YEAR 10 (SS 1) FIRST TERM

WEEKS TOPICS IGCSE

1 Introduction to biology Characteristics and
Biology as an enquiry in classification of living
science organisms
Branches of biology
Characteristics of living
organisms
Differences between plants
and animals
Levels of organization of life
Complexity of organization in
higher organisms
2 Classification of living things Organization of the organism
Definition of classification
Binomial system of
nomenclature
Kingdoms(5 major kingdoms)
*monera
Protista
Fungi
3 Classification of living things Movement into and out of
i) Kingdom cells
Plantae(botanical
classification)
ii) Kingdom Animalia
iii) Viruses
4 The cell
i) Definition of cell
ii) Forms in which
cell exists
iii) Structure of plant
and animal
cell(diagrams
inclusive)
iv) Function of cell
components
v) Similarities and
differences
between plant
and animal cell
5 Cell and its environment
i) Definition, process
and significance of
a) Diffusion
b) Osmosis
c) Plasmolysis
d) Haemolysis
e) Turgidity
f) Flaccidity
g) Crenation
 ii) Active transport

6 Properties and functions of

cell
a)macro and micro nutrients
b) modes of nutrition
i) autotrophic nutrition
- photosynthesis
-chemosynthesis
ii) heterotrophic nutrition
(holozoic, parasitic,
symbiotic, etc)
7 Nutrition in animals Human nutrition
a) Food substances
i)classes and sources
of food
ii) balanced diet and
its importance
iii) Digestive enzymes
(characteristics,
classes and
function)
b) Cellular respiration
8 MTT
9 Growth(definition, basis,
aspect of growth,regulation
of growth by hormones.)
Irritability/cell reaction to its
environment(definition and
types of responses)
Movement (definition,
reasons for movement)

10 Excretion(definition
organisms and excretory
organs/products)
Reproduction (definition,
types of reproduction,
differences between sexual
and asexual reproduction)
11 Revision
 WEEK 1 INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY AS AN INQUIRY IN SCIENCE

Science is the study of nature (living and non-living
things). Biology is a science that studies living things in
nature. Biology was formed from the Greek words "Bio"
(meaning life) and “logos" (meaning, study of).
The organisms studied in biology are generally classified
into plants and animals. Therefore, biology is a science
subject that can be sub-divided into two main branches or
subjects namely:
(a) Botany –the study of plants.
(b) Zoology - the study of animals.
Other branches of biology include genetics, evolution,
microbiology, parasitology, anatomy, physiology,
biotechnology, etc.

RELEVANCE OF BIOLOGY
Biology has found great applications in many areas of
human life, some of which include:
a.Medicine: Production of drugs and vaccines for
preventing and curing many diseases e.g. penicillin,
organ transplant e.g. kidney (renal) transplant, in-vitro
fertilization in infertile couples.
 b.Agriculture: Production of hybrid (crops and animals
with desired qualities), use of biological pesticides to
control agricultural pests
c. Bioremediation i.e. use of naturally occurring bacteria
to clean up oil spills and toxic chemicals.
d.Biotechnology: Use of genetic engineering to fight
genetic diseases.
e.Food production: Production of single cell protein
(SCP) to reduce protein deficiency problem, food
storage and preservation

CHARACTERISTICS OF LIVING THINGS

Everything in nature can be classified into two groups:
living and non -living things.
The living things can be distinguished from their nonliving
counterparts through the following characteristics
observable in all living things:
1.MOVEMENT: Animals can move from place to place
on their own in search of food. Higher plants move
certain parts of their body in response to growth or
external stimuli
2.RESPIRATION: In order to perform the numerous life
processes, living things need much energy. The energy
can only be obtained when the organism respires.
Therefore, respiration is the oxidation of food
substances in the presence of oxygen to produce
 energy with carbon (IV) oxide and water released as
by products.
3.NUTRITION: The act of feeding is called nutrition. All
organisms need food to carry out their biological
activities. Green plants can manufacture their food.
Hence, they are autotrophs while animals are
dependent on plants for their food, so they are
heterotrophs.
4.IRRITABILITY: Is the ability of living things to respond
to external and internal stimuli in order to survive.
External stimuli may be light, heat, water, sound or
chemical substances.
5.GROWTH: this is the tendency of organisms to
increase irreversibly and rapidly in length and size and
in mass. The essence of growth is to enable organisms
to repair or replace damaged or old tissues in their
bodies. The food eaten by an organism provides the
basis of growth.
6.EXCRETION: Toxic waste products of metabolism &
other unwanted materials have to be eliminated to
ensure proper functioning of the bodies of organisms.
Such wastes include water, carbon (iv) oxide etc.
7.REPRODUCTION: Is the ability of a living organism to
give birth to young ones (off springs). The essence is
to ensure life continuity. Reproduction can be sexual
(involving two organisms) or asexual (involving one
organism)
 8.LIFE SPAN / DEATH: Every organism has a definite and
limited period of existence. Life, for all organism has
five main stages, namely: origin (birth), growth,
maturity, decline and death.
9.COMPETITION: Living things tend to struggle for the
basic things of life in order to survive. Hence, they
compete for food, water, light, mates and space.
10. ADAPTATION: To survive, every organism
possesses ability to get used to change in its
environment.

EVALUATION
1. State the characteristics that must be possessed by an organism to be referred to as
living things.
2. Which of these characteristics does a virus possess?

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANTS AND ANIMALS

All living organisms can be generally classified as plants or animals. However,
plants can be distinguished from animals in the following ways:
PLANTS ANIMALS
1. Undergo passive Undergo free or active movement
movement. with well-developed organs of
locomotion.
2. Gaseous exchange takes Gaseous exchange is through
place through the entire special organs.
body.
3. Green plants Animals do not photosynthesize i.
photosynthesize i. e. they e. they are heterotrophs.
are autotrophs.
4. They exhibit slow They exhibit fast response to
response to stimuli. stimuli.
5. Growth is apical and Growth is uniform and definite
 indefinite (continuous). (limited).
6. No specialized sense Possess specialized sense organs.
organs.
7. No specialized excretory They have special and well
systems. developed excretory systems.
8. Cell has rigid non-living Have thin, flexible cell membrane.
cellulose cell wall which Mechanical support is provided by
provides mechanical external exoskeleton or internal
support. endoskeleton.
9. They store food They store carbohydrates as
(carbohydrates) as starch glycogen
except fungi which store
food as glycogen.

LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION OF LIFE

Every living thing is made up of a cell or a number of cells. A single-celled organism is called
unicellular while a many-celled organism is called multicellular. Organization of life is
therefore the existence of life from a single-celled organism to a multicellular organism
with complex forms that performs different functions. Four levels of organization of life
exist, namely: cell, tissue, organ and system.
1. Cell: A cell is a functional and structural unit of protoplasm bounded by a membrane
and containing nuclear and cytoplasmic materials. Some living things exist as cells
which have cytoplasmic structures such as pseudopodia, cilia, flagella and vacuoles e.g.
Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Paramecium and Euglena. Common cells that perform
distinct functions in plant and animals include sperm cells, nerve cells, bone cells, red
blood cells, root hair cells etc.
2. Tissues: A tissue is a collection of cells which are similar in structure and functions.
Hydra is an example of an animal that is made up of tissues only. Examples of tissues in
animals and plants are epithelial tissue, blood, nerve tissue, muscle tissue, xylem and
phloem tissues etc.
3. Organ: An organ is a collection of different tissues that perform a common function or
functions e.g. Kidney, heart, brain, stem, roots etc. Example of organ in plant is onion
bulb.
4. System: A system is a set of organs which co-operate to carry out one of the vital
functions of life e. g. Digestive system, respiratory system, reproductive system,
transport system etc.

EVALUATION
1. List four types of cells in organisms and their functions
 2. State the functions of five types of tissues in man

COMPLEXITY OF ORGANIZATION IN HIGHER ORGANISMS

Higher organisms have bodies that are differentiated into specialised parts performing
different functions. The different specialized parts made up of tissues, organs and systems
make higher organisms more complex and efficient to carry out various activities of life.

Advantages of complexity
1. It leads to division of labour and specialization
2. It has led to the efficiency of the various organs of the body.
3. The complexity of higher organism has led to their survival (adaptation) in their
different habitats.
4. Various systems operate side by side without adversely affecting each other
5. Reproduction in complex organisms does not lead to the disintegration of the
parents

Disadvantages of complexity
1. Individual cells are not capable of existing independently and therefore depend on
one another’s activities to exist
2. With complexity, ability to regenerate lost parts decreases.
3. Difficulties in acquisition of food materials and oxygen and loss of waste product
4. Difficulties in reproduction
5. It leads to slower rate of diffusion because the surface area to volume ratio is small
and the distance from exterior to the center of the body is great

EVALUATION
1. Why are higher organisms referred to as ‘complex’
2. State the advantages of complexity.
 WEEK 2 CLASSIFICATION TO LIVING THINGS

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISIMS

Nature comprises millions of organisms, hence the need for
identification, naming and classifying them in a meaningful manner.
The present and widely accepted method of classification of organism
was introduced by Carolus Linnaeus. The study of the general
principles of classification is called taxonomy or systematic.
Classification is an arrangement of organisms into groups, each group
is then split into smaller groups and the members of each group have
certain features in common which distinguish them from other groups.
The largest group of organisms is the kingdom. The arrangement of
living organisms from the highest to the lowest (with decreasing
variety of organisms) is as follows:
KINGDOM PHYLUM OR DIVISION CLASS ORDER
FAMILY GENUS SPECIES

BINOMIAL NOMENCLATURE
This is the standard system of naming living organisms. Each type of
organism is given two names:
(i) The name of the genus (generic name) to which the organism
belongs.
(ii) The name of the species (specific name) to which it belongs.
The generic name is always written first using initial capital letter
(underlined or italicized) e.g. Homo sapiens is man’s scientific name.

EVALUATION
1. Define taxonomy.
 2. What is binomial nomenclature.

MODERN CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING ORGANISMS

All organisms cannot be suitably classified as either plants or animals
based on Carolus Linneaus classification. Therefore five kingdoms have
been generally accepted for all living organisms, these include Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.

KINGDOM MONERA (Prokaryotes)

This group consists of simplest living organisms (bacteria, blue-green
anabaena).
- They are microscopic single-celled.
- The cell wall does not contain cellulose. It is made up of protein
and fatty materials.
- They have no definite nucleus. Nucleus lack nuclear membrane
and DNA are scattered in the cytoplasm.
- They lack most cell organelles except the ribosome.
- Reproduction is asexual by binary fission.

KINGDOM PROTISTA
- They are unicellular organisms.
- The organisms are all eukaryotes i. e. cell have definite nucleus.
- Most protists are aquatic organisms.
- They move either by cilia, flagella or pseudopodia.
- Some are free living while few are parasitic.
Protists can be broadly divided into two groups;
a. Protozoa: animal-like protists e.g. amoeba, paramecium,
plasmodium, trypanosome.
b. Protophyta: Plant-like protists e. g. Diatoms, chlorella,
chlamydomonas.
Note: Euglena is a protist with plant and animal like features.

KINGDOM FUNGI
- They are non-green organisms which do not photosynthesize (lack
chlorophyll).
- All fungi except slime moulds are non-motile.
- They have rigid cell wall made up of chitin and polysaccharides.
- They reproduce asexually by producing spores and sexually as
well.
- Most of them are saprophytes while some are parasites.
- They lack true roots, stem and leaves.
- Few are unicellular (yeast) while most are multicellular (Rhizopus,
Mushroom).
Multicellular fungi have filamentous bodies that are made up of a
network of fine, branching filaments called hyphae (singular: hypha).
This mass of hyphae is known as mycelium (plural: mycelia).
EVALUATION
1. Describe the features of a named (a) Animal like protist (b) Fungi (c) Bacteria
2. State the phyla of fungi.
3. State five characteristics of a virus
4. List three animal-like features and two plant-like features of Euglena.
 WEEK 3 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS
i) Kingdom Plantae(botanical classification)
ii) Kingdom Animalia
iii) Viruses

KINGDOM PLANTAE
This consists of organisms with cellulose cell wall and chlorophyll for manufacturing their
food. It consists of three major phyla i. e Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Tracheophyta.
a. THALLOPHYTA (ALGAE)
Examples include Spirogyra, Volvox, Sargassum and Kelp
- These are simple aquatic photosynthetic plants
- They are non-vascular plants
- They lack true root, stem and leaves.
- They are either unicellular or multicellular and may be green, brown or red.
- They reproduce asexually (by cell division, fragmentation, spore) or sexually.
- They exhibit alternation of generation.

b. BRYOPHYTA
These include Hornworts, Liverworts and Mosses
- Bryophytes are multicellular, non-vascular plants.
- They also lack true roots, stems and leaves.
- They have chlorophyll as the only photosynthetic pigment.
- They are terrestrial but live in moist place.
- They produce spores asexually and also reproduce sexually. Hence, they also show a
distinct alternation of generation.
 c. TRACHEOPHYTA
- They are green multicelluar, terrestrial vascular plants i.e. they have tissues for
conducting water and food.
- They have true roots, stem, and leaves.
It is the largest group of plants and can be subdivided into two i. e. Pteridophytes and
Spermatophytes.
i. PTERIDOPHYTA (FERNS)
Examples include Dryopteris, Platycerium, ferns etc.
- They are spore bearing plants.
- They possess well developed vascular tissues and chlorophyll
- Asexual and sexual reproductive organs are referred to as sori and prothall us
respectively
- The stem grows horizontally and is referred to as rhizome
ii. SPERMATOPHYTA
These are seed bearing plants. They can be grouped into two
(i) GYMNOSPERMS
Examples are cycads (whistling pine, fir), conifers and gingkos
- Their seeds are borne naked in special structures called cones. They don’t have
flowers e.g conifers, cycads.
- These are trees or shrubs with needle, broad or scale like leaves.
(ii) ANGIOSPERMS
They form the largest group in the plants kingdom and are adapted to almost every kind of
habitat. Examples are oil palm tree, water leaf, maize plant etc.
- They bear true flowers for sexual reproduction.
- They have more abundant water conducting vessels than gymnosperms.
- They bear seeds enclosed in fruits.
 - They show more specialized and complex reproductive mechanism involving
pollination and fertilization.
Angiosperms are grouped into two, monocotyledons and dicotyledons.
 MONOCOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include maize, guinea grass, rice, oil palm etc.
- They have seeds with one seed leaf (cotyledon).
- They are generally herbs with scattered vascular bundles in their stem.
- They have leaves with parallel venation and fibrous root system.
- They undergo hypogeal germination (i.e. their cotyledons remain below the ground
at germination.)
- They do not undergo secondary growth.
 DICOTYLEDONOUS PLANTS
Examples include orange, hibiscus plants etc.
- They are more primitive angiosperms having seeds with two seed leaves
- They have tap root system
- They usually undergo secondary growth
- The leaves have veins arranged in branched network
- They undergo epigeal germination (i.e the cotyledons are borne above the soil).

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between thallophytes and bryophytes
2. Differentiate between angiosperms and gymnosperms

KINGDOM ANIMALIA
This consists of multicellular organisms with no cell wall; they have no chloroplasts in their
cell therefore they feed heterotrophically. Animals can be classified into two main groups:
a. Invertebrates – animals without backbones.
b. Vertebrates – animals with backbones.

The classification of animals into smaller categories is based on features such as:
(i) Body Symmetry
(ii) Body design
(iii) Body cavity
Body symmetry is based on the fact that the body of the animal has similar or
corresponding parts in size, shape and position on opposite sides of a dividing line or a
median plane
Types
1. Radial symmetry means the body of the animal can be cut along its axis in any place to give
two identical halves
ii. Bilateral symmetry means the body of the animal can be cut along its axis in only one place
to give two identical halves.
Body design is the way the body of the animal is shaped or framed whether it has one or
two exits
i. Sac-like body design: Those animals that have single opening (mouth) that lead to the gut
cavity
ii. Tubular body design: Those animals have double opening like tube with gut opening at the
anterior (mouth) and posterior (anus)
Body Cavity: A developing embryo of animal has primary layer of cell called germ layer
differentiated to form various body parts. The tissue of primitive animals are derived from
two layers of cells, the ectoderm and endoderm such animal is called Diploblastic animal
e.g. Hydra.
Most animals are derived from three germs layers ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm,
such animal are called triploblastic animal.
Animal that have three germ layers can be further divided into:
i. Acoelomate: animal without body cavity
ii. Pseudo coelomate: animal with false body cavity
iii. Coelomate: animal with true body cavity
INVERTERBRATES
a. Phylum Porifera (sponges):
- They are primitive multicellular, aquatic animals (colonies of cells)
- They lack true tissues and nervous system
- Reproduce asexually and sexually (hermaphrodites
b. Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria: Hydra, jelly fish, sea anemones):
- They have two layered bodies surrounding a central hollow cavity called enteron.
- They have tentacles and most of them are marine
- Possession of stinging cells called nematocysts
- There is only one opening called mouth. No anus.
c. Phylum Platyhelminthes (Flatworms: Tapeworm, planaria, liver fluke)
- They have soft, flat, unsegmented elongated bodies
- They lack body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical and mainly parasites in man and other animals
- They possess alimentary canal. No anus
d. Phylum Nematoda (roundworm, hookworm, guinea worm)
 - They have thread like, cylindrical, unsegmented body with no body cavity.
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- They have alimentary canal with mouth and anus
- Some are parasitic, while others are free living
e. Phylum Annelida (earthworm, leeches)
- They have internal and external segmented bodies which are long and cylindrical.
- They have true body cavity (ceoloma).
- The appendages (setae) are not jointed
f. Phylum Mollusca (snail, squid, octopus)
- They have soft unsegmented bodies
- Tentacles are present in most members
- Some have shells e.g. snails, squid etc. while others have no shell e. g. octopus, slug
g. Phylum Echinodermata (star fish, bristle star, sea lily)
- They possess tough, spiny and calcerous exoskeleton
- The head is not usually distinct
- They are all marine
- Most of them are stay shaped
Examples are bristle star, star fish, sea urchin, sea lily, etc.
h. Phylum Arthropoda (the largest group in the animal kingdom)
- They have segmented bodies
- They have exoskeleton made up of chitin
- Their appendages are jointed.
- They have body divisions
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
They can be subdivided into four classes
i. Insecta e.g. cockroach, /housefly, grasshopper etc.
ii. Arachnida e.g. spider, scorpion, tick etc.
iii. Crustaceans e.g. crab, crayfish, prawns etc.
iv. Myriapoda e.g. centipedes and millipedes.

EVALUATION
1. Define the following in relation to body symmetry (a) asymmetrical (b) radially
symmetrical (c) bilateral symmetrical
2. Write short note on body cavity

THE VERTEBRATES (PHYLUM CHORDATA)

All vertebrates have the following features:
 a. A bilaterally symmetrical body which is divided into a head, trunk and a tail with a
neck joining the head to the trunk in most vertebrates.
b. An internal skeleton (endoskeleton)
c. Well-developed central nervous system and sense organs.
d. A closed blood system
e. Skin covered with scales, feather or hair.
The phylum Chordata (animals with notochord) can be subdivided into five classes. These
include
a. Class Pisces (tilapia, shark, dogfish)
- These are fishes which are aquatic, cold blooded (poikilothermic) i.e. the body
temperature varies with that of the surrounding).
- Their bodies are covered with scales.
- They breathe through their gills
- Fertilization is external
- They possess fins for locomotion
- Their bodies are streamlined in shape
b. Class Amphibia (toad, frog, newt)
- They are cold blooded animals.
- They spend most of their time on land but reproduce (lay eggs) in water.
- They carry out gaseous exchange using gills, lungs, skin or mouth living.
- They have naked moist skin
- Fertilization is external
- They have two pairs of limbs with webbed toes
c. Class Reptilia (lizards, snakes, crocodiles, etc.)
- Their skin is covered with dry scales which prevent water loss from the body.
- Gaseous exchange is carried out through their lungs
- Fertilization is internal and eggs are laid on land.
- They are cold-blooded
d. Class Aves (birds)
- They are warm- blooded (homoiothermic) i.e. they are able to keep their body
temperature more or less constant.
- Their body is covered with feathers
- They have toothless beak for feeding.
- Fore limbs modified into wings for flight
- Fertilization is internal.
e. Class Mammalia (rats, bats, dogs, whales, monkey, kangaroos, man etc)
- They are warm-blooded
- They have skin covered with hair.
- They possess heterodont teeth i.e. different sets of teeth.
- They have a well-developed brain
- They give birth to their young ones alive (viviparous)
 - They use lungs for gaseous exchange.

EVALUATION
1. State five distinguishing features of the phylum Chordata
2. Differentiate between a named amphibian and a reptile

WEEK 4 THE CELL

DEFINITION AND FORMS OF CELLULAR EXISTENCE

The cell is the simplest, smallest, basic, structural and functional unit of life. The cell can
carry out all life activities such as growth, respiration e. t. c.
Cells can exist in various forms which include
a. As a single cell (unicellular forms) e. g. Amoeba, Chlamydomonas, Chlorella, Euglena
i. Chlamydomonas (Chlamydomonas rivalries)
Chlamydomonas is a unicellular plant like protist, motile using its flagellum and has a cup
shaped chloroplast. It is sensitive to light using its eye spot. In the presence of light, starch
grains appear in the cytoplasm. These disappear in a dark environment.
Chlamydomonas cells through its flagella (whip like) respond to changes in the surrounding
such as moving from a dark region to a region of light. This organism disposes off its excess
water using its contractile vacuoles. It reproduces asexually and sexually when it reaches its
maximum size.
ii. Amoeba (Amoeba proteus)
Amoeba is a unicellular animal like protest and the simplest organism with heterotrophic
mode of feeding. It is shapeless. It digests its complex food with its food vacuole. The
undigested food materials are got rid of with excess water through its contractile vacuole.
Amoeba moves about and captures its food with the aid of its pseudopodia (‘’false feet’’).
At maximum growth, amoeba reproduces asexually by dividing into two daughter cells
(binary fission)
iii. Paramecium
Paramecium is a more complex unicellular organism compared to Amoeba. It is slipper-
shaped and moves with the aid of its cilia, which also directs food into its gullet. The
undigested food material is removed through the anal pore. Excess water is got rid of
through the anterior and posterior contractile vacuoles. Two types of nucleus are visible in
this organism, the micronucleus and mega nucleus
iv. Euglena (Euglena viridis)
Euglena viridis is a protist that has both plant and animal features.
As a plant, it has chloroplasts (star shaped) for photosynthesis, pyrenoid for starch storage
and paramylum granules (form in which starch is stored).
As an animal, it has no cellulose cell wall, but a plasma membrane called pellicle, a gullet,
eye spot, contractile vacuole and flagellum for movement.
b. In colonial forms e. g. Volvox, Sponges, Pandorina
Volvox
Volvox is made up of several chlamydomonas- like cells which are arranged in angular layer
to form a hollow ball-like structure. The cells are connected by cytoplasm strands.
The cell of Volvox moves about through the beating of the flagella. Most cells of Volvox lose
their ability to reproduce. Only a few of them can reproduce to form two daughter cells
c. In filamentous forms e. g. Spirogyra, Oscillateria, Oedogonium
Spirogyra
Spirogyra is a filament of identical cells which are joined end to end without branching.
Each cell of spirogyra carries out its function independent of another cell. Spirogyra has
spirally arranged chloroplast for photosynthesis.
The filament grows indefinitely. The break-off cells from the filament have the ability to
reproduce asexually to form a new filament. Spirogyra also has ability to reproduce
sexually.
d. As a part of multicellular organisms
A multicellular organism is made up of interdependent cells carrying out several special
functions. The cells of the multicellular organisms are arranged to perform similar functions
and then form tissues. A group of specialized tissues performing similar function forms an
organ. Organs are further organized to carry out special functions in form of system or
organ system. Ultimately, the interdependent biological system results in the complex
multicellular organisms.

EVALUATION
1. What is a cell, list four forms of cellular existence with examples?
2. Discuss feeding, movement and reproduction in a named unicellular organism

CELL STRUCTURES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

The study of a cell is called cytology. A cell consists of a living material called protoplasm,
which is surrounded by a membrane called plasma membrane. In plants, a cell wall (non-
living part) is also present surrounding the plasma membrane. The protoplasm is made up
of two major parts: a. cytoplasm b. Nucleus
The cytoplasm contains cell organelles or inclusions, which are cellular structures with
specific functions. The cells which contain a nucleus and organelles are called eukaryotic
cells. These show a high level of cellular organization. However, some cells lack definite
nucleus and organelles. In such cells (prokaryotic cells e.g. bacteria), materials containing
instructions for growth and development are found in a particular part of the cell and so are
not enclosed in any membrane.

Nucleus is the largest cellular organelle enclosed by a double-layered nuclear membrane

with many pores. It contains chromosomes and nucleolus which are rich in proteins and
nucleic acids.

The nucleus performs the following functions:

a. Exchange of materials between the nucleus and the cytoplasm through the nuclear
pores.
b. Storage of hereditary information by the chromosomes
c. Control centre of cellular activities

Structure of a typical animal cell

CELL FUNCTIONS
COMPONENT/ORGANELLE
S
i. Mitochondrion Site of cellular respiration for energy production. It
consists of enzymes and DNA. The enzymes convert
ADP to ATP.
ii. Vacuole Surrounded by a membrane called tonoplast. It
contains cell sap mineral salt and sugar. It act as an
osmoregulator (removing excess water).
 iii. Endoplasmic reticulum Aids transport of materials within the cytoplasm. Rough
(ER) endoplasmic reticulum (RER) (having ribosome
attached) is for protein synthesis and transportation.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is for lipids and
steroids synthesis and transportation.
iv. Golgi bodies/apparatus For synthesis, packaging and distribution of materials.
v. Chloroplast Contains chlorophyll for photosynthesis in green plants
vi. Lysosomes Site for production of enzymes for respiration and
destruction of worn out cells.
vii. Ribosome For protein synthesis
viii. Centrioles Active in cell division by producing spindle fibres to
which chromosomes are attached. (present only in
animal cell).
ix. Cell plasma) membrane This is flexible and selectively permeable. It controls the
materials entering or leaving the cell
x. Cell wall It protects the cell, thus providing mechanical support
in plants.

Structure of a typical plant cell

EVALUATION
List five cell organelles and their functions

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Both plant and animal cells have the following in common
(a)Nucleus (b) golgi bodies (c) mitochondria (d) cytoplasm (e) chromosomes (f)
endoplasmic reticulum (g) nucleolus (h) ribosomes (i) lysosomes (j) cell membrane
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELL
PLANT CELL ANIMAL CELL
1 Has chloroplast No chloroplast
2 Rectangular and definite in shape Usually spherical or shapeless
3 Has rigid cellulose cell wall No cell wall
4 Centrioles are absent Centrioles are present for cell
division
5 Cytoplasm is less dense Cytoplasm is dense granular
6 Starch granules present Glycogen granules present
7 Presence of large central Vacuoles are absent or small and
permanent vacuole temporary when presnt
CELL THEORY
This is the summary of research efforts of many scientist like Robert Hooke, Matthias
Schleidein and Theodore Schwann in 1838 and 1839 likewise, Rudolf Virchow (1855) etc.
The cell theory states that:
a. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
b. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living organisms i.e. the basic
organizational unit of life.
c. All existing cells come from pre-existing ones.
d. A cell contains information for its structural and functional development in its
nucleic acids. This information is passed down from the parents to the off spring

EVALUATION
1. State three similarities and five differences between plants and animals cell
2. Write short note on the history of the cell

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Describe briefly the history of the cell
2. State the four forms of cell existence.
3. Discuss, with a diagram, a named plant- like unicellular protest.
4. Discuss, with a diagram, a named animal-like protist .
5. Draw the diagram of a named filamentous organism.
6. Differentiate between: (a) cells forming tissues and those forming colonies
(b) Colonial and filamentous organisms

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 3, page 58 – 66

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. A cell that is capable of self-existence is a/an A. amoeba B. ovum C. amoeba
D. onion epidermal cell
2. Which of these organelles is common to both plants and animals cells? A.
Chloroplast B. Centriole C. Mitochondrion D. Pyrenoid
3. Which scientist did not contribute to the formation of cell theory? A. Isaac Newton
B. Robert Hooke C. Matthias Schliemann D. Theodor Schwann
4. The organelle which is contractile in function in Euglena is the A. eye spot B.
gullet C. myoneme D. paramylum
5. Which of the following cells are not regarded as specialized? A. Muscle cells
B. Root tip cells C. Somatic cells D. Sperm cells
THEORY
1. Differentiate between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
2. Describe and state three functions each of (a) rough endoplasmic reticulum (b)
vacuoles

CELL AND ITS ENVIRONMENT

CONTENT
 Environment/Nature and state of matter
 Diffusion (Definition, process and significance)
 Osmosis (Definition, process and significance)
 Relationship between osmosis and diffusion
 Haemolysis and plasmolysis
 Flaccidity and turgidity

Environment/Nature and State of Matter

Living cells are known to be surrounded by a watery environment. This may include:
Fresh/salt water in which the unicellular organisms live, Intercellular fluid that bath the
bodies of cells of higher animals.

The nature of states of matter makes diffusion and osmosis possible.

Matter can be defined as any material that has mass and occupies space. It includes all the
living and non-living things around us. Matter is also made up of tiny particles which may be
molecules or irons and can exist in three forms; solid, liquid, and gas.

EVALUATION
What is a matter, mention the three state of matter

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the process by which molecules of substances move from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration (through the medium of air or liquid) until
equilibrium is reached. The difference in the concentration of the substances in the two
regions before diffusion occurs is called concentration/diffusion gradient, e.g. If KMn04
(Potassium tetraoxomanganate VII) is placed in a beaker of water and allowed to stand, the
purple colour of the KMn04 start to spread outward from the crystal. Eventually, the colour
spread evenly throughout the water medium.

Diffusion is also observed in the spread of odour of perfume, insecticide which is used to
spray a room and also in the release of gases from the anus.

Diffusion is affected by the following factors

a. Change in temperature: The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion
b. Molecular size: Diffusion increases with decreasing size of molecule
c. State of matter Diffusion of gases is much faster than that of liquid.
d. Difference in concentration: The greater the difference in concentration of
molecules, the faster the rate of diffusion.

IMPORTANCE OF DIFFUSION IN LIVING ORGANISMS

a. The movement of carbon (IV) oxide through the stomata of leaves during the process
of photosynthesis.
b. Movement of oxygen into the leaves during respiration.
c. Movement of water vapour out of the leaf in the process of transpiration
d. Gaseous exchange in the lungs of mammals
e. Intake of oxygen and nutrients and the removal of waste product by the foetus from
its mother through placenta.
f. Movement of digested and soluble food from the villi of small intestine to the blood
stream.
g. Removal of waste product in small organisms such as amoeba

EVALUATION
1. Define diffusion, state the factors that can affect the rate of diffusion
2. Outline five importance of diffusion

OSMOSIS
Osmosis can be defined as the movement of water molecules from a region of lower
concentration to the region of higher concentration through a semi-permeable membrane.
A permeable membrane allows molecules to pass through it freely while a selectively
permeable membrane only allows certain molecules to pass through it. Osmosis will only
occur when a semi-permeable membrane separates weak and strong solutions.
Living cells may find themselves in any of the following situation:
  When the fluid surrounding the cell is more concentrated than the inside of the cell,
the surrounding fluid is said to be hypertonic to the content of the cells. A net
movement of water molecules out of the cell into the surrounding fluid occurs and
causes the cell to shrink. This process is known as Exosmosis.
 When the fluid surrounding the cell is less concentrated than the inside of the cell,
the surrounding fluid is said to be hypotonic to the content of the cell. There is a net
movement of water molecules from the surrounding fluid into the cells. This process
is known as Endosmosis.
 When the surrounding fluid and the cell concentration have the same concentration,
they are said to be Isotonic. A net movement of water molecule in and out of the
cells does not occur.

IMPORTANCE OF OSMOSIS
a. It aids the absorption of water from the soil into the vacuole of the root hairs
b. It aids the movement of water from the root hairs into the cells of other parts of the
plants
c. It helps to control the opening and closing of the stomata pores
d. It gives turgidity to the plant cells i.e. it gives support.
e. It aids intracellular movement of water in animals
f. It aids reabsorption of water from the kidney tubules into the blood
g. It causes haemolysis of red blood cells.

EVALUATION
1. What is osmosis, mention three condition necessary for osmosis
2. State three differences between osmosis and diffusion
PLASMOLYSIS
Plasymolysis is the shrinkage of the vacuole and pulling away of the cytoplasmic lining from
the cell wall when placed in hypertonic solution. When a plant cell is surrounded or place in
hypertonic solution, exosmosis will occur i.e. water moves out of the cell into the
surrounding fluid leading to the shrinking of the vacuole and pulling the cytoplasm away
from the cell wall. When cells are plasmolysed, it eventually leads to wilting or death of the
plant.

HAEMOLYSIS
This is the process whereby red blood cells (corpuscles) splits and burst as a result of too
much water passing into it. Red blood cells and blood plasma are always isotonic i.e. having
the same osmotic concentration, if for some reasons the concentration of blood plasma
falls; endosmosis will occur (water moves from the plasma into the red blood cells).
Continuous absorption of water into the cell makes it turgid and when fully stretched, it
burst.

EVALUATION
1. Define plasmolysis and haemolysis
2. In a tabular form, differentiate between plasmolysis and haemolysis

TURGIDITY AND BIOLOGY SIGNIFICANCE

Turgidity is the condition in which cell absorbs plenty of water up to a point where the cell
is fully stretched. Turgidity is observed in plants where it makes them erect and support the
stem, leaves and flowers.

FLACCIDITY AND BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Flaccidity is the condition in which plant lose water to their surrounding faster than they
can absorb. When a plant loses more water than it absorbs, it becomes flaccid. Flaccidity
usually occurs when there is no water in the soil, especially where there is drought. The
continuous loss of water can result in the death of the plant.
Crenation
Active transport
EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between flaccidity and turgidity
2. State two application flaccidity and turgidity
GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Explain the following terms: Hypertonic, Hypotonic and Isotonic solution
2. State the differences between osmosis and diffusion
3. Define diffusion and state factors that can affect it.
4. How does endosmosis lead to turgidity?
5. Plasmolysis results from exosmosis. Explain.
6. Of what importance is diffusion to life?

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 5, page 70 – 79
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Which structures must be present in a cell for osmosis to take place? A. cell (sap)
vacuole and cell wall B. cell wall and cell membrane C. chloroplast and
cytoplasm D. cytoplasm and cell membrane
2. The scent from a bunch of flowers spreads throughout a room. How does the scent
spread? A. by conduction B. by diffusion C. by osmosis D. by transpiration
3. Which of the following environmental conditions is ideal for plant cells to remain
turgid? A. Hot, dry weather B. Cold, dry weather C. Cool, humid weather D.
Windy weather
4. Osmosis occurs through a membrane that can be _____ permeable A. Fully B.
slowly C. differentially D. freely
5. Which of the following processes takes place when a plant cell is put in a hypotonic
solution? (a) water moves into the cell and the cell bursts (b) water leaves the cell
and the cell becomes flabby (c) water moves into the cell and the cell becomes turgid
(d) the cell becomes plasmolysed

THEORY
1. State the similarities and differences between
(a) Osmosis and Diffusion
(b) Plasmolysis and haemolysis

WEEK 6 PROPERTIES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION
Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis (holophytic).

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
This is a type of nutrition in which organisms depend directly or indirectly on autotrophs for
food. All animals, fungi, protozoa and some bacteria belong to this group and they are
referred to as heterotrophs

HETEROTROPHIC MODES OF FEEDING

(a) Holozoic Nutrition
 This is the mode of feeding in which food is ingested in the form of complex organic
substances which is digested and assimilated into the body. Holozoic organisms are
grouped into carnivores, herbivores, omnivores and scavengers.
(b) Parasitic Nutrition
This is the mode of feeding in which certain organisms (parasites) feed on other
organisms (host). Parasites can be endoparasites (tapeworm, liver fluke) or
ectoparasites (lice, ticks) depending on whether they live inside or outside the host.
Plant parasites include dodder, mistletoe. Parasites have special structures such as
haustoria, sucker, hooks, and muscular lips e. t. c.
(c) Saprophytic Nutrition
This is feeding process in which certain organisms (saprophytes) feed on non-living
organic matter i. e. plant and animal remains. Saprophytes secrete digestive enzymes
into the dead organic matter to digest the food (extracellular digestion) and the
soluble food substances are then absorbed into their body. Examples include fungi
i.e. mucor, mushroom, yeast and some bacteria
(d) Symbiotic Nutrition
This is a mode of feeding in which two organisms of different species called
symbionts live together and derive mutual benefits e.g. nutrients or food, shelter,
moisture e. t. c from each other. Examples are nitrogen-fixing bacteria called
Rhizobium which live in root nodules of legumes, algae and fungi in a lichen.
(e) Carnivorous / Insectivorous Nutrition
This is a feeding process in which some plants that have special devices trap and
digest insects. These plants grow in poor soil and proteins obtained from the insects
are used to supplement their nitrogenous compound requirement. These plants
secrete enzymes which help in digesting their victim. Examples include bladderwort
(Ultricularia), Pitcher plant, sundew and venus fly trap

EVALUATION
1. List five types of heterotrophic nutrition giving two examples of organisms where
each occur
2. What are carnivores, omnivores and herbivores

MODES OF AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION

Plants are referred to as autotrophs, i.e. being able to manufacture their food (Organic
compound from inorganic materials such as water, carbon dioxide)
Autotrophs generally have two modes of nutrition which are chemosynthesis and
photosynthesis
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which green plants synthesize organic compounds from inorganic raw
materials in the presence of chlorophyll and light.
light
6C02 + 6H20 C6H12O6 + 602
(Inorganic materials) Chlorophyll (organic compound) (by product)

The main product of photosynthesis is sugar (carbohydrate) while the oxygen given up is a
by-product which is released into the atmosphere.

FEATURES (CHARACTERISTICS) OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS

These are as follows:
1. Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplast of cells in the presence of light.
2. The raw materials required are low energy containing inorganic compound i.e. CO 2
and H2O
3. The final product is a high energy containing compound (C 6H12O6 )n Photosynthesis,
therefore is an anabolic process (metabolic building up process)
4. The energy required is obtained from solar energy through the chlorophyll (the green
pigment present in the chloroplast of green plants.
5. The carbon dioxide and oxygen diffuse in and out (respectively) between the
surrounding air and leaf passing through the stomata opening on the leaf surface.
These gases are stored in insoluble form until the day is dark. Then, the sugar is
converted and transported to other parts of the plants where it is needed. The
movement of the sugar is called translocation.
6. Leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of the plant although all green parts of a plant
are photosynthetic. The main site of photosynthesis in a leaf is the pallisade
mesophyll.
EVALUATION
1. What is photosynthesis?
2. Outline four features of photosynthesis
3. Draw a labeled diagram of the internal structure of a leaf

MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis involves two stages
a. Light phase: it takes place during the day. It involves four stages
− Activation of chlorophyll: the chlorophyll trap light energy from the sun and get
energized
− Photolysis of water: splitting of water molecules by light energy
H 2O H+ + OH--
OH− H 2O
− Hydrogen transfer by NADP (NADP + H+ NADPH2)
− Formation of ATP from ADP: this takes place to store energy for the dark phase
reaction
b. Dark phase: In the dark phase of photosynthesis (occurring in the stroma of
chloroplast in the presence of NADPH and ATP), neither light energy nor chlorophyll is
needed. This stage takes place in the dark or at night.
During this phase, hydrogen ion and carbon dioxide molecule combine chemically under
the control of enzymes to form the simple sugar.
4H+ + CO2 CH2O + H2O
Simple sugar forms the chemical structural basis for other carbohydrates, lipids and
proteins

IMPORTANCE OF PHOTOSYTHESIS
The enzyme-rich product of photosynthesis is used by plants and animals in the following
ways:
1. The source of energy for their metabolic activities
2. It is needed in food cycle being the only process that can trap sun energy.
3. All animals and other heterotrophic plants are directly or indirectly dependent on
green plants for food.
4. Photosynthesis assists in the purification of the environment by removing carbon (iv)
oxide from it while oxygen is released into it.
5. Basis for manufacturing other complex organic compounds such as lipids, proteins

EVALUATION
1. Differentiate between the two stages of photosynthesis
 2. State two importance of photosynthesis.

CONDITIONS (FACTORS) FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The two major conditions necessary for photosynthesis are
a. External factors which include light, water, carbon (iv) oxide and mineral salt.
b. Internal factors include chlorophyll and enzymes.
Temperature is partly external (from sunlight) and partly internal (from the chemical
reactions taking place in plant

EVALUATION
1. List four factors that affects photosynthesis
2. Describe an experiment to show that sunlight is necessary for photosynthesis

CHEMOSYNTHESIS
This is the process by which non-green plants (e.g. Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter, iron bacteria
etc) synthesize organic compound from inorganic materials (carbon dioxide and water). The
energy used in this process is got from inorganic substances such as ammonia and by
hydrogen sulphite.
H 2S + O2 S + H 2O + chemical energy
chemical

H 2O + CO2 CH2O
energy

EVALUATION
1. What is chemosynthesis
2. Give two examples of chemosynthetic plants

MINERAL REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS

Mineral elements are required for normal growth and development of green plants. In
addition to Carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, other mineral requirements are discussed
below. Unlike glucose and other carbohydrates made from carbondioxide and water by
green plants, mineral salts are obtained from the soil.

Macronutrients
These are mineral nutrients that are required by plants in large quantities. They include the
following;
Macronutrients Importance Deficiency
Nitrogen(N) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Stunted growth and
2. Nucliec acid synthesis chlorosis
3. Proper root development 2. Poor flower and fruit
4. Component of chlorophyll and formation
enzymes
Phosphorus(P) 1. Formation of co-enzymes and 1. Poor root development
proteins
2. Stunted growth
2. Formation of DNA, RNA and
ATP
3. Stem, root, fruit and seeds
formation
Sulphur(S) Formation of certain proteins in 1. Stunted growth
the protoplasm
2. Chlorosis
Potassium(K) 1. Protein synthesis 1. Premature death
2. Cell membrane formation 2. Leaf margin turns yellow
and brown
3. Activates respiration and
photosynthesis
4. Crop maturation
Magnesium(Mg) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Helps in cell division 2. Chlorosis
3. Activates many co-enzymes
Calcium(Ca) 1. Formation of cell wall 1. Death of terminal buds
2. Helps in storage of protein and 2. Roots develops poorly
carbohydrates in roots and
3. Stunted growth
tubers
3. Gives rigidity to plants
Iron(Fe) 1. Formation of chlorophyll 1. Poor growth
2. Formation of protein 2. Yellowing of leaves
MICRO NUTRIENTS
These are mineral nutrients required by plants in small quantities. They include the
following;
Micro nutrients Importance Deficiency
Zinc(Zn) 1. Necessary for the synthesis of 1. Poor growth
the starting material of auxin
2. Activates some enzymes
3. Plays a role in the synthesis of
protein
Copper(Cu) Component of respiratory Poor growth
enzymes

Manganese(Mn) Activates some enzymes involved Death of shoot

in cellular respiration
Boron(B) Translocation of sugar and Poor growth of pollen
calcium tubes
Chlorine(Cl) Necessary for oxygen release Affects growth
during photosynthesis
Molybdenum(Mb 1. Necessary for nitrogen fixation Poor growth
) by nitrogen-fixing bacteria
2. Activates the enzyme that
reduces nitrate to nitrite

EVALUATION
1. What are macro nutrients
2. list three macro elements that are essential for protein synthesis

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. What is autotrophic nutrition?
2. List the two modes of autotrophic nutrition. (b) Differentiate between the two
modes listed above.
3. State the characteristics of photosynthesis.
4. What is the significance of leaf in photosynthesis?
5. State the two stages involved in the process of photosynthesis.

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 6, page 85 – 90
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The main photosynthetic organ of plant is ----- (a) leaf (b) seed (c) fruit (d) root
2. Which of these is not a macro element needed for plant growth? A. potassium
B. magnesium C. sodium D. molybdenum
3. Yellowing of leaves is a symptoms associated with deficiency of A. iron, calcium
and magnesium B. nitrogen, sulphur and potassium C. sulphur, phosphorus and
iron D. iron, magnesium and nitrogen
4. Trace elements are required by plants mainly for the A. formation of pigments and
enzymes B. production of energy and hormones C. manufacture of carbohydrates
D. manufacture of protein
5. The dark phase of photosynthesis occurs in the ------- of chloroplast (a) cells (b)
tissues (c) fluid (d) stroma

THEORY
1. State five importance of photosynthesis
2. Differentiate between light and dark phase of photosynthesis

WEEK 7 NUTRITION IN ANIMALS

ANIMAL NUTRITION
Animals generally cannot manufacture their food. Rather, they depend directly or indirectly
on plants for their food. Hence they are called heterotrophs. Based on their food types,
animals are grouped into three:
a. Carnivores which feed on flesh or other animals e.g. lion.
b. Herbivores which feed on plants e.g goat.
c. Omnivores, which feed on both plants and animals e.g man.

CLASSES OF FOOD SUBTANNCES

Foods eaten by animals are generally classified into seven i. e.
a. Carbohydrate
b. Proteins
c. Fat and oil
d. Mineral Salt
e. Vitamins
f. Water
g. Roughages

CARBOHYDRATE
This is got from food like bread, yam rice etc. It basically consists of carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen. Carbohydrates are of three types:
a. Monosaccharides (Simple sugars) which include glucose, fructose and galactose
b. Disaccharides (Reducing sugars) which include maltose, sucrose and lactose.
c. Polysaccharides (Complex sugars) e.g starch, cellulose, chitin under the action of
enzymes like ptyalin, maltase, lactase etc, and starch yields glucose as product of its
digestion. Excess carbohydrate is stored in the body in form of glycogen in muscles
and liver. This can be reconverted to glucose during starvation.

Importance of Carbohydrates
a. It gives animals energy.
b. It provides heat needed to maintain body temperature
c. It can be used for lubrication e.g mucus.
d. It provides the body with a strong framework e.g. exoskeleton in insects.

PROTEINS
These are complex molecules made up of smaller units called amino acids. Protein is made
up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sometimes phosphorus and sulphur. Food
like egg, meat, fish, beans etc gives you protein. Proteins are broken down into amino acids
under the action of enzymes like pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin.

Importance of Proteins
a. Growth in young ones.
b. Repair of worn-out tissues.
c. Production of enzymes.
d. Production of hormones.
e. It supports reproduction.
f. It is for tissue and all formation i.e body building.

FATS & OIL (LIPIDS)

Fats are solid lipids at room temperature while oil is the liquid. Fat and oil consist of carbon,
hydrogen and little oxygen. When digested, it gives rise to fatty acids and glycerol. Foods
like palm oil, groundnut, Soya beans give fat and oil. Lipids are broken down to fatty acids
and glycerol when acted upon by lipase enzymes.

Importance of Fat and Oil

a. It gives you energy even more than carbohydrates
 b. It supplies essential fatty acids to the body.
c. It helps in the maintenance of body temperature
d. It provides the body with fat-soluble vitamins

MINERAL SALT
These are usually taken in very small quantity in the food we eat except sodium chloride
(table salt) and iron tablet, which can be taken directly by man. The lack of these salts
results in nutritional deficiency. The minerals include calcium, magnesium, potassium,
Phosphorus, sulphur, chlorine, iron, Iodine, fluorine, manganese, copper, cobalt and
sodium.

Importance of Mineral Salts

a. Regulate body metabolisms
b. Components of bones and teeth
c. Aids blood formation
d. Control chemical reactions in the body
e. Aids the formation of enzymes and pigment
VITAMINS
These are organic food substances needed by man and other animals in small quantity for
normal growth and development. Lack of or inadequate supply of any of these vitamins
results in nutritional deficiency.
Vitamins can be grouped into two:
a. Water-soluble vitamins
b. Fat – soluble vitamins
The water-soluble vitamins include: vitamins B complex and vitamin C. Vitamin B complex
include vitamin, B2, B3 , B5, B6 and B12
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins A, D, E and K.

VITAMINS, SOURCE FUNCTIONS AND DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS

SOURCE FUNCTION DEFICIENCY
SYMPTOMS
Vitamin A Liver, eggs, fish (i) Normal growth of (i) Night blindness
milk, palm oil, body cells and skin (ii) Reduced
fish Vegetables resistance to disease
(ii) Proper vision of the eye
Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, (i) Normal growth Beri-beri (wasting of
beans,
(ii) Proper functioning of Muscles), paralysis
Ground nut heart
and nervous system
Vitamin B2 Yeast, soya (i) Growth, proper (i) Slow growth
beans, functioning
(ii) Dermatitis
egg, milk, green of the eye
Vegetables (ii) Formation of co-
enzymes
Vitamin B3 Yeast, beans, Formation of co-enzymes Pellagra
milk, for cellular respiration
Vegetables
Vitamin Kidney, liver, Formation of red blood Pernicious
B12 fish
Cells Anaemia
Milk
Vitamin C Fresh fruits and (i) Aids wound healing Scurvy
Green (ii) Helps to resist infection
vegetables
Vitamin D Fish, milk, egg, (i) Increases absorption Ricket;
Liver, sun’s Of calcium and phosphorus. Osteomalacia
Ultraviolet rays (ii) Calcification and
hardening Of bones
Vitamin E Green Promotion of fertility Sterility
vegetables,
In animals Premature abortion
Egg, butter,
liver
Vitamin K Fresh green Aids blood clotting Hemorrhage
vegetables, liver

WATER
This is of utmost importance to all organisms and it is made up of two elements, hydrogen
and oxygen. Water can be got from food, river, stream, pond etc. water makes up 75% of
the human body.
IMPORTANCE OF WATER
a. Metabolic activities of the body of animals.
b. Digestion of food.
c. Maintenance of body temperature.
d. It is a medium of transportation for all nutrients.
e. It helps to maintain the osmotic balance in body tissues.
f. It helps in excretion of metabolic waste from the body e.g urine.

ROUGHAGES
These are indigestible fibrous materials got from vegetables, fruit, carbohydrates and
proteins. Roughages aid digestion, lack of which can lead to constipation.

EVALUATION
1. State three importance of; A. Carbohydrate B. Protein C. Lipids.
2. Mention five disease that may result from the deficiency of vitamins.

BALANCED DIET
Balanced diet is a diet containing a correct proportion of all the food substances. On a
general note, a balanced diet contains 15% protein, 15% fat and oil, 10% vitamin, minerals
and water and 60% carbohydrate. Once a food is taken at these proportions, there is a
normal growth and development in the body.

FUNCTIONS OF BALANCED DIET

a. It makes us healthy.
b. It gives ability to be resistant to diseases
c. It makes available energy needed to carry out all biological activities.
d. It prevents malnutrition and deficiency symptoms. For examples, a diet that lacks
protein results into a nutritional disease called kwashiokor in children.

The protein deficient child has the following features

a. Retarded growth.
b. Loss of weight.
c. Swollen legs effect (oedema).
d. Cracked / split stomach and thin legs e.t.c.

EVALUATION
 1. State two importance each of A. protein B. carbohydrates C. vitamins
2. State three importance of balanced diet

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES
Enzymes are organic (protein) catalysts produced by living cells which help to speed up and
slow down the rate of chemical reactions. Digestive enzymes aid the breaking down of
complex food substances into simple, soluble and diffusible form. Enzymes have the
following characteristics.
a. Enzymes are soluble
b. Enzymes are protein
c. They are specific in their actions
d. Enzymes are sensitive to temperature i. e. they work best between 35 oC to 40oC
e. Enzymes are PH specific
f. Enzymes brings about reversible reactions
g. Enzymes needs co-enzymes to activate them and can be inactivated by inhibitors
such as mercury and cyanide

CLASSES AND FUNCTIONS OF ENZYMES

Digestive enzymes are classified based on the type of food they act upon. These include
a. Proteases e. g. pepsin, rennin, trypsin and erepsin. They act on protein.
b. Amylases e. g. ptyalin, lactase, maltase, sucrose. They act on carbohydrates
c. Lipases which act on lipids (fats and oils)

EVALUATION
1. What are enzymes?
2. Outline five characteristics of enzymes

CELLULAR RESPIRATION
CELLULAR (INTERNAL/TISSUE) RESPIRATION
The oxidation of glucose in the cell to release energy is known as cellular respiration and it
occurs in the mitochondria of all living cells. There are two types of cellular respiration i.e.
aerobic and anaerobic respiration

AEROBIC RESPIRATION
When cellular respiration takes place in the presence of oxygen is known as aerobic
respiration. The largest amount of ATP possible is generated through it from one molecule
of glucose with the release of carbon (IV) oxide and water as by product.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O + 38ATP

ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
In some organisms such as bacteria, fungi and endoparasites, the cells gets energy from
breaking down glucose in the absence of oxygen this is known as anaerobic respiration. In
this type of respiration, lesser amount of ATP is produced. The pyruvic acid produced is
converted to alcohol in plants (alcoholic fermentation) while in animals, lactic acid is
produced which leads to muscle fatigue in athletes

In plants
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH C2H5OH + CO2 + 2ATP

In animals
C6 H12 O6 CH2COCOOH CH2 CHOHCOOH + CO2 + 2ATP

GENERAL EVALUATION/REVISIONAL QUESTIONS

1. State two food items each that supply A. Protein B. Lipids C. Mineral salts
2. List two functions each for protein and lipids.
3. State the functions of A. Chlorine B. Magnesium C. Iodine.
4. What are the diseases resulting from deficiency of: A. Sodium B. Calcium C. Iron
5. State the functions and deficiency symptoms of all the water soluble vitamins

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology, chapter 6, page 95 – 103

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. Vitamins are organic food substances required by animals in ____ quantity A. no B.
small C. large D. high
2. The following except one are fat-soluble vitamins A. vitamin A B. Vitamin B C.
Vitamin K D. Vitamin E
3. One of the following food substances is indigestible in man A. protein B. lipids
C. roughages D. carbohydrates
4. The highest source of energy is from _______ A. carbohydrate B. proteins C. lipids
D. vitamins
5. Rickets (poor bone formation) in children is a deficiency symptom of ____ A.
potassium B. calcium C. chlorine D. manganese.

THEORY
1. Make a table of food tests showing the column of food, the test, observation &
inference.
2. Make a table of important mineral elements in animals, their functions and
deficiency symptoms
WEEK 9 GROWTH, IRRITABILITY AND MOVEMENT

GROWTH
Growth is the irreversible increase in dry mass, size and complexity of an organism brought
about by the synthesis of new protoplasm.
For growth to be effective, building up of materials (anabolism) must exceed the rate of
breaking down (catabolism).
In plants, growth is indefinite and apical while it is definite and uniform in animals.

BASIS OF GROWTH
The basis of growth involves three major phases i.e. cell division (mitosis), cell enlargement
and cell differentiation.

Life begins as a single fertilized cell, continuous as the cell divides into two daughter cells
then into four and so on. After cell division, the daughter cells increase in mass and size
(enlargement). Eventually, each cell develops into a special type of cell (specialization) by
changing its shape and structure to carry out a particular function. Most specialized cells, at
maturity lose their ability to divide.

TYPES OF CELL DIVISION

There are two types of cell division: (a) Mitosis (b) Meiosis

Mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division to produce two daughter cells with the same number of
chromosomes and characteristics as those of the parent cell. This cell division takes place
only in somatic cells (i.e. body cells that are not involved in the production of gametes) such
as skin, bone marrow and meristematic tissues in plants.
Mitotic cell division involve five main stages
a. Interphase: This is referred to as the resting stage where the chromosomes becomes
elongated and form a network of fine threads called chromatids
b. Prophase: in early prophase chromosomes become visible, nucleolus shrinks,
centrioles start moving away from each other in opposite direction and the formation
of spindle fibres begins. During the late prophase, chromosomes become shorter,
 thicker and visible. Each chromosome now forms two distinct chromatids joined by a
centromere. Nucleolus and nuclear membrane disappear entirely.
c. Metaphase: paired chromatids arrange themselves along the equator of the spindle
and are attached to the spindle at the centromere.
d. Anaphase: sister chromatids separate and start migrating to the opposite poles of the
cell and eventually reach the poles.
e. Telophase: the cell starts dividing into two by constricting at the equator, nucleolus
and nuclear membrane are reform in each daughter cell, spindle fibres degenerates
and chromosomes eventually regain their threadlike form

Importance of mitosis
a. It brings about growth, development and specialization especially in multicellular
organisms.
b. Asexual reproduction binary and multiple fissions in protozoa, budding in yeasts are
result of mitosis.
c. It ensures the diploid condition of the cells is retained from generation to generation
d. It aids the repair of damaged cells

Life processes involved in mitosis

a. Formation of new cells in Malpighian layer of the skin
b. Production of red and white blood cells in the bone marrow
c. Healing of wounds
d. Growth in meristem
e. Binary fission

EVALUATION
1. Define growth
2. What is mitosis, state three importance of mitosis

ASPECTS OF GROWTH
Growth varies from one organism to another. To measure growth, the following
parameters are used:
a. Man: the dry mass is more accurate and reliable than the wet mass
b. size and length e.g. height of man
c. increase in number of cells e.g. budding in yeast cell

REGIONS OF FASTEST GROWTH IN PLANTS

The regions of fastest growth in plants are the root and stem apices. Since growth in plants
is apical, the root and stem apices can be divided into
a. Region of cell division (called the apical meritstem) brings about primary growth of a
plant
b. Region of elongation
c. Region of cell maturation/specialization

GROWTH CURVE
The growth rate of a living organism is measured using a growth a curve. The growth
pattern of man shows a sigmoid curve. The growth pattern consists of three phase:
1. Lag phase: This is the initial stage where slow growth is experienced. At this stage,
the cell is still accumulating the necessary material to begin the process.
2. Log or exponential phase: This is the phase of rapid of rapid growth.
3. Stationary phase: This is a stage where no observable growth is experienced.
The growth curve of insect is like a step. Each growth phase (instar) is interrupted by a
period of molting (ecdysis)

FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH

a. External factors it include availability of nutrients, humidity, light, temperature, PH
and accumulation of metabolic products.
b. Internal factors are mainly hormones. The two major growth hormones in plant are
auxin and gibberellins. In animals, the hormones concerned with growth are secreted
by the anterior pituitary gland, thyroid gland and the gonads. Over or under secretion
of any of these hormones leads to abnormal growth.

IRRITABILITY
IRRITABILITY AND TYPES OF RESPONSES
Irritability is the ability of organisms to respond to stimuli. A stimulus is any change in
external or internal environmental condition which can bring about a change in the activity
of the whole or part of the organism.
Response is the term used for the change in activity of the organism. There are three major
types of responses, these include tactic, nastic and tropic movements.
a. TAXIS OR TACTIC MOVEMENT: is a directional movement or response of a whole
organism from one place to another in response to external stimuli such as light,
temperature, water and certain chemicals. Examples of tactic movement include;
o Euglena or chlamydomonas swimming away from high light intensity (Negative
phototaxis).
o In a moss plant, sperm swim towards the chemical produced by the egg cell (positive
chemotaxis).
b. NASTISM OR NASTIC MOVEMENT: is a non-directional sleep movement or response of a
part of a plant in response to non-directional stimuli such as light intensity, temperature
and humidity. Example of nastic movement include;
o The folding of the leaflets of mimosa plant when touched.
o Closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low.
c. TROPISM OR TROPIC MOVEMENT: is a unilateral growth and directional movement of a
part of a plant in response to directional stimuli. These responses are experienced in
growth regions (root and shoot apices) and are controlled by certain plant hormones
known as auxins. Tropic movement are named according to the stimuli e.g.
o Shoots bend towards light (positive phototropism) while roots bend away from light
(negative phototropism).
o Shoots bend away from gravity (negative geotropism) while roots bend toward
gravity (positive geotropism).
o Tendrils of climbing plants twine around a support (positive thigmotropism) while
root tips grow away from it (negative thigmotropism).

EVALUATION
1. Give two other examples each of nastic, tropic and tactic movement.
2. List four environmental factors that evokes responses.

MOVEMENT
Organisms moves from one place to the other in search of food, water, mates and escaping
predator or harsh weather conditions.

Cyclosis in Cell
Cyclosis (cytoplasmic streaming) is the mass rotational movement of the cytoplasm and its
contents in cells. Cyclosis brings about the transportation of substances from one part of
the cell to the other and the exchange of materials between the cell organelles. Cyclosis
occur in
a. Protozoa like amoeba known as amoeboid movement.
b. Chloroplasts of some plants where they move independently to place their broad
surface parallel to the surface of the leaf to receive sufficient sunlight for
photosynthesis.

EVALUATION
1. What is cyclosis?
2. State two examples of cyclosis.

ORGANELLES FOR MOVEMENT

a. Flagella: they are long whip like projections usually one or two on the cell surface.
Flagella are organelles for movement in Euglena, Trypanosome, Spermatozoa,
Chlamydomonas etc.
b. Cilia: They are short hair like structures, numerous and closely packed together on the
cell surface. Cilia can be found in paramecium and on cells lining the human wind pipe.

GENERAL EVALUATION
1. Mention the structure for movement in paramecium, amoeba and euglena.
2. Describe briefly movement in amoeba.
3. Outline two functions of cyclosis.
4. State two examples of nastic movement.
5. How is tropic movement related to growth?
6. Differentiate between tactic and nastic movement.
7. Describe an experiment to demonstrate geotropism in root and shoot.

READING ASSIGNMENT
College Biology Chapter 12, page 236 – 243

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
1. The response shown by the tips of the root and shoot of a plant to the stimulus of
gravity is A. haptotropism B. phototropism C. hydrotropism D. geotropism
2. The streaming movement of cytoplasm observed in a freshly cut leaf of a water plant is
termed A. osmosis B. ciliary motion C. amoeboid D. cyclosis
3. The movement of the whole organism to an external stimuli is termed A. tropism
B. nastic movement C. taxis D. phototropic movement
4. The Closing of the morning glory flower when light intensity is low is an example of
…………….. movement A. Tactic B. Nastic C. Tropic D. Cyclosis
5. A klinostat is an instrument used to demonstrate A. phototaxis B. chemotropism
C. phototropism D. nastism

THEORY
1. In a tabular form, state four differences between tropic and nastic movement.
2. What would be observed when a green seedling is placed horizontally?

WEEK 10 EXCRETION AND REPRODUCTION

EXCRETION
Excretion is the process by which metabolic waste products are removed from the body of
all living things. Excretion is different from egestion which is the removal of solid waste
(undigested food substances i.e. faeces) through the anus. Excretion is necessary for the
following reasons:
 To avoid or prevent any harm that would be caused by any excretory product.
 Some excretory products are poisonous to the body and should be removed.
 To maintain water balance in the body (homeostasis).
 To avoid interference of waste products with normal metabolic activities in the body.

EXCRETORY STRUCTURES AND WASTE IN ORGANISMS

Organism Excretory Excretory Waste Product
Structure
Protozoa Contractile C02, ammonia and water
vacuole
Flatworm Flame cells C02, ammonia and water
Earthworm Nephridia C02, ammonia and water
Crustacean Green glands C02, ammonia and water
Insect Malpighian C02, ammonia and uric acid
tubules
Fish Kidney C02, ammonia and water
Amphibian(toad Kidney H20 and salt
)
 Reptiles Kidney H20 and salt
Birds Kidney and lungs C02 and water vapour
Mammals Kidney, lungs, skin C02, water, urea
and liver
Flowering plants Stomata, lenticels H20, C02, 02. tannins, gum, alkaloids,
and leaves oil and latex

EVALUATION
1. List five excretory structures adapted to aquatic habitat
2. Mention four excretory waste in plants

MEANING AND TYPES OF REPRODUCTION

Reproduction is the ability of an organism to give rise to new individuals of the same
species in order to ensure continuity of life.
There are two types of reproduction
a. asexual reproduction
b. sexual reproduction
a. Asexual Reproduction: is the process whereby an organism produces an offspring by
itself. I.e. only one parent is presence. No gametes involved thus there is no fusion of
nuclei, but the cells that give rise to the offspring usually divide by means of mitosis.
Offspring produced are identical to the parent in all respect and are called clones
b. Sexual Reproduction: is a type of reproduction that involves two parents and the
fusion of the male and the female gamete to form a zygote. Offspring produced show
new variation. The sex cells (gametes) are produced by meiotic cell division and after
fertilization the new individual continue to grow and produce new cells by mitosis.

WEEK 11 NUTRIENT CYCLYING

Meaning

Nutrient cycling refers to the movement of certain nutrients like nitrogen, carbon, water, oxygen and other elements
from the environment into various organisms and back into the environment. The path along which the atoms or
elements pass is called a cycle. The popular well known nutrients cycles are nitrogen cycle, carbon cycle, water cycle
and decomposition in nature.

Carbon Cycle

Carbon Cycle is the cycle of carbon usage by which energy flows through Earth’s ecosystem. The basic cycle begins
when photosynthesizing plants use carbon dioxide (CO2) found in the atmosphere or dissolved in water.
The atmosphere gains carbon dioxide through:

h. Combustion of organic materials such as coal, wood and petroleum

i. The action of volcanoes which releases carbon dioxide
j. The respiration by plant and animals
k. The death, decay and putrefaction of plants and animals
l. Diffusion of carbon dioxide from seas and other bodies of water acting as reservoir of carbon
dioxide

CARBON CYCLE

Evaluation

1. Define carbon cycle.

2. Mention three ways atmosphere gain carbon dioxide.

Importance of Carbon in Nature

1. Plant uses carbon dioxide obtained from the air to manufacture their food during photosynthesis.
2. It provides carbon which is the major building block of all organic matter.
3. It helps to purify the atmosphere and maintain atmospheric level of carbon dioxide
4. Organic matter which is made from carbon helps to replenish soil nutrient.

CARBON-OXYGEN BALANCE

Oxygen constitutes 21% of the gases in the atmosphere. Respiration, decay and combustion are the processes which
remove oxygen from the atmosphere while photosynthesis is the process that releases oxygen into the atmosphere.
Human activities such as deforestation lead to the release of less oxygen into the atmosphere while less carbon
dioxide is removed from atmosphere. Increase in the combustion of fuel, respiration and decay leads to the removal
of more oxygen from the atmosphere while more carbon dioxide is added As a result of the activities mentioned
above, oxygen level in the atmosphere decreases while carbon dioxide level increases. A decrease in the
atmospheric oxygen level by 2-8% do not cause any significant effect but a slight increase in the atmospheric carbon
dioxide may cause green house effect, i.e., increase in-the retention of the sun's radiant (heat) energy. This result in
the warming of the atmosphere of the earth. So to prevent this, there is the need to balance the carbon-oxygen level
in the atmosphere.

EVALUATION

1. What is the importance of carbon?

2. Explain carbon-oxygen balance.

Water Cycle

Definition: Water cycle is the continuous movement of water from the earth to the atmosphere by evaporation,
transpiration and perspiration and back from the atmosphere to the earth by precipitation.

Process of Water Cycling in Nature

The solar energy causes water to evaporate from the hydrosphere into the atmosphere. When the water vapour
cools, it condenses. At high altitude, the condensed water form clouds. The clouds precipitate as rain returning to
the hydrosphere.

Evaluation

1. Define water cycle.

2. State the major processes that bring about water cycle.

 WATER CYCLE

Importance of Water to plants

Water is very important to living organisms, both plants and animals, in number of ways:

 Water provides the medium for absorption of dissolved mineral salts by plants.
 Water is an essential raw material in the process of photosynthesis.
 It acts as a medium of transport for plants nutrients.
 It maintains osmotic content of body tissues.
 Water is the main component of plant protoplasm.
 Water is required for germination.

Importance of Water to animal

 It acts as a solvent for soluble food substances in digestion of food.

 it constitutes a large portion of the blood.
 Water aids excretion-of waste products by animals.
 Water regulates body temperature.
 Water provides a natural habit for aquatic organisms.
Nitrogen Cycle

Nitrogen is an abundant element in the atmosphere. It is an essential constituent of proteins, a group of substances
found in all living cells. About 78% of air is composed of gaseous nitrogen. Plants cannot incorporate nitrogen gas
into organic compound and therefore depend on various types of bacteria to make nitrogen available for them in a
global cycle called the nitrogen cycle. In nature, nitrogen is constantly being removed from the soil and returned to it
via the nitrogen cycle.

Conversion of Gaseous Nitrogen into Nitrogenous Compounds

Gaseous nitrogen is converted into nitrates in the following ways

6. The action of thunderstorms

7. Nitrogen-fixing microorganisms
During thunderstorms, nitrogen reacts with oxygen to form nitric oxide. The nitric oxide is oxidized to nitrogen
peroxide which dissolves in rainwater to form nitric nitrous acids. When these acids enter the soil, they combine
with mineral salts to form nitrates. The nitrates then dissolve in soil water and are absorbed by the plants. These
nitrates are converted into plant proteins and become part of the plant body (assimilated). The organisms capable of
splitting the nitrogen molecule and use it to form nitrites or nitrates is known as nitrogen fixation. Some
microorganisms are able to change gaseous nitrogen directly into proteins.

Types of Nitrogen-fixing Microorganism

1. Free living organism.

2. Symbiotic organism.
Azotobacter and Clostridium are free living bacteria. They are able to absorb nitrogen from the atmosphere and
change it into amino compounds and proteins. Energy needed for these processes is obtained from the breakdown
of carbohydrates in humus. Symbiotic bacteria like the Rhizobium which are found in the root nodules of leguminous
plants use gaseous nitrogen to manufacture amino compounds and proteins which they share with the host plants.
These bacteria get the energy needed for nitrogen fixation from the breakdown of carbohydrates in the host's
tissues. When the host plants die, the amino compounds and proteins in the root nodules are converted to soil
nitrates.
Evaluation

1. What is nitrogen cycle?

2. Explain the types of nitrogen fixation.

Putrefaction: Plants are the food producers in nature; animals feed on plants and convert plant proteins; to animal
proteins. When these animals are eaten by carnivorous animals, more animal proteins are formed. Proteins are
decomposed through amino acids to ammonia when an organism dies. The nitrogen that is trapped in the bodies of
all these living organisms re-enter the nitrogen cycle through putrefaction or decay. When living organisms die, they
decay and the excretory product also decays.

Ammonification: The putrefying bacteria and fungi are responsible for decay. These saprophytic organisms convert
plant and animal materials into simple substances like carbon dioxide, water, and ammonia. This breakdown of
protein into ammonia is known ammonification.

Nitrification: Animal wastes and excreta are decomposed and the chemosynthetic bacteria then oxidize ammonia to
nitrites and the nitrites are converted to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. This process is called nitrification.

Denitrification: Denitrifying bacteria in the soil convert nitrates into gaseous nitrogen which escapes into the
atmosphere. This reduces the nitrogen content and fertility of the soil.

Evaluation

1. What is nitrification?
2. Explain denitrification.

Decomposition in Nature

Decomposition is the process by which organisms, mainly bacteria and saprophytes break down dead organic
materials which could be of plant or animal origin.

Types of Decomposers

1. Micro decomposers: These are small or microscopic organisms that can cause decay e.g. certain bacteria
and fungi.
2. Macro decomposers: These are bigger organisms that can cause decay of dead organic materials e.g.
earthworms, termites, snails, mushroom, toad stools, etc.
 NITROGEN CYCLE

Process of Decomposition

The decomposers secrete enzymes onto their food source such as a decaying dead organisms. These enzymes break
down complex organic compounds (food) like carbohydrates into simple soluble inorganic Compounds. A lot of the
chemical energy in the compounds Is lost as unstable heat energy. The decomposers only absorb a small amount of
nutrients and energy for their use. The rest is released into the soil, air and water. When decomposers die, other
decomposers feed on them, the nutrient released are used by plants to manufacture their food. Products released
during decomposition are gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and water vapour. Others are
heat energy and nutrients such as nitrates, sulphates, phosphate, ions, etc.

Role of Decomposers

1. They enrich the soil with nutrients required for plant growth.
2. They contribute to environmental pollution.
3. Decomposition is useful in the making of cheese and yoghurt.
4. They allow the ecosystem to function by enabling the recycling of nutrients.
5. They also prevent an unsightly accumulation of remains and wastes of living organisms on earth surface.

GENERAL EVALUATION

1. Write on the two types of decomposers.

2. State the roles of decomposers.

3. What is autotrophic nutrition?

4. List the two modes of autotrophic nutrition.

5. Differentiate between the two modes listed above.

6.Mention three processes that involve carbon.

7.Mention three importance of water to animals.
8.Explain the following terms: Hypertonic, Hypotonic and Isotonic solution.
9.Outline the process of water cycle in nature.
10.List the constituents of air in nature.

WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT
 1. Which of the following processes removes water from the water cycle? (a) Condensation (b) Perspiration (c)
Photosynthesis (d) Transpiration.
3. What type of energy causes water to evaporate from the hydrosphere (a) mechanical energy (b) chemical
energy (c) solar energy (d) hydro-electric power.
4. Water is returned to the atmosphere from animals through the following processes except (a) excretion (b)
respiration (c) condensation (d) perspiration.
5. When organisms die, water returns to the atmosphere by (a) decay (b) sweating (c) respiration (d)
condensation.
6. Atmosphere gains carbon through the following processes except (a) Photosynthesis (b) Decay (c)
Respiration (d) Volcano
7. Legumes incorporate nitrogen gas into their proteins because (a). of the presence of Azotobacter
in their roots (b) they posses root nodules containing Rhizobium (c) they have a well developed root
system (d) they are autotrophic.
8. Thunderstorm can be beneficial to plants because (a) it kills the pest that attacks crops (b) it
destroys some of the major crops (c) it adds nitrate to the soil (d) it makes rain water available to
plants.
9. Which of the following is responsible for the conversion of nitrites to nitrates? (a) Denitrifying
bacteria (b) Nitrifying bacteria (c) Lightening (d) Fungi.
10. Which of the following is a nitrifying bacterium? (a) Nitrobacter (b) Rhizobium (c) Azotobacter (d)
Nitrosomonas.
11. Bacteria inhabiting legume root nodules and which add atmospheric nitrogen to the soil are
referred to as (a) denitrifying bacteria (b) nitrifying bacteria (c) nitrogen-fixing bacteria (d) nitrogen
putrefying bacteria.

THEORY

1. Water is essential for living organism, discuss.

2. Describe the process of carbon cycling in nature.
3. Explain the types of nitrogen fixing mechanisms.
4. Explain the following a. Nitrification b. Ammonification.