenly across the air gap, leading to a smoother
waveform.
2. Reduced Harmonics: The spreading of the winding turns
reduces the harmonic content in the MMF waveform,
leading to better performance and efficiency.
3. Closer to Sinusoidal: The MMF distribution is closer to a
sinusoidal shape, which is desirable for smooth and
efficient machine operation.

Comparison and Analysis

Concentrated Winding
• Advantages:
o Simple and cost-effective manufacturing.
 o Suitable for applications where harmonic content is less
critical.

• Disadvantages:
o Higher harmonic content in the MMF waveform.
o Increased losses and reduced efficiency.
o MMF distribution is less smooth, leading to potential
vibration and noise issues.

Distributed Winding
• Advantages:
o Smoother and more sinusoidal MMF distribution.
o Reduced harmonic content, leading to improved efficiency
and performance.
o Better thermal distribution due to the spreading of the
winding turns.

• Disadvantages:
o More complex and costly manufacturing process.
o Requires careful design and placement of winding turns to
achieve optimal performance.
Practical Implications
1. Efficiency: Distributed windings generally result in higher
efficiency due to the smoother MMF distribution and
reduced harmonic content.
2. Performance: Machines with distributed windings exhibit
better performance characteristics, including reduced
noise, vibration, and losses.
3. Application Suitability: Concentrated windings are
suitable for low-cost, simple applications, while distributed
windings are preferred for high-performance and high-
efficiency applications.
Sinusoidally Distributed Winding
Description: Sinusoidally distributed windings are designed
such that the distribution of the winding turns follows a
sinusoidal pattern. This distribution aims to produce a more
sinusoidal magnetomotive force (MMF) waveform in the air
gap, which improves the performance of the electric machine
by reducing harmonics and enhancing efficiency.

Characteristics
1. Winding Turns Distribution: The number of turns in each
slot follows a sinusoidal function of the slot position. This
means the winding density is highest where the sine
function peaks and decreases towards the zero-crossings
of the sine wave.
2. MMF Distribution: The sinusoidal distribution of the
winding turns results in an MMF distribution that closely
approximates a sine wave, minimizing higher-order
harmonics.
3. Performance: Sinusoidally distributed windings provide
smoother operation, reduced noise and vibration, and
improved overall efficiency.
Mathematical Representation

Visualization of Sinusoidal Distribution

In this layout, W1,W2,W3,…,WN represent the number of

turns in each slot, distributed sinusoidally.
MMF Distribution
The sinusoidal distribution of the windings produces an MMF
waveform in the air gap that approximates a sine wave.
Advantages of Sinusoidally Distributed Windings
1. Reduced Harmonics: The sinusoidal MMF distribution
minimizes higher-order harmonics, leading to lower core
and copper losses.
2. Smooth Operation: The reduced harmonic content results
in less noise and vibration, contributing to smoother
machine operation.
3. Improved Efficiency: The lower losses and better
utilization of the magnetic field improve the overall
efficiency of the machine.
4. Thermal Management: The even distribution of winding
turns helps in better thermal management, reducing
hotspots and enhancing the machine's lifespan.
Practical Considerations
1. Design Complexity: Designing and manufacturing
sinusoidally distributed windings can be more complex and
costly than simpler winding schemes.
2. Precision in Winding: Precise placement of the winding
turns according to the sinusoidal pattern is crucial to
achieving the desired performance benefits.
3. Application Suitability: Sinusoidally distributed windings
are particularly beneficial in high-performance applications
where efficiency, smooth operation, and reduced
harmonic content are critical.